Saka

"Sacae" redirects here. For the South Australian College of Advanced Education, seeUniversity of South Australia.

For the land of the Saka under the Sassanid dynasty, seeSakastān. Not to be confused with theSakha (people),the endonym of the Yakut people of Siberia. For other uses, seeSaka (disambiguation).

Sakas

SAKAS Pazyryk culture Khotan Upper Xiajiadian Uyuk culture Tagar culture Massagetae Kangju Subeshi culture Ordos Dian Majia- yuan SAKAS Sargat culture Sauromatian culture Itkul culture Tasmola culture Dahae Indo- Scythians Western Satraps Northern Satraps Map of the Saka realm ( ) and main Saka polities throughout their history.The affiliation of the easternmostScythoïdcultures (Subeshi culture,Ordos culture,Majiayuan,Upper XiajiadianorDian) remains uncertain.
Geographical range	Central Asia,South Siberia,South Asia
Dates	9th century BC to 5th century AD
Preceded by	Andronovo culture,Seima-Turbino phenomenon,Karakol culture,Karasuk culture,Deer stones culture
Followed by	Xiongnu,Kushan Empire,Gupta Empire

Cataphract-style parade armour of a Saka royal, also known as "The Golden Warrior", from theIssyk kurgan,a historical burial site nearAlmaty,Kazakhstan.Circa 400–200 BC.

TheSakawere a group of nomadicEastern Iranian peopleswho historically inhabited the northern and easternEurasian Steppeand theTarim Basin.

The Sakas were closely related to theScythians,and both groups formed part of the widerScythian cultures,through which they ultimately derived from the earlierAndronovo,SintashtaandSrubnaya cultures,with secondary influence from theBMAC,and since the Iron Age, alsoEast Asiangenetic influx,with theSaka languageforming part of theScythian phylum,one of theEastern Iranian languages.However, the Sakas of the Asian steppes are to be distinguished from theScythiansof thePontic Steppe;and although the ancient Persians, ancient Greeks, and ancient Babylonians respectively used the names "Saka," "Scythian," and "Cimmerian"for all the steppe nomads, the name" Saka "is used specifically for the ancient nomads of the eastern steppe, while" Scythian "is used for the related group of nomads living in the western steppe.While the Cimmerians were often described by contemporaries asculturally Scythian,they may have differed ethnically from the Scythians proper, to whom the Cimmerians were related, and who also displaced and replaced the Cimmerians.

Prominent archaeological remains of the Sakas includeArzhan,Tunnug,thePazyryk burials,theIssyk kurgan,Saka Kurgan tombs,theBarrows of Tasmolaand possiblyTillya Tepe.In the 2nd century BC, many Sakas were driven by theYuezhifrom the steppe intoSogdiaandBactriaand then to the northwest of theIndian subcontinent,where they were known as theIndo-Scythians.Other Sakas invaded theParthian Empire,eventually settling inSistan,while others may have migrated to theDian KingdominYunnan,China.In theTarim BasinandTaklamakan Desertof today'sXin gian g Uyghur Autonomous Region,they settled inKhotan,Yarkand,Kashgarand other places.

Name

Etymology

Scythian helmet, copper alloy,Afrasiyab,Samarkand,6th–1st century BC.

LinguistOswald Szemerényistudied synonyms of various origins forScythianand differentiated the following terms:Sakā𐎿𐎣𐎠,SkuthēsΣκύθης,Skudra𐎿𐎤𐎢𐎭𐎼,andSugᵘda𐎿𐎢𐎦𐎢𐎭.

Derived from an Iranian verbal rootsak-,"go, roam" (related to "seek" ) and thus meaning "nomad" was the termSakā,from which came the names:

• Old Persian:𐎿𐎣𐎠Sakā,used by the ancientPersiansto designate all nomads of theEurasian steppe,including the Pontic Scythians
• Ancient Greek:ΣάκαιSákai
• Latin:Sacae
• Sanskrit:शकŚaka
• Old Chinese:TắcSək

From theIndo-European root(s)kewd-,meaning "propel, shoot" (and from which was also derived the English wordshoot), of which*skud-is thezero-gradeform, was descended the Scythians' self-name reconstructed by Szemerényi as*Skuδa(roughly "archer" ). From this were descended the following exonyms:

• Akkadian:𒅖𒆪𒍝𒀀𒀀Iškuzayaand𒊍𒆪𒍝𒀀𒀀Askuzaya,used by the Assyrians
• Old Persian:𐎿𐎤𐎢𐎭𐎼Skudra
• Ancient Greek:ΣκύθηςSkúthēs(pluralΣκύθαιSkúthai), used by the Ancient Greeks

• TheOld Armenian:սկիւթSkiwtʰis based onitacisticGreek

A lateScythiansound change from /δ/ to /l/ resulted in the evolution of*Skuδainto*Skula.From this was derived the Greek wordSkṓlotoiΣκώλοτοι,which, according to Herodotus, was the self-designation of the Royal Scythians.Other sound changes have producedSugᵘda𐎿𐎢𐎦𐎢𐎭.

Although theScythians,Saka andCimmerianswere closely related nomadicIranicpeoples, and the ancientBabylonians,ancientPersiansandancient Greeksrespectively used the names "Cimmerian,""Saka, "and"Scythian"for all the steppe nomads, and early modern historians such asEdward Gibbonused the term Scythian to refer to a variety of nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples across the Eurasian Steppe,

• the name "Scythian" in contemporary modern scholarship generally refers to the nomadicIranic peoplewho from the 7th century BC to the 3rd century BC dominated the steppe and forest-steppe zones to the north of the Black Sea, Crimea, the Kuban valley, as well as the Taman and Kerch peninsulas,
• while the name "Saka" is used specifically for their eastern members who inhabited the northern and easternEurasian Steppeand theTarim Basin;

Identification

The nameSakāwas used by the ancientPersianto refer to all the Iranian nomadic tribes living to the north of theirempire,including both those who lived between theCaspian Seaand theHungry steppe,and those who lived to the north of theDanubeand theBlack Sea.TheAssyriansmeanwhile called these nomads theIshkuzai(Akkadian:𒅖𒆪𒍝𒀀𒀀Iškuzaya) orAskuzai(Akkadian:𒊍𒄖𒍝𒀀𒀀Asguzaya,𒆳𒊍𒆪𒍝𒀀𒀀mat Askuzaya,𒆳𒀾𒄖𒍝𒀀𒀀mat Ášguzaya), and theAncient Greekscalled themSkuthai(Ancient Greek:ΣκύθηςSkúthēs,ΣκύθοιSkúthoi,ΣκύθαιSkúthai).

For theAchaemenids,there were three types of Sakas: theSakā tayai paradraya( "beyond the sea", presumably between the Greeks and theThracianson the Western side of theBlack Sea), theSakā Tigraxaudā(theMassagetae,"withpointed caps"), theSakā haumavargā( "Haumadrinkers ", furthest East). Soldiers of theAchaemenid army,Xerxes Itomb detail, circa 480 BC.

The Achaemenid inscriptions initially listed a single group ofSakā.However, followingDarius I's campaign of 520 to 518 BC against the Asian nomads, they were differentiated into two groups, both living in Central Asia to the east of the Caspian Sea:

• theSakā tigraxaudā(𐎿𐎣𐎠 𐏐 𐎫𐎡𐎥𐎼𐎧𐎢𐎭𐎠) – "Sakāwho wearpointed caps,"who were also known as theMassagetae.
• theSakā haumavargā(𐎿𐎣𐎠 𐏐 𐏃𐎢𐎶𐎺𐎼𐎥𐎠) – interpreted as "Sakāwho layhauma(around the fire) ",which can be interpreted as "Saka who reverehauma."

