Salyutprogramme
 | This articleneeds additional citations forverification.(August 2012) |
| Салют Космическая Программа Salyut Kosmicheskaya Programma | |
 Salyutprogramme insignia | |
| Program overview | |
|---|---|
| Country | Soviet Union |
| Purpose | Space station |
| Status | Completed |
| Programme history | |
| Duration | 1971–1986 |
| First flight | Salyut1 |
| First crewed flight | Soyuz 10 |
| Last flight | Soyuz T-15 |
| Successes | 71 |
| Failures | 10 |
| Launch site(s) | Baikonur |
| Vehicle information | |
| Crewed vehicle(s) | Soyuz |
| Crew capacity | 3 |
| Launch vehicle(s) | Proton-K |
| Part ofa seriesof articles on the |
| Soviet space program |
|---|
TheSalyutprogramme(Russian:Салют,IPA:[sɐˈlʲut],meaning "salute" or "fireworks" ) was the firstspace stationprogramme, undertaken by theSoviet Union.It involved a series of four crewed scientific research space stations and two crewed military reconnaissance space stations over a period of 15 years, from 1971 to 1986. Two otherSalyutlaunches failed. In one respect,Salyuthad the task of carrying out long-term research into the problems of living in space and a variety of astronomical, biological and Earth-resources experiments, and on the other hand the USSR used this civilian programme as a cover for the highly secretive militaryAlmazstations, which flew under theSalyutdesignation.Salyut1,the first station in the programme, became the world's first crewed space station.
Salyutflights broke severalspaceflight records,including several mission-duration records, and achieved the first orbital handover of a space station from one crew to another, and various spacewalk records. The ensuingSoyuz programmewas vital for evolving space station technology from a basic, engineering development stage, from single docking port stations to complex, multi-ported, long-term orbital outposts with impressive scientific capabilities, whose technological legacy continues as of 2023[update].[1]Experience gained from theSalyutstations paved the way for multimodular space stations such asMirand theInternational Space Station(ISS), with each of those stations possessing aSalyut-derived core module at its heart.
Mir-2(DOS-8), the final spacecraft from theSalyutseries, became one of the first modules of the ISS. The first module of the ISS, the Russian-madeZarya,relied heavily on technologies developed in theSalyutprogramme.[1]
History of Salyut space stations[edit]
- The large horizontal arrows trace the evolution of the two Soviet space station programmes DOS (top) and Almaz-OPS (bottom)
- Dark gray arrows trace the infusions from the Soyuz and OPS programmes to DOS
- Solid and dashed black arrows indicate modules intended for Mir, containing influences from OPS with the addition of space tugs
The programme was composed ofDOS (Durable Orbital Station)civilian stations andOPS (Orbital Piloted Station)military stations:
- TheAlmaz-OPSspace station cores were designed in October 1964 byVladimir Chelomey'sNPO Mashinostroyeniya(OKB-52) organization as military space stations, long before the Salyut programme started.[2]For Salyut, small modifications had to be made to the docking port of the OPS to accommodateSoyuz spacecraftin addition toTKS spacecraft.
- The civilianDOSspace station cores were designed bySergei Korolev'sOKB-1organisation. Korolev and Chelomey had been in fierce competition in the Soviet space industry during the time of theSoviet crewed lunar programme,but OKB-52's Almaz-OPS hull design was combined with subsystems derived from OKB-1's Soyuz.[3]This was done beginning with conceptual work in August 1969.[4]The DOS differed from the OPS modules in several aspects, including extra solar panels, front and (inSalyut 6and7) rear docking ports forSoyuz spacecraftandTKS spacecraft,and finally more docking ports in DOS-7 and DOS-8 to attach further space station modules.
It was realized that the later civilian DOS stations could not only offer a cover story for the military Almaz programme, but could also be finished within one year and at least a year earlier than Almaz. The Salyut programme begun on 15 February 1970 on the condition that the crewed lunar programme would not suffer.[3]However, the engineers at OKB-1 perceived theL3 lunar landereffort as a dead-end and immediately switched to working on DOS.[4]In the end it turned out that the SovietN1 "Moon Shot" rocketnever flew successfully, so OKB-1's decision to abandon the lunar programme and derive a DOS space station from existing Soyuz subsystems and an Almaz/OPS hull proved to be right: The actual time from the DOS station's inception to the launch of the first DOS-based Salyut 1 space station took only 16 months; the world's first space station was launched by the Soviet Union, two years before the AmericanSkylabor the first Almaz/OPS station flew.