A third name was added after theDarius's campaignnorth of theDanube:

• theSakā tayaiy paradraya(𐎿𐎣𐎠 𐏐 𐎫𐎹𐎡𐎹 𐏐 𐎱𐎼𐎭𐎼𐎹) – "theSakāwho live beyond the(Black) Sea,"who were the Pontic Scythians of the East European steppes

An additional term is found in two inscriptions elsewhere:

• theSakaibiš tayaiy para Sugdam(𐎿𐎣𐎡𐎲𐎡𐏁 𐏐 𐎫𐎹𐎡𐎹 𐏐 𐎱𐎼 𐏐 𐎿𐎢𐎥𐎭𐎶) – "Saka who are beyondSogdia",a term was used by Darius for the people who formed the north-eastern limits of his empire at the opposite end to thesatrapy of Kush(the Ethiopians).TheseSakaibiš tayaiy para Sugdamhave been suggested to have been the same people as theSakā haumavargā

Moreover,Darius the Great's Suez Inscriptionsmention two groups of Saka:

• theSꜣg pḥ(𓐠𓎼𓄖𓈉) – "Sakāof the Marshes "
• theSk tꜣ(𓋴𓎝𓎡𓇿𓈉) – "Sakāof the Land "

The scholarDavid Bivarhad tentatively identified theSk tꜣwith theSakā haumavargā,andJohn Manuel Cookhad tentatively identified theSꜣg pḥwith theSakā tigraxaudā.More recently, the scholarRüdiger Schmitthas suggested that theSꜣg pḥand theSk tꜣmight have collectively designated theSakā tigraxaudā/Massagetae.

The Achaemenid kingXerxes Ilisted the Saka coupled with theDahā(𐎭𐏃𐎠) people of Central Asia,who might possibly have been identical with theSakā tigraxaudā.

Modern terminology

See also:Scythian cultures

Although the ancient Persians, ancient Greeks, and ancient Babylonians respectively used the names "Saka," "Scythian," and "Cimmerian"for all the steppe nomads, modern scholars now use the term Saka to refer specifically to Iranian peoples who inhabited the northern and easternEurasian Steppeand theTarim Basin;and while the Cimmerians were often described by contemporaries asculturally Scythian,they may have differed ethnically from the Scythians proper, to whom the Cimmerians were related, and who also displaced and replaced the Cimmerians.

Location

-325

SAKAS

Korgantas

YUEZHI

Sargat

Goro-
khovo

Sha-
jing

Subeshi

Slab-grave
culture

DONGHU

SABEANS

Ordos
culture

Pazyryk

Tagar

Chandman

Sagly

JIN

Dian
culture

MACEDONIAN EMPIRE

NANDA
EMPIRE

ZHOU
DYNASTY

MEROË

Scythians

Sauro-
matians

Massagetae

Dahae

class=notpageimage|

The Sakas ( ), and main Asian polities, circa 325 BC.

TheSakā tigraxaudāandSakā haumavargāboth lived in the steppe and highland areas located in northern Central Asia and to the east of the Caspian Sea.

TheSakā tigraxaudā/Massagetae more specifically lived aroundChorasmiaand in the lowlands of Central Asia located to the east of theCaspian Seaand the south-east of theAral Sea,in theKyzylkum Desertand theUstyurt Plateau,most especially between theAraxesandIaxartesrivers.TheSakā tigraxaudā/Massagetae could also be found in the Caspian Steppe.The imprecise description of where the Massagetae lived by ancient authors has however led modern scholars to ascribe to them various locations, such as the Oxus delta, the Iaxartes delta, between the Caspian and Aral seas or further to the north or northeast, but without basing these suggestions on any conclusive arguments.Other locations assigned to the Massagetae include the area corresponding to modern-dayTurkmenistan.

TheSakā haumavargālived around the Pamir Mountains and the Ferghana Valley.

TheSakaibiš tayaiy para Sugdam,who may have been identical with theSakā haumavargā,lived on the north-east border of theAchaemenid Empireon theIaxartesriver.

Some other Saka groups lived to the east of thePamir Mountainsand to the north of theIaxartes river,as well as in the regions corresponding to modern-dayQirghizia,Tian Shan,Altai,Tuva,Mongolia,Xin gian g,andKazakhstan.

TheSək,that is the Saka who were in contact with the Chinese, inhabited theIliandChuvalleys of modernKyrgyzstanandKazakhstan,which was called the "land of theSək",i.e." land of the Saka ", in theBook of Han.

History

Origins

Arzhan kurgans(9–7th century BC)

Arzhankurgan and early Saka artifacts, dated to 8–7th century BC

The Scythian/Saka cultures emerged on theEurasian Steppeat the dawn of theIron Agein the early 1st millennium BC. Their origins has long been a source of debate among archaeologists.ThePontic–Caspian steppewas initially thought to have been their place of origin, until theSovietarchaeologistAleksey Terenozhkinsuggested aCentral Asianorigin.

Archaeological evidence now tends to suggest that the origins ofScythian culture,characterized by itskurgans(a type of burial mound) and itsAnimal styleof the 1st millennium BC, are to be found among Eastern Scythians rather than their Western counterparts: easternkurgansare older than western ones (such as the Altai kurganArzhan 1inTuva), and elements of theAnimal styleare first attested in areas of theYenisei riverand modern-day China in the 10th century BC.Genetic evidence corroborates archaeological findings, suggesting an initial eastwards expansion ofWestern Steppe Herderstowards the Altai region and Western Mongolia, spreadingIranian languages,and subsequent contact episodes with local Siberian and Eastern Asian populations, giving rise to the initial (Eastern) Scythian material cultures (Saka). It was however also found that the various later Scythian sub-groups of the Eurasian Steppe had local origins; different Scythian groups arose locally through cultural adaption, rather than via migration patterns from East-to-West or West-to-East.

The Sakas spoke a language belonging to theIranian branchof theIndo-European languages.ThePazyryk burialsof thePazyryk culturein theUkok Plateauin the 4th and 3rd centuries BC are thought to be of Saka chieftains.These burials show striking similarities with the earlierTarim mummiesatGumugou.TheIssyk kurganof south-easternKazakhstan,and theOrdos cultureof theOrdos Plateauhas also been connected with the Saka.It has been suggested that the ruling elite of theXiongnuwas of Saka origin, or at least significantly influenced by their Eastern Iranian neighbours.Some scholars contend that in the 8th century BC, a Saka raid from theAltaimay be "connected" with a raid onZhou China.

Early history

Sakā Tigraxaudātribute bearers to theAchaemenid Empire,Apadana,Staircase 12.

The Saka are attested in historical and archaeological records dating to around the 8th century BC.

The Saka tribe of theMassagetae/Tigraxaudārose to power in the 8th to 7th centuries BC, when they migrated from the east into Central Asia,from where they expelled theScythians,another nomadic Iranian tribe to whom they were closely related, after which they came to occupy large areas of the region beginning in the 6th century BC.The Massagetae forcing the Early Scythians to the west across theAraxesriver and into the Caucasian and Pontic steppes started a significant movement of the nomadic peoples of theEurasian Steppe,following which the Scythians displaced theCimmeriansand theAgathyrsi,who were also nomadic Iranian peoples closely related to the Massagetae and the Scythians, conquered their territories,and invadedWestern Asia,where their presence had an important role in the history of the ancient civilisations ofMesopotamia,Anatolia,Egypt,andIran.

During the 7th century BC itself, Saka presence started appearing in theTarim Basinregion.