Initially, the space stations were to be namedZarya,the Russian word for "Dawn". However, as the launch of the first station in the programme was prepared, it was realised that this would conflict with thecall signZaryaof theRKA Mission Control Center(TsUP) inKorolyov– therefore the name of the space stations was changed toSalyutshortly before launch ofSalyut 1.[4][5]Another explanation given is that the name might have offended the Chinese, who purportedly were preparing a new rocket for launch, which they had already namedShuguangor "Dawn".[6]The Salyut programme was managed byKerim Kerimov,[7]chairman of the state commission for Soyuz missions.[8]
A total of nine space stations were launched in the Salyut programme, with six successfully hosting crews and setting some records along the way. However, it was the stations Salyut 6 and Salyut 7 that became the workhorses of the programme. Out of the total of 1,697 days of occupancy that all Salyut crews achieved, Salyut 6 and 7 accounted for 1,499. While Skylab already featured a second docking port, these two Salyut stations became the first that actually utilised two docking ports: this made it possible for two Soyuz spacecraft to dock at the same time for crew exchange of the station and forProgress spacecraftto resupply the station, allowing for the first time a continuous ( "permanent" ) occupation of space stations.
The heritage of the Salyut programme continued to live on in the first multi-module space stationMirwith theMir Core Module( "DOS-7" ), that accumulated 4,592 days of occupancy, and in theInternational Space Station(ISS) with theZvezdamodule( "DOS-8" ), that as of 21 August 2012[update]accumulated 4,310 days of occupancy. Furthermore, theFunctional Cargo Blockspace station modules were derived from the Almaz programme, with theZaryaISS module being still in operation together withZvezda.[1]
First generation – The first space stations[edit]
First generation served as a space station engineering test bed. Aim was from early Almaz beginnings to construct long-living multi-modular stations.[9]
Salyut 1 (DOS-1)[edit]
Salyut 1(DOS-1) (Russian:Салют-1) was the world's firstspace station;it was launched intolow Earth orbitby theSoviet Unionon April 19, 1971. TheSalyut programfollowed this with five more successful launches of seven more stations. The final module of the program,Zvezda(DOS-8),became the core of the Russian segment of theInternational Space Stationand remains in orbit.
Salyut 1 was modified from one of theAlmazairframes, and was made out of five components: a transfer compartment, a main compartment, two auxiliary compartments, and the Orion 1 Space Observatory.
Salyut 1 was visited bySoyuz 10andSoyuz 11.Thehard-dockingof Soyuz 10 failed and the crew had to abort this mission. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days. However, they were killed by asphyxia caused by failure of a valve just prior to Earth reentry, and are the only people to have died above theKármán line.Salyut 1's mission was later terminated, and itburned up on reentryinto Earth's atmosphere on October 11, 1971.DOS-2[edit]
DOS-2was aspace station,launched as part of theSalyut programme,which was lost in a launch failure on 29 July 1972, when the failure of the second stage of itsProton-Klaunch vehicle prevented the station from achieving orbit.[10][11]It instead fell into the Pacific Ocean. The station, which would have been given the designation Salyut 2 had it reached orbit, was structurally identical toSalyut 1,as it had been assembled as a backup unit for that station.[12]Four teams of cosmonauts were formed to crew the station, of which two would have flown:[12]
- Alexei LeonovandValeri Kubasov
- Vasily LazarevandOleg Makarov
- Aleksei GubarevandGeorgi Grechko
- Pyotr KlimukandVitaly Sevastyanov
Salyut 2 (OPS-1, military)[edit]
Kosmos 557 (DOS-3)[edit]
Kosmos 557(Russian:Космос 557meaningCosmos 557), originally designated DOS-3, was the thirdspace stationin theSalyut program.It was originally intended to be launched as Salyut-3, but due to its failure to achieve orbit on May 11, 1973, three days before the launch ofSkylab,it was renamed Kosmos-557.
Due to errors in theflight control systemwhile out of the range ofground control,the station fired itsattitude thrusteruntil it consumed all of its attitude control fuel and became uncontrollable before raising its orbit to the desired altitude. Since the spacecraft was already in orbit and had been registered by Westernradar,the Soviets disguised the launch as "Kosmos 557" and quietly allowed it to reenterEarth's atmosphereand burn up a week later. It was revealed to have been a Salyut station only much later.[when?]Salyut 3 (OPS-2, military)[edit]
Salyut 3(Russian:Салют-3;English:Salute 3;also known as OPS-2[13]or Almaz 2[14]) was aSovietspace stationlaunched on 25 June 1974. It was the secondAlmazmilitaryspace station,and the first such station to be launched successfully.[14]It was included in theSalyutprogram to disguise its true military nature.[15]Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.[16]
It attained an altitude of 219 to 270 km on launch[17]and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272 km.[18]Only one of the three intended crews successfully boarded and operated the station, brought bySoyuz 14;Soyuz 15attempted to bring a second crew but failed to dock.
Although little official information has been released about the station, several sources report that it contained multiple Earth-observation cameras, as well as an on-board gun. The station was deorbited and re-entered the atmosphere on 24 January 1975. The next space station launched by the Soviet Union was the civilian stationSalyut 4;the next military station wasSalyut 5,which was the finalAlmazspace station.Salyut 3 would make history, by conducting the first test-fire of a conventional weapon in space. During Salyut 3’s mission span, cosmonauts would fire the onboard 23mm cannon, which was reported to be a modified Nudelman aircraft cannon. To operate the cannon, the crew had to maneuver the whole space station in the direction of the target. Sources state that the firing was to deplete the ammunition on the craft. However, others sources say that the station conducted 3 tests of the gun through the whole mission span of Salyut 3.[19]
Salyut 4 (DOS-4)[edit]
Salyut 5 (OPS-3, military)[edit]
Second generation – long-duration inhabitation of space[edit]
In 1977, another marked step forward was made with the second generation of Salyut stations. The aim was to continuously occupy a space station with long-duration expeditions, for the first time in spaceflight.
Although Salyut 6 and Salyut 7 resembled the previous Salyut stations in overall design, several revolutionary changes were made to the stations and programme for the aim of continuous occupation. The new stations featured a longer design life and a seconddocking portat the aft of the stations – crew exchanges and station "handovers" were now made possible by docking two crewed Soyuz spacecraft at the same time. Furthermore, the uncrewed Progress resupply craft was created based on the crewed Soyuz, to resupply the crew and station with air, air regenerators, water, food, clothing, bedding, mail, propellants, pressurant, and other supplies. While the Progress docked to the station's second docking port, the crew's Soyuz spacecraft could remain docked to the station's first port. The Progress spacecraft even delivered hardware for updating onboard experiments and permitting repairs to the station, extending its life.[9]
Salyut 6 (DOS-5)[edit]
Salyut 6(Russian:Салют-6;lit. Salute 6), DOS-5, was aSovietorbital space station,the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by aProton rocket.Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced onMirand theInternational Space Station.
Salyut 6 was the first "second generation" space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.[20]Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past thedesign lifeof the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts fromWarsaw pactcountries participating in the Soviet Union'sIntercosmosprogramme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewedProgress spacecraftincludingProgress 1,the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the newSoyuz-Tspacecraft.
The success of Salyut 6 contrasted with the programme's earlier failures and limited successes. The early history of the programme was plagued by the fatalities ofSoyuz 11and three launched stations which quickly failed. Earlier successful stations received few crews, limited to several weeks' habitation by the design life of their Soyuz craft and the presence of a single docking port per station; unsuccessful docking was also common. Salyut 6 on the other hand routinely received successful dockings of crewed and uncrewed craft, although the first visiting craftSoyuz 25and laterSoyuz 33failed to dock with the station.