According to the ancient Greek historianDiodorus Siculus,theParthiansrebelled against theMedesduring the reign ofCyaxares,after which the Parthians put their country and capital city under the protection of the Sakas. This was followed by a long war opposing the Medes to the Saka, the latter of whom were led by the queenZarinaea.At the end of this war, the Parthians accepted Median rule, and the Saka and the Medes made peace.

Captured Saka kingSkunkha,fromMount Behistun,Iran,Achaemenidstone relief from the reign ofDarius I(r. 522–486 BC)

The Sakas as subjects of theAchaemenid Empireon the statue ofDarius I,circa 500 BC.

According to the Greek historianCtesias,once thePersianAchaemenid Empire's founder,Cyrus,had overthrown his grandfather the Median kingAstyages,theBactriansaccepted him as the heir of Astyages and submitted to him, after which he founded the city ofCyropolison the Iaxartes river as well as seven fortresses to protect the northern frontier of his empire against the Saka. Cyrus then attacked theSakā haumavargā,initially defeated them and captured their king,Amorges.After this, Amorges's queen,Sparethra,defeated Cyrus with a large army of both men and women warriors and capturedParmises,the brother-in-law of Cyrus and the brother of his wifeAmytis,as well as Parmises's three sons, whom Sparethra exchanged in return for her husband, after which Cyrus and Amorges became allies, and Amorges helped Cyrus conquerLydia.

Cyrus, accompanied by theSakā haumavargāof his ally Amorges, later carried out a campaign against theMassagetae/Sakā tigraxaudāin 530 BC.According to Herodotus, Cyrus captured a Massagetaean camp by ruse, after which the Massagetae queenTomyrisled the tribe's main force against the Persians, defeated them, and placed the severed head of Cyrus in a sack full of blood. Some versions of the records of the death of Cyrus named the Derbices, rather than the Massagetae, as the tribe against whom Cyrus died in battle, because the Derbices were a member tribe of the Massagetae confederation or identical with the whole of the Massagetae.After Cyrus had been mortally wounded by the Derbices/Massagetae, Amorges and hisSakā haumavargāarmy helped the Persian soldiers defeat them. Cyrus told his sons to respect their own mother as well as Amorges above everyone else before dying.

Possibly shortly before the 520s BC, the Saka expanded into the valleys of theIliandChuin eastern Central Asia.Around 30 Saka tombs in the form ofkurgans(burial mounds) have also been found in theTian Shanarea dated to between 550 and 250 BC.

Darius Iwaged wars against the eastern Sakas during a campaign of 520 to 518 BC where, according to hisinscription at Behistun,he conquered the Massagetae/Sakā tigraxaudā,captured their kingSkunxa,and replaced him with a ruler who was loyal to Achaemenid rule.The territories of the Saka were absorbed into the Achaemenid Empire as part ofChorasmiathat included much of the territory between theOxusand theIaxartesrivers,and the Saka then supplied the Achaemenid army with a large number of mounted bowmen.According toPolyaenus,Darius fought against three armies led by three kings, respectively namedSacesphares,AmorgesorHomarges,andThamyris,with Polyaenus's account being based on accurate Persian historical records.After Darius's administrative reforms of the Achaemenid Empire, theSakā tigraxaudāwere included within the same tax district as theMedes.

During the period of Achaemenid rule, Central Asia was in contact with Saka populations who were themselves in contact withChina.

AfterAlexander the Greatconquered the Achaemenid Empire, the Saka resisted his incursions into Central Asia.

At least by the late 2nd century BC, the Sakas had founded states in the Tarim Basin.

Kingdoms in the Tarim Basin

Kingdom of Khotan

Main article:Kingdom of Khotan

Saka hunter with bow, 2nd-1st century BC,Almaty,Kazakhstan

TheKingdom of Khotanwas a Saka city state on the southern edge of the Tarim Basin. As a consequence of theHan–Xiongnu Warspanning from 133 BC to 89 AD, the Tarim Basin (now Xin gian g,Northwest China), includingKhotanandKashgar,fell underHan Chineseinfluence, beginning with the reign ofEmperor Wu of Han(r. 141–87 BC).

Coin ofGurgamoya,king of Khotan. Khotan, first century.
Obv:Kharosthilegend, "Of the great king of kings, king of Khotan, Gurgamoya.
Rev:Chinese legend: "Twenty-four grain copper coin".British Museum

Archaeological evidence and documents from Khotan and other sites in the Tarim Basin provided information on the language spoken by the Saka. The official language of Khotan was initiallyGandhari Prakritwritten in Kharosthi, and coins from Khotan dated to the 1st century bear dual inscriptions in Chinese and Gandhari Prakrit, indicating links of Khotan to both India and China.Surviving documents however suggest that an Iranian language was used by the people of the kingdom for a long time. Third-century AD documents in Prakrit from nearbyShanshanrecord the title for the king of Khotan ashinajha(i.e. "generalissimo"), a distinctively Iranian-based word equivalent to theSanskrittitlesenapati,yet nearly identical to the Khotanese Sakahīnāysaattested in later Khotanese documents.This, along with the fact that the king's recorded regnal periods were given as the Khotanesekṣuṇa,"implies an established connection between the Iranian inhabitants and the royal power," according to the Professor of Iranian Studies Ronald E. Emmerick.He contended that Khotanese-Saka-language royal rescripts of Khotan dated to the 10th century "makes it likely that the ruler of Khotan was a speaker of Iranian."Furthermore, he argued that the early form of the name of Khotan,hvatana,is connected semantically with the name Saka.

The region once again came under Chinesesuzeraintywith the campaigns of conquest byEmperor Taizong of Tang(r. 626–649).From the late eighth to ninth centuries, the region changed hands between the rival Tang andTibetan Empires.However, by the early 11th century the region fell to the Muslim Turkic peoples of theKara-Khanid Khanate,which led to both theTurkificationof the region as well as its conversion fromBuddhismtoIslam.

A document fromKhotanwritten inKhotanese Saka,part of theEastern Iranian branchof theIndo-European languages,listing the animals of theChinese zodiacin the cycle of predictions for people born in that year; ink on paper, early 9th century

Later Khotanese-Saka-language documents, ranging from medical texts toBuddhist literature,have been found in Khotan andTumshuq(northeast of Kashgar).Similar documents in the Khotanese-Saka language dating mostly to the 10th century have been found in theDunhuang manuscripts.

Although the ancient Chinese had called KhotanYutian( với điền ), another more native Iranian name occasionally used wasJusadanna( cù tát danna ), derived from Indo-IranianGostanandGostana,the names of the town and region around it, respectively.

Shule Kingdom

Main article:Shule Kingdom

Much like the neighboring people of the Kingdom of Khotan, the people ofKashgar,the capital of Shule, spoke Saka, one of theEastern Iranian languages.According to theBook of Han,the Saka split and formed several states in the region. These Saka states may include two states to the northwest of Kashgar,Tumshuqto its northeast, andTushkurgansouth in the Pamirs.Kashgar also conquered other states such asYarkandandKuchaduring the Han dynasty, but in its later history, Kashgar was controlled by various empires, includingTangChina,before it became part of the TurkicKara-Khanid Khanatein the 10th century. In the 11th century, according toMahmud al-Kashgari,some non-Turkic languages like Kanchaki andSogdianwere still used in some areas in the vicinity of Kashgar,and Kanchaki is thought to belong to the Saka language group.It is believed that the Tarim Basin was linguistically Turkified before the 11th century ended.

Southern migrations

Model of a Saka/Kangjucataphractarmour with neck-guard, fromKhalchayan.1st century BC.Museum of Arts of Uzbekistan,nb 40.

The Saka were pushed out of the Ili and Chu River valleys by theYuezhi.An account of the movement of these people is given inSima Qian'sRecords of the Grand Historian.The Yuehzhi, who originally lived between Tängri Tagh (Tian Shan) andDunhuangofGansu,China,were assaulted and forced to flee from theHexi Corridorof Gansu by the forces of theXiongnurulerModu Chanyu,who conquered the area in 177–176 BC.In turn the Yuehzhi were responsible for attacking and pushing the Sai (i.e.Saka) west into Sogdiana, where, between 140 and 130 BC, the latter crossed theSyr Daryainto Bactria. The Saka also moved southwards toward the Pamirs and northern India, where they settled in Kashmir, and eastward, to settle in some of the oasis-states of Tarim Basin sites, like Yanqi ( nào kỳ,Karasahr) and Qiuci ( Quy Từ,Kucha).The Yuehzhi, themselves under attacks from another nomadic tribe, theWusun,in 133–132 BC, moved, again, from the Ili and Chu valleys, and occupied the country ofDaxia,( đại hạ, "Bactria" ).

The Heavenly Horse, commonly known as the Ferghana Horse, is an ancient ceremonial bronze finial. It originates from Bactria, dating back to the 4th-1st century BC, and was skillfully crafted by Saka tribes.

The ancient Greco-Roman geographerStrabonoted that the four tribes that took down the Bactrians in the Greek and Roman account – theAsioi,Pasianoi,TokharoiandSakaraulai– came from land north of the Syr Darya where the Ili and Chu valleys are located.Identification of these four tribes varies, butSakaraulaimay indicate an ancient Saka tribe, theTokharoiis possibly the Yuezhi, and while the Asioi had been proposed to be groups such as the Wusun orAlans.

Map ofSakastan( "Land of the Sakas" ), where the Sakas resettled c. 100 BC

René Groussetwrote of the migration of the Saka: "the Saka, under pressure from the Yueh-chih [Yuezhi], overran Sogdiana and then Bactria, there taking the place of the Greeks." Then, "Thrust back in the south by the Yueh-chih," the Saka occupied "the Saka country, Sakastana, whence the modern Persian Seistan."Some of the Saka fleeing the Yuezhi attacked theParthian Empire,where they defeated and killed the kingsPhraates IIandArtabanus.These Sakas were eventually settled byMithridates IIin what become known asSakastan.According toHarold Walter Bailey,the territory ofDrangiana(now in Afghanistan and Pakistan) became known as "Land of the Sakas", and was called Sakastāna in the Persian language of contemporary Iran, in Armenian as Sakastan, with similar equivalents in Pahlavi, Greek, Sogdian, Syriac, Arabic, and theMiddle Persiantongue used inTurfan,Xin gian g, China.This is attested in a contemporaryKharosthiinscription found on theMathura lion capitalbelonging to the Saka kingdom of theIndo-Scythians(200 BC – 400 AD) inNorth India,roughly the same time the Chinese record that the Saka had invaded and settled the country ofJibinKế tân (i.e.Kashmir,of modern-day India and Pakistan).

Iaroslav LebedynskyandVictor H. Mairspeculate that some Sakas may also have migrated to the area ofYunnanin southern China following their expulsion by the Yuezhi. Excavations of the prehistoric art of theDian Kingdomof Yunnan have revealed hunting scenes of Caucasoid horsemen in Central Asian clothing.The scenes depicted on these drums sometimes represent these horsemen practising hunting. Animal scenes of felines attacking oxen are also at times reminiscent ofScythian artboth in theme and in composition. Migrationsof the 2nd and 1st century BC have left traces in Sogdia and Bactria, but they cannot firmly be attributed to the Saka, similarly with the sites ofSirkapandTaxilainancient India.The rich graves atTillya TepeinAfghanistanare seen as part of a population affected by the Saka.

TheShakyaclan of India, to whichGautama Buddha,calledŚākyamuni"Sage of the Shakyas", belonged, were also likely Sakas, asMichael WitzelandChristopher I. Beckwithhave alleged. The scholar Bryan Levman however criticised this hypothesis for resting on slim to no evidence, and maintains that the Shakyas were a population native to the north-east Gangetic plain who were unrelated to Iranic Sakas.

Indo-Scythians

Main article:Indo-Scythians

Head of a Saka warrior, as a defeated enemy of theYuezhi,fromKhalchayan,northernBactria,1st century BC.

The region in modern Afghanistan and Iran where the Saka moved to became known as "land of the Saka" orSakastan.This is attested in a contemporaryKharosthiinscription found on theMathura lion capitalbelonging to the Saka kingdom of theIndo-Scythians(200 BC – 400 AD) innorthern India,roughly the same time the Chinese record that the Saka had invaded and settled the country ofJibinKế tân (i.e.Kashmir,of modern-day India and Pakistan).In the Persian language of contemporary Iran the territory of Drangiana was called Sakastāna, in Armenian as Sakastan, with similar equivalents in Pahlavi, Greek, Sogdian, Syriac, Arabic, and theMiddle Persiantongue used inTurfan,Xin gian g, China.The Sakas also capturedGandharaandTaxila,and migrated toNorth India.The most famous Indo-Scythian king wasMaues.An Indo-Scythian kingdom was established inMathura(200 BC – 400 AD).Weer Rajendra Rishi,an Indian linguist, identified linguistic affinities between Indian and Central Asian languages, which further lends credence to the possibility of historical Sakan influence in North India.According to historian Michael Mitchiner, theAbhira tribewere a Saka people cited in the Gunda inscription of theWestern SatrapRudrasimha Idated to AD 181.

• Later Saka polities
• 
  TheIndo-Scythiansruled in northwestern South Asia from circa 100 BC
• 
  TheNorthern Satrapsruled in northern India until their replacement by the Kushans circa 150 AD
• 
  TheWestern Satrapswas a Saka dynasty which ruled in western India until circa 400 AD

Historiography

Distribution of Iranic peoples in Central Asia during the Iron Age. Saka included.

Silver coin of theIndo-ScythianKingAzes II(ruled c. 35–12 BC). Note the royaltamgaon the coin.

Persiansreferred to all northern nomads as Sakas.Herodotus(IV.64) describes them as Scythians, although they figure under a different name:

The Sacae, or Scyths, were clad in trousers, and had on their heads tall stiff caps rising to a point. They bore the bow of their country and the dagger; besides which they carried the battle-axe, orsagaris.They were in truth Amyrgian (Western) Scythians, but the Persians called them Sacae, since that is the name which they gave to all Scythians.

Strabo

In the 1st century BC, the Greek-Roman geographer Strabo gave an extensive description of the peoples of the eastern steppe, whom he located in Central Asia beyond Bactria and Sogdiana.

Strabo went on to list the names of the various tribes he believed to be "Scythian",and in so doing almost certainly conflated them with unrelated tribes of eastern Central Asia. These tribes included the Saka.

Now the greater part of the Scythians, beginning at the Caspian Sea, are calledDäae,but those who are situated more to the east than these are namedMassagetaeand Sacae, whereas all the rest are given the general name of Scythians, though each people is given a separate name of its own. They are all for the most part nomads. But the best known of the nomads are those whotook away Bactrianafrom theGreeks,I mean theAsii,Pasiani,Tochari,andSacarauli,who originally came from thecountry on the other sideof theIaxartes Riverthat adjoins that of the Sacae and the Sogdiani and was occupied by the Sacae. And as for the Däae, some of them are calledAparni,someXanthii,and somePissuri.Now of these the Aparni are situated closest toHyrcaniaand the part of the sea that borders on it, but the remainder extend even as far as the country that stretches parallel toAria. Between them and Hyrcania andParthiaand extending as far as the Arians is agreat waterless desert,which they traversed by long marches and then overran Hyrcania,Nesaea,and the plains of the Parthians. And these people agreed topay tribute,and the tribute was to allow the invaders at certain appointed times to overrun the country and carry off booty. But when the invaders overran their country more than the agreement allowed, war ensued, and in turn their quarrels were composed and new wars were begun. Such is the life of the other nomads also, who are always attacking their neighbors and then in turn settling their differences.