From 1977-1981, the station was occupied by human crews during six separate, discontinuous intervals, each coterminous with the presence of a resident crew who were first-in, last-out while support crew visited. Between each of these intervals Salyut 6 was vacant, although it was visited bySoyuz T-1andKosmos 1267during its periods of vacancy. Following the launch of successorSalyut 7,Salyut 6 was de-orbited on 29 July 1982, almost five years after its own launch.[21][22]Salyut 7 (DOS-6)[edit]
Salyut 7(Russian:Салют-7;English:Salute 7) (a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station[23]) was aspace stationinlow Earth orbitfrom April 1982 to February 1991.[23]It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew viaSoyuz T-5,and last visited in June 1986, bySoyuz T-15.[23]Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.[23]Supporting spacecraft included theSoyuz T,Progress,andTKSspacecraft.[23]
It was part of theSovietSalyut programme, and launched on 19 April 1982 on aProton rocketfromSite 200/40at theBaikonur Cosmodromein theSoviet Union.Salyut 7 was part of the transition from monolithic to modular space stations, acting as a testbed for docking of additional modules and expanded station operations. It was the eighth space station of any kind launched. Salyut 7 was the last of both the second generation of DOS-series space stations and of the monolithic Salyut Program overall, to be replaced byMir,the modular, expandable, third generation.Salyut's heritage – modular space stations[edit]
After the second generation, plans for the next generation of Salyut stations called for the coresDOS-7andDOS-8to allow, for the first time in spaceflight, the addition of several modules to a station core and to create a modular space station. For this, the DOS modules were to be equipped with a total of four docking ports: one docking port at the aft of the station as in the second generation Salyuts, and the replacement of the front docking port with a "docking sphere" containing a front port and starboard docking port.[24]
While the station cores DOS-7 and DOS-8 were built and flown, they never received the Salyut designation. Instead, DOS-7 evolved into theMir Core Modulefor theMirspace station that followed the Salyut programme, and DOS-8 was used as theZvezdaService Modulefor theInternational Space Station(ISS) which followedMir.
The heritage from the Almaz programme is present even today. While the last space station from the Almaz programme was flown as Salyut 5 in 1976, the development of the AlmazTKS spacecraftevolved into theFunctional Cargo Block,which formed the basis for severalMirmodules, the experimentalPolyus orbital weapons platformand theZaryamodule of the ISS.[1]
Mir Core Module (DOS-7)[edit]
DOS-7continued to be developed during Salyut 7, becoming the Mir Core Module of theMirspace station – the first modular space station, with crewed operations lasting from 1986 to 2000. The station featured upgraded computers and solar arrays, and accommodations for two cosmonauts each having their own cabin. A total of six docking ports were available on the Mir Core Module, which were used for space station modules and visiting spacecraft – the docking sphere design had been upgraded from its initial Salyut design to contain a maximum of five docking ports (front, port, starboard, zenith and nadir). And finally, the modules forMirwere derived from the Functional Cargo Block design of the Almaz programme.
The name of theMirspace station –Russian:Мир,literallyPeaceorWorld– was to signify the intentions of the Soviet Union to bring peace to the world. However, it was during the time ofMirthat theSoviet Union was dissolvedin December 1991, ending what was begun with the 1917October Revolutionin Russia. This dissolution had started with the Soviet "perestroikaandglasnost"(" restructuring and openness ") reform campaigns by Soviet leaderMikhail Gorbachevin the 1980s, had reached a preliminary endpoint with therevolutions of 1989and the end of the communistEastern Bloc(Warsaw Pactand theComecon), finally to reach the Soviet Union itself in 1991.[1]
While the Russian Federation became the successor to much of the dissolvedSoviet Unionand was in a position to continue theSoviet space programwith theRussian Federal Space Agency,it faced severe difficulties: imports and exports had steeply declined as the economic exchange withComeconnations had crumbled away, leaving the industry of the former Soviet Union in shambles. Not only did the political change in eastern Europe signify an end of contributions to the space programme by eastern European nations (such as theEast GermanCarl Zeiss Jena), but parts of the Soviet space industry were located in the newly independentUkraine,which was similarly cash-strapped asRussiaand started to demandhard currencyfor its contributions.
It was during this time of transition and upheaval that theShuttle–Mir programwas established between theRussian Federationand theUnited Statesin 1993. The former adversaries would now cooperate, with "Phase One" consisting of joint missions and flights of the United StatesSpace Shuttleto theMir space station.It was a partnership with stark contrasts – Russia needed an inflow of hard currency to keep their space programme aloft, while in the United States it was seen as a chance to learn from the over 20 years of experience of Soviet space station operations. It was "Phase Two" of this Shuttle–Mir program that would lead to theInternational Space Station.[25]
ZvezdaISS Service Module (DOS-8)[edit]
DOS-8evolved into theMir-2project, intended to replaceMir.Finally, it became the International Space Station (ISS)ZvezdaService Moduleand formed the core of the early ISS together with theZaryamodule (which was derived from Almaz Functional Cargo Block designs).