(Strabo,Geography,11.8.1; transl. 1903 by H. C. Hamilton & W. Falconer.)

Indian sources

Main article:Indo-Scythians

The Sakas receive numerous mentions in Indian texts, including thePurāṇas,theManusmṛiti,theRāmāyaṇa,theMahābhārata,and theMahābhāṣyaofPatanjali.

Language

Main article:Saka language

Issyk inscription

Issyk dish with inscription.

Drawing of theIssyk inscription.

Modern scholarly consensus is that theEastern Iranian language,ancestral to thePamir languagesinCentral Asiaand the medieval Saka language ofXin gian g,was one of theScythian languages.Evidence of the Middle Iranian "Scytho-Khotanese" language survives inNorthwest China,where Khotanese-Saka-language documents, ranging from medical texts toBuddhist texts,have been found primarily in Khotan andTumshuq(northeast of Kashgar).They largely predate theIslamization of Xin gian gunder theTurkic-speakingKara-Khanid Khanate.Similar documents, theDunhuang manuscripts,were discovered written in the KhotaneseSaka languageand date mostly from the tenth century.

Attestations of the Saka language show that it was anEastern Iranian language.The linguistic heartland of Saka was theKingdom of Khotan,which had two varieties, corresponding to the major settlements at Khotan (now calledHotan) and Tumshuq (now titledTumxuk).Tumshuqese and Khotanese varieties of Saka contain many borrowings from theMiddle Indo-Aryan languages,but also share features with the modern Eastern Iranian languagesWakhiandPashto.

The Issyk inscription, a short fragment on a silver cup found in theIssyk kurganinKazakhstanis believed to be the earliest example of Saka, constituting one of very few autochthonous epigraphic traces of that language.The inscription is in a variant ofKharosthi.Harmatta suggests that the inscriptions are a variant of theKharosthilanguage, while Christopher Baumer has said that they closely resemble theOld Turkicrunic Alpha bet. From Khotanese Saka, Harmatta translates the inscription as: "The vessel should hold wine of grapes, added cooked food, so much, to the mortal, then added cooked fresh butter on".

Linguisticevidence suggest the Wakhi language is descended from Saka languages.According to the Indo-Europeanist Martin Kümmel, Wakhi may be classified as a Western Saka dialect; the other attested Saka dialects, Khotanese and Tumshuqese, would then be classified as Eastern Saka.

Genetics

See also:Scythian cultures § Genetics,Scythians § Genetics,Sarmatians § Genetics,andTagar culture § Genetics

The earliest studies could only analyze segments of mtDNA, thus providing only broad correlations of affinity to modern West Eurasian or East Eurasian populations. For example, in a 2002 study the mitochondrial DNA of Saka period male and female skeletal remains from a double inhumationkurganat the Beral site in Kazakhstan was analysed. The two individuals were found to be not closely related. The HV1 mitochondrial sequence of the male was similar to the Anderson sequence which is most frequent in European populations. The HV1 sequence of the female suggested a greater likelihood of Asian origins.

More recent studies have been able to type for specificmtDNA lineages.For example, a 2004 study examined theHV1 sequenceobtained from a male "Scytho-Siberian" at theKizilsite in theAltai Republic.It belonged to theN1amaternal lineage, a geographically West Eurasian lineage.Another study by the same team, again of mtDNA from two Scytho-Siberian skeletons found in the Altai Republic, showed that they had been typical males "of mixed Euro-Mongoloid origin". One of the individuals was found to carry theF2amaternal lineage, and the other theDlineage, both of which are characteristic of East Eurasian populations.

A Saka man from thePazyryk culture(reconstruction from burials,Anokhin Museum).

These early studies have been elaborated by an increasing number of studies by Russian and western scholars. Conclusions are (i) an early, Bronze Age mi xing of both west and east Eurasian lineages, with western lineages being found far to the east, but not vice versa; (ii) an apparent reversal by Iron Age times, with an increasing presence of East EurasianmtDNAlineages in the Western steppe; (iii) the possible role of migrations from the south, the Balkano-Danubian and Iranian regions, toward the steppe.

Unterländer, et al. (2017) found genetic evidence that the modern-day descendants of Eastern Scythians are found "almost exclusively" among modern-daySiberian Turkicspeakers, suggesting that future studies could determine the extent to which the Eastern Scythians were involved in the early formation of Turkic-speaking populations.

Haplogroups

Ancient Y-DNA data was finally provided by Keyseret alin 2009. They studied the haplotypes and haplogroups of 26 ancient human specimens from theKrasnoyarskarea inSiberiadated from between the middle of the 2nd millennium BC and the 4th century AD (Scythian andSarmatiantimeframe). Nearly all subjects belonged tohaplogroup R-M17.The authors suggest that their data shows that between the Bronze and the Iron Ages the constellation of populations known variously as Scythians,Andronovians,etc. were blue- (or green-) eyed, fair-skinned and light-haired people who might have played a role in the early development of theTarim Basincivilisation. Moreover, this study found that they were genetically more closely related to modern populations in eastern Europe than those of central and southern Asia.The ubiquity and dominance of the R1a Y-DNA lineage contrasted markedly with the diversity seen in the mtDNA profiles.

A genetic study published inNaturein May 2018 examined the remains of twenty-eight Inner Asian Sakas buried between ca. 900 BC to AD 1, compromising eight Sakas ofsouthern Siberia(Tagar culture), eight Sakas of thecentral steppe(Tasmola culture), and twelve Sakas of theTian Shan.The six samples ofY-DNAextracted from the Tian Shan Saka belonged to the West Eurasian haplogroupsR(four samples),R1andR1a1.Of five central steppe Saka males, four belonged to haplogroup R1a while one individual belonged to haplogroupE1b-FT167798*.

The samples ofmtDNAextracted from the Tian Shan Saka belonged toC4,H4d,T2a1,U5a1d2b,H2a,U5a1a1,HV6(two samples),D4j8(two samples),W1candG2a1.

According to Tikhonov, et al. (2019), the Eastern Scythians and the Xiongnu "possibly bore proto-Turkic elements", based on a continuation of maternal and paternal haplogroups.

Autosomal DNA

Genetic makeup of Bronze and Iron Age Steppe populations

Map of Scythian cultures, including different Saka populations with genetic profiles, combining Steppe_MLBA, BMAC, and Khövsgöl LBA ancestries.

Genetic makeup of Iron Age Central Asian Scythians. The three main ancestry components are shown in green, red and violet representing the ancestries maximized inAnatolian farmers,Iranian farmers,andHunter Gatherers from West Siberia,respectively.

Forensic reconstruction of the Saka King and Queen ofArzhan-2,in their burial costumes (650-600 BC).

The 2018 in study detected significant genetic differences between analyzed Inner Asian Saka-associated samples and Scythian samples of thePannonian Basin,as well as between different Saka subgroups of southern Siberia, the central steppe and the Tian Shan. While Scythians (or "Hungarian Saka" ) harbored exclusively ancestry associated withWestern Steppe Herders,Inner Asian Saka displayed additional Neolithic Iranian (BMAC) and Southern Siberian hunter-gatherer (represented through a proxy of modernAltaians) components in varying degrees. Tian Shan Sakas were found to be of about 70%Western Steppe Herder(WSH) ancestry, 25% Southern Siberian Hunter-Gatherer ancestry and 5% Iranian Neolithic ancestry. The Iranian Neolithic ancestry was probably from theBactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex.Sakas of the Tasmola culture were found to be of about 56% WSH ancestry and 44% Southern Siberian Hunter-Gather ancestry. The peoples of the Tagar culture had about 83.5% WSH ancestry, 9%Ancient North Eurasian(ANE) ancestry and 7.5% Southern Siberian Hunter-Gatherer ancestry. The study suggested that the Inner Asian Saka were the source of West Eurasian ancestry among theXiongnu,and that theHunsprobably emerged through minor male-driven geneflow into the Saka through westward migrations by the Xiongnu.A genetic study published in 2020 inCell,modeled the ancestry of several Saka groups as a combination ofSintashta(Western Steppe Herders) andBaikal EBAancestry (Western Baikalearly Bronze Age hunter-gatherers, a profile consisting of about 80%Ancient Northeast Asianand 20%Ancient North Eurasianancestries),with varying degrees of an additional Neolithic Iranian (BMAC) component.Specifically, Central Sakas of theTasmola culturewere found to be of about 43% Sintashta ancestry, 50% Baikal_EBA ancestry and 7% BMAC ancestry. Tagar Sakas (Tagar culture) were found to have an elevated Sintashta proportion (69% Sintashta, 24% Baikal_EBA, and 7% BMAC), whileTian ShanSakas had an elevated BMAC proportion at 24% (50% Sintashta, 26% Baikal_EBA, and 24% BMAC). The eastern Uyuk Sakas (Arzhan culture) had 50% Sintashta, 44% Baikal_EBA, and 6% BMAC ancestry. ThePazyrykSakas had elevated Baikal_EBA ancestry, with a nearly non-existent BMAC component (32% Sintashta, 68% Baikal_EBA, and ~0% BMAC).Two other genetic studies published in 2021 and 2022 found that the Saka originated from a shared WSH-like (Srubnaya,Sintashta,andAndronovo culture) background with additional BMAC and East Eurasian-like ancestry. The Eastern ancestry among the Saka can also be represented by Lake Baikal (Shamanka_EBA-like) groups. The spread of Saka-like ancestry can be linked with the dispersal ofEastern Iranian languages(such asKhotanese).

A later different Eastern influx is evident in three outlier samples of theTasmola culture(Tasmola Birlik) and one of thePazyryk culture(Pazyryk Berel), which displayed c. 70-83% additionalAncient Northeast Asianancestry represented by the NeolithicDevil’s Gate Cavespecimen, suggesting them to be recent migrants from further East. The same additional Eastern ancestry is found among the later groups of Huns (Hun Berel 300CE, Hun elite 350CE), and the Karakaba remains (830CE). At the same time, westernSarmatian-like and minor additional BMAC-like ancestry spread eastwards, with a Saka-associated sample from southeasternKazakhstan(Konyr Tobe 300CE) displaying around 85% Sarmatian and 15% BMAC ancestry. Sarmatians are modeled to derive primarily from the preceding Western Steppe Herders of thePontic–Caspian steppe.

The Sakas represent a unique period of West-East admixture along the Altai line during the Iron Age, which has been a defining characteristic of Central Asian populations until modern times.

The most closely related modern population to the Saka (and other Scythian groups) are theTajiks,anIranian peoplesindigenous to Southern Central Asia, which display genetic continuity to Bronze and Iron age Central Asians. These genetic links are paralleled by previous proposed "linguistic and physical anthropological links between the Tajiks and Scythians".There is also increasing evidence for genetic affinities between the Eastern Scythians (such as thePazyryk culture) andTurkic-speaking groups,which formed via admixture events during the Iron Age between local Saka groups and geneflow from the Eastern Steppe,but alsoUralicandPaleo-Siberianpeoples.The admixture with West Eurasian sources was found to be "in accordance with the linguistically documented language borrowing in Turkic languages".

East-West migrations and cultural transmission

Genetic data across Eurasia suggest that the Scythian cultural phenomenon was accompanied by some degree of migration from east to west, starting in the area of theAltai region.In particular, the Classical Scythians of the western Eurasian steppe were not direct descendants of the local Bronze Age populations, but partly resulted from this east-west spread.This also suggests that Scythoïd cultural characteristics were not simply the result of the transfer of material culture, but were also accompanied by human migrations of Saka populations from the east.

The region between theCaspian Seaand of the Southern Urals originally had populations ofSrubnaya(1900 BC–1200 BCE) andAndronovo(c. 2000–1150 BCE) ancestry ancestry, but, starting with theIron Age(c.1000 BCE) became a region of intense ethnic and cultural interaction between European and Asian components.From the 7th century BCE, Early Saka nomads started to settle in the Southern Urals, coming fromCentral Asia,theAltai-Sayanregion, and Central and NorthernKazakhstan.TheItkul culture(7th-5th century BCE) is one of these Early Saka cultures, based in the eastern foothills of the Urals, which was assimilated into theSauromatianand EarlySarmatiancultures.Circa 600 BCE, groups from the SakaTasmola culturesettled in the southern Urals.Circa 500 BCE, other groups from the area of AncientKhorezmsettled in the western part of the southern Urals, who also assimilated into the Early Sarmatians.As a result, a large-scale integrated union of nomads fromCentral Asiaformed in the area in the 5th–4th century BCE, with fairly uniformized cultural practices.This cultural complex, with notable ‘‘foreign elements’’, corresponds to the ‘‘royal’’ burials ofFilippovka kurgan,and define the "Prokhorovka period" of the Early Sarmatians.

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  Warriors with daggers and bows. Dagger blade decoration from Kurgan 4, Burial 2,Filippovka kurgans,LateSauromatian-EarlySarmatian,5th-4th century BCE.
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  "Golden Lady" from theTaksai kurgans,c. 500 BCE.

Archaeology

Compative timeline of Scythian kurgans in Asia and Europe.

The spectacular grave-goods fromArzhan,and others inTuva,have been dated from about 800 BC onward, and the kurgans ofShiliktyin easternKazakhstancirca 700 BC, and are associated with the Early Sakas.Burials atPazyrykin theAltay Mountainshave included some spectacularly preserved Sakas of the "Pazyryk culture" – including theIce Maidenof the 5th century BC.

Arzhan 1 kurgan (c. 800 BC)

Main article:Arzhan culture

Arzhan-1 was excavated by M. P. Gryaznov in the 1970s, establishing the origins of Scythian culture in the region in the 10th to 8th centuries BC:Arzhan-1 was carbon-dated to circa 800 BC.Many of the styles of the artifacts found in Arzhan 1 (such as the animal style images of deer, boar, and panther) soon propagated to the west, probably following a migration mouvement from the east to the west in the 9th-7th centuries BC, and ultimately reaching European Scythia and influencing artistic styles there.

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  Arzhan-1, dated to circa 800 BC, partly looted in Antiquity
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  Curled-up feline animal from Arzhan-1, circa 800 BC.

Shilikty/ Baigetobe kurgan (c. 700 BC)

Main article:Shilikty

Shilikty is an archaeological site in easternKazakhstanwith numerous 8-6th century BC Early Sakakurgans.Carbon-14 dating suggests date of 730-690 BC for the kurgans, and a broad contemporaneity with theArzhan-2kurgan in Tuva.

The Kurgans contained vast quantities of precious golden jewelry.Remains of a "golden man" (similar to theIssyk kurgangolden man) were found in 2003, with 4262 gold finds.

Arzhan 2 (c. 650 BC)

See also:Aldy-Bel culture

Arzhan 2 kurgan (7th-6th centuries BC, associated with theAldy-Bel culture).

Arzhan-2 was an undisturbed burial.Archaeologists found a royal couple, sixteen murdered attendants, and 9,300 objects.5,700 of these artifacts were made of gold, weighing a Siberian record-breaking twenty kilograms.The male, who researchers guess was some sort of king, wore a goldentorc,a jacket decorated with 2,500 golden panther figurines, a gold-encrusted dagger on a belt, trousers sewn with golden beads, and gold-cuffed boots.The woman wore a red cloak that was also covered in 2,500 golden panther figurines, as well as a golden-hilted iron dagger, a gold comb, and a wooden ladle with a golden handle.

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  "Animal style" deer, (7-6th century BC) Tuva.
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  Pectoral plate, from burial mound Arzhan (7-6th century BC) Tuva.
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  Akinak (dagger) burial mound Arzhan (7-6th century BC) Tuva.

Eleke Sazy Burial Complex (c. 800-400 BC)

Recumbent stag plaque, Eleke Sazy, Kazakhstan; 8th to 6th century BC

In 2020, archaeologists excavated multiple burial mounds in the Eleke Sazy Valley in East Kazakhstan. Here, a large number of gold artifacts were found. These artifacts included golf harness fittings, pendants, chains, appliqués, and more – most of which are in theAnimal Styleof the Scythian-Saka era dating back to the 5th–4th centuries BC.

Berel burial mound (c. 350-300 BC)

Near the selo of Berel in theKatonkaragay Districtof easternKazakhstan(49°22′24″N86°26′17″E) excavations of ancient burial mounds have revealed artefacts the sophistication of which are encouraging a revaluation of the nomadic cultures of the 3rd and 4th centuries BC.

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  Catlike predator with protomas of two elk, burial moundBerel(4th-3rd centuries BC) Kazakhstan, Pazyryk culture.
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  Deer in Griffin's beak, burial mound Berel (4th-3rd centuries BC) Kazakhstan.
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  Tigergriffin arthor work based on Scytian- saka animal style, burial mound Berel (5th-3rd centuries BC) Kazakhstan.
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  Griffins, burial mound Berel (5th-3rd centuries BC) Kazakhstan.
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  Frontal decoration (harness), burial mound Berel (4th-3rd centuries BC) Kazakhstan, Pazyryk culture.

Pazyryk culture (c. 300 BC)

Main article:Pazyryk culture

APazyrykhorseman in a felt painting from a burial around 300 BC. The Pazyryks appear to be closely related to the Scythians.

Saka burials documented by modern archaeologists include thekurgansatPazyrykin theUlagan(Red) district of theAltai Republic,south ofNovosibirskin theAltai Mountainsof southernSiberia(near Mongolia). Archaeologists have extrapolated thePazyryk culturefrom these finds: five large burial mounds and several smaller ones between 1925 and 1949, one opened in 1947 by Russian archaeologistSergei Rudenko.The burial mounds concealed chambers of larch-logs covered over with largecairnsof boulders and stones.

The Pazyryk culture flourished between the 7th and 3rd century BC in the area associated with theSacae.

Ordinary Pazyryk graves contain only common utensils, but in one, among other treasures, archaeologists found the famousPazyryk Carpet,the oldest surviving wool-pileoriental rug.Another striking find, a 3-metre-high four-wheel funerary chariot, survived well-preserved from the 5th to 4th century BC.

Southern Siberian kurgans excavated in the 18th century

Main article:Siberian Collection of Peter the Great

Approximate location of the finds of the Siberian Collection of Peter the Great.

During the 18th century and the Russian expansion into Siberia, many Saka kurgans were plundered, sometimes by independent grave-robbers or sometimes officially at the instigation ofPeter the Great,but usually without any archaeological records being taken.Only the general location where they were excavated is known, between modernKazakhstanand theAltai Mountains. ru Many of these artefacts were part of the archaeological presents sent byMatvey Gagarin,Governor of Siberia based inTobolsk,toPeter the GreatinSaint-Petersburgin 1716.They are now located in theHermitage MuseuminSaint-Petersburg,and form theSiberian Collection of Peter the Great.Their estimated datation ranges from the 7th century BC to the 1st century BC, depending on the artefacts.

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  Aigrette, 4th-3rd century BC.Siberian Collection of Peter the Great.
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  Boar hunter (Hermitage Museum),2nd-1st century BC.
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  Belt plaque from the Siberian collection of Peter the Great, probablyIngala Valley
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  Siberian gold, Siberian Collection of Peter the Great

Tillia Tepe treasure (2nd-1st century BC)

Main article:Tillia Tepe

Artifacts found the tombs 2 and 4 ofTillya Tepeand reconstitution of their use on the man and woman found in these tombs

A site found in 1968 inTillia Tepe(literally "the golden hill" ) in northernAfghanistan(former Bactria) nearSheberganconsisted of the graves of five women and one man with extremely rich jewelry, dated to around the 1st century BC, and probably related to that of Saka tribes normally living slightly to the north.Altogether the graves yielded several thousands of pieces of fine jewelry, usually made from combinations ofgold,turquoiseandlapis-lazuli.

A high degree of culturalsyncretismpervades the findings, however.Hellenisticcultural and artistic influences appear in many of the forms and human depictions (fromamorinito rings with the depiction ofAthenaand her name inscribed in Greek), attributable to the existence of theSeleucid empireandGreco-Bactriankingdom in the same area until around 140 BC, and the continued existence of theIndo-Greek kingdomin the northwestern Indian sub-continent until the beginning of our era. This testifies to the richness of cultural influences in the area of Bactria at that time.

Culture

Gender roles

Recently, evidence confirmed by the full-genomic analysis of a Scythian child's remains found in a coffin made of a larch trunk, which was discovered in Saryg-Bulun in Central Tuva, revealed that the individual, previously thought to be male because it had items that were associated with the belief that Scythian society was male-dominated, was actually female. Along with the leather skirt, the burial also contained a leather headdress painted with red pigment, a coat sewn from jerboa fur, a leather belt with bronze ornaments and buckles, a leather quiver with arrows with painted ornaments on the shafts, a fully-preserved battle pick, and a bow. These items provide valuable insights into the material culture and lifestyle of the Scythians, including their hunting and warfare practices, and their use of animal hides for clothing.

Art

Further information:Scythian art

Battle scenes between "Kangju"Saka warriors, from theOrlat plaques.1st century AD.

The art of the Saka was of a similar styles as other Iranian peoples of the steppes, which is referred to collectively asScythian art.In 2001, the discovery of an undisturbed royal Scythian burial-barrow atArzhanillustrated Scythian animal-style gold that lacks the direct influence of Greek styles. Forty-four pounds of gold weighed down the royal couple in this burial, discovered nearKyzyl,capital of theSiberianrepublic ofTuva.

Ancient influences from Central Asia became identifiable in China following contacts of metropolitan China with nomadic western and northwestern border territories from the 8th century BC. The Chinese adopted the Scythian-style animal art of thesteppes(descriptions of animals locked in combat), particularly the rectangular belt-plaques made of gold or bronze, and created their own versions injadeandsteatite.

Following their expulsion by theYuezhi,some Saka may also have migrated to the area ofYunnanin southern China. Saka warriors could also have served as mercenaries for the various kingdoms of ancient China. Excavations of the prehistoric art of theDiancivilisation of Yunnan have revealed hunting scenes ofCaucasoidhorsemen in Central Asian clothing.

Saka influences have been identified as far as Korea and Japan. Various Korean artifacts, such as the royal crowns of the kingdom ofSilla,are said to be of "Scythian" design.Similar crowns, brought through contacts with the continent, can also be found inKofun eraJapan.

Clothing

Saka-styleMajiayuan culturetomb figurines (3rd-2nd century BC).

Similar to othereastern Iranian peoplesrepresented on the reliefs of theApadanaatPersepolis,Sakas are depicted as wearing long trousers, which cover the uppers of their boots. Over their shoulders they trail a type of long mantle, with one diagonal edge in back. One particular tribe of Sakas (the Saka tigraxaudā) worepointed caps.Herodotusin his description of the Persian army mentions the Sakas as wearing trousers and tall pointed caps.

Statuette from the Saka culture inXin gian g,from a 3rd-century BC burial site north of theTian Shan,Xin gian g Region Museum,Ürümqi.Could alternatively be a Greek hoplite.

Men and women wore long trousers, often adorned with metal plaques and often embroidered or adorned with feltappliqués; trousers could have been wider or tight fitting depending on the area. Materials used depended on the wealth, climate and necessity.

Herodotus says Sakas had "high caps tapering to a point and stiffly upright." Asian Saka headgear is clearly visible on the Persepolis Apadana staircase bas-relief – high pointed hat with flaps over ears and the nape of the neck.From China to the Danube delta, men seemed to have worn a variety of soft headgear – either conical like the one described by Herodotus, or rounder, more like a Phrygian cap.

Saka women dressed in much the same fashion as men. A Pazyryk burial, discovered in the 1990s, contained the skeletons of a man and a woman, each with weapons, arrowheads, and an axe. Herodotus mentioned that Sakas had "high caps and… wore trousers." Clothing was sewn from plain-weave wool, hemp cloth, silk fabrics, felt, leather and hides.

TheTaerpo horserider,a ChineseWarrior-State Qinterracotta figurine from a tomb in the Taerpo cemetery nearXianyanginShaanxi Province,4th-3rd century BC. This is the earliest known representation of a cavalryman in China.The outfit is of Central Asian style, probably Scythian,and the rider with his high-pointed nose appears to be a foreigner.KingZheng of Qin(246–221 BC) is known to have employed steppe cavalry men in his army, as seen in histerracotta army.

Pazyryk findings give the most almost fully preserved garments and clothing worn by the Scythian/Saka peoples. Ancient Persian bas-reliefs, inscriptions fromApadanaandBehistunand archaeological findings give visual representations of these garments.

Based on the Pazyryk findings (can be seen also in the south Siberian, Uralic and Kazakhstan rock drawings) some caps were topped with zoomorphic wooden sculptures firmly attached to a cap and forming an integral part of the headgear, similar to the surviving nomad helmets from northern China. Men and warrior women wore tunics, often embroidered, adorned with felt applique work, or metal (golden) plaques.

Persepolis Apadana again serves a good starting point to observe the tunics of the Sakas. They appear to be a sewn, long-sleeved garment that extended to the knees and was girded with a belt, while the owner's weapons were fastened to the belt (sword or dagger,gorytos,battle-axe, whetstone etc.). Based on numerous archeological findings, men and warrior women wore long-sleeved tunics that were always belted, often with richly ornamented belts. The Kazakhstan Saka (e.g. Issyk Golden Man/Maiden) wore shorter and closer-fitting tunics than the Pontic steppe Scythians. Some Pazyryk culture Saka wore short belted tunic with a lapel on the right side, with upright collar, 'puffed' sleeves narrowing at the wrist and bound in narrow cuffs of a color different from the rest of the tunic.

Men and women wore coats: e.g. Pazyryk Saka had many varieties, from fur to felt. They could have worn a riding coat that later was known as a Median robe or Kantus. Long sleeved, and open, it seems that on the Persepolis Apadana Skudrian delegation is perhaps shown wearing such coat. The Pazyryk felt tapestry shows a rider wearing a billowing cloak.

Tattoos

Men and women are known to have been extensively tattooed. The men in thePazyryk burialshad extensive tattoos in the Siberiananimal style.A Pazyryk chief in burial mound 2, had his body covered inanimal styletattoos, but not his face.Parts of the body had deteriorated, but much of the tattooing was still clearly visible (seeimage). Subsequent investigation using reflectedinfrared photographyrevealed that all five bodies discovered in the Pazyryk kurgans were tattooed.No instruments specifically designed for tattooing were found, but the Pazyryks had extremely fine needles with which they did miniatureembroidery,and these were probably used for tattooing. The chief was elaborately decorated with an interlocking series of striking designs representing a variety of fantastic beasts. The best preservedtattooswere images of adonkey,amountain ram,two highly stylizeddeerwith long antlers and an imaginarycarnivoreon the right arm. Two monsters resemblinggriffinsdecorate the chest, and on the left arm are three partially obliterated images which seem to represent two deer and amountain goat.On the front of the right leg afishextends from the foot to the knee. A monster crawls over the right foot, and on the inside of the shin is a series of four running rams which touch each other to form a single design. The left leg also bears tattoos, but these designs could not be clearly distinguished. In addition, the chief's back was tattooed with a series of small circles in line with the vertebral column.TheSiberian Ice Maidenis also known for her extensive tattoos.

• 
  Tattoos of the Pazyryk-2 chief.
• 
  Tattoos of the chief's right arm, with zoomorphic symbols.
• 
  Tattoos of the chief's back and left arm.
• 
  Tattoo motif on the arm of theSiberian Ice Maiden.

Warfare

A skull from an Iron Age cemetery inSouth Siberiashows evidence of scalping. It lends physical evidence to the practice of scalp taking by the Scythians living there.

Later depictions of "Sakas" in China (1st-3rd century AD)

Numerous depictions of foreigners of Saka appearance appear in China around theEastern Hanperiod (25–220 AD), sometimes as far as east asShandong.They may have appeared in relation with the conflicts against the ScythoïdXirongin the west or theDonghu peoplein the North, or theKushansin the area ofXin gian g.They were generally called"Hu"by the Chinese.

• 
  Mingqi(Chinese funerary statuette) of a youngCentral Asianman, with Saka-type caftan and conical hat reminiscent of early 3rd century ADKushans.Later Han,3rd century AD.Guimet Museum(MA 4660).
• 
  Eastern Han tombs sometimes have depiction of battles betweenHubarbarians, with bows and arrows and wearing pointed hats (left), against Han troops. Eastern Han Dynasty (151–153 AD). Tsangshan Han tomb in Linyi city. Also visible inYinan tombs.
• 
  General appearance of the numerousScythoïdHumonumental statues fromShandong,featuring people with a high nose, deep eyes and a pointed hat.Eastern Hanperiod.
• 
  Yinan tombsrelief, depicting an attack by Hu barbarians with pointed hats, bow and arrows. 2nd century AD, Eastern Han.
• 
  Hustatue from Wu Baizhuang tomb ( Ngô bạch trang ),Han dynastyperiod,Linyi,Shandong.
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  Hustatue from Wu Baizhuang tomb ( Ngô bạch trang ),Han dynastyperiod,Linyi,Shandong.
• 
  Man hunting, circa 500 BC,Gansu Museum.

See also

• Besshatyr Burial Ground
• History of the central steppe
• Sakas in the Mahabharata
• Sakzai
• Shaka era
• Sagetae
• Maga Brahmin
• Scytho-Siberian world

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External links

• Pankova, Svetlana; Simpson, St John (1 January 2017).Scythians: warriors of ancient Siberia.British Museum exhibition catalogue.
• Eliot, Charles Norton Edgcumbe(1911)."Saka".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 24 (11th ed.). p. 53.
• Scythians / SacaebyJona Lendering
• Article by Kivisild et al. on genetic heritage of early Indian settlersArchived27 June 2007 at theWayback Machine
• Indian, Japanese and Chinese Emperors – The Sakas/Parthians, 97 BC-125 AD