Data table[edit]
The first generation of Salyut stations received few craft for rendezvous and docking. By contrast the programme's second generation stations, Salyut 6 and Salyut 7, received multiple crewed and uncrewed craft for rendezvous, docking attempts (whether successful or not), human habitation, crew transfer, and supply. The table counts craft which achieved rendezvous with their targets as visiting craft, regardless of whether they docked successfully.
| Space station |
Core module |
Launched | Reentered | Days in orbit |
Days occupied |
All crew and visitors (total) |
Visiting crewed spacecraft |
Visiting uncrewed spacecraft |
Mass kg |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Salyut 1 | DOS-1 | 19 April 1971 01:40:00 UTC |
11 October 1971 |
175 | 23 | 3 | 2 | - | 18,500 |
| - | DOS-2 | 29 July 1972 | 29 July 1972 | - | - | - | - | - | 18,500 |
| Salyut 2 | OPS-1 (military) | 4 April 1973 09:00:00 UTC |
28 May 1973 |
54 | - | - | - | - | 18,500 |
| - (Kosmos 557) |
DOS-3 | 11 May 1973 00:20:00 UTC |
22 May 1973 |
11 | - | - | - | - | 19,400 |
| Salyut 3 | OPS-2 (military) | 25 June 1974 22:38:00 UTC |
24 January 1975 |
213 | 15 | 2 | 2 | - | 18,500 |
| Salyut 4 | DOS-4 | 26 December 1974 04:15:00 UTC |
3 February 1977 |
770 | 92 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 18,500 |
| Salyut 5 | OPS-3 (military) | 22 June 1976 18:04:00 UTC |
8 August 1977 |
412 | 67 | 4 | 3 | - | 19,000 |
| Salyut 6 | DOS-5 | 29 September 1977 06:50:00 UTC |
29 July 1982 |
1764 | 683 | 33 | 18 | 15 | 19,824 |
| Salyut 7 | DOS-6 | 19 April 1982 19:45:00 UTC |
7 February 1991 |
3216 | 816 | 26 | 11 | 15 | 18,900 |
| For comparison, the DOS-7 and DOS-8 modules that were derived from the Salyut programme: | |||||||||
| Mir | DOS-7 Mir Core Module |
19 February 1986 | 23 March 2001 |
5511 | 4,592 | 104 | 39 | 64 | 20,400 |
| ISS | DOS-8 Zvezda ISS Service Module[26] |
12 July 2000 |
Still in orbit | 8,723 | 7,500 | 215 | 85 (ROSand USOS) |
65 (ROSand USOS) |
19,051 |
See also[edit]
- List of human spaceflights to Salyut space stations
- List of Salyut expeditions
- List of Salyut visitors
- List of Salyut spacewalks
- List of uncrewed spaceflights to Salyut space stations
References[edit]
- ^abcdeGrujica S. Ivanovich (22 October 2008).Salyut - The First Space Station: Triumph and Tragedy.Springer Science & Business Media.ISBN978-0-387-73973-1.
- ^"Russianspaceweb – The Almaz programme".
- ^abSven Grahn."Salyut 1, its origin".
- ^abc"Encyclopedia Astronautica – Salyut".Archived fromthe originalon 2 June 2002.
- ^Payson, Dmitri (1 June 1993).We will Build a Space Station for a Piece of Bread(Translated in JPRS Report, Science & Technology, Central Eurasia: Space, June 28, 1993 (JPRSUSP-93-003) ed.). Rossiskiye Vesti. p. 67.
- ^Chertok, Boris E. (2011). Siddiqi, Asif A. (ed.).Rockets and People(PDF).NASA History Series. Vol. 4. NASA. p. 306.ISBN978-0-16-089559-3.SP-2011-4110.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^Chladek, Jay (2017).Outposts on the Frontier: A Fifty-Year History of Space Stations.University of Nebraska Press. pp. 85–86.ISBN978-0-8032-2292-2.
- ^Ivanovich, Grujica S. (2008).Salyut - The First Space Station: Triumph and Tragedy.Springer Science+Business Media. p. 56.ISBN978-0-387-73585-6.
- ^abPortree, David (March 1995)."Mir Hardware Heritage"(PDF).NASA. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 7 September 2009.Retrieved24 August2012.This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.
- ^"Central Intelligence Bulletin: USSR 29 Jul 72, 7"(PDF).CIA. 1972.
- ^"Central Intelligence Bulletin: USSR 29 Jul 72, 8"(PDF).CIA. 1972.
- ^abcGrujica S. Ivanovich (2008).Salyut: The First Space Station.Springer-Praxis.ISBN978-0-387-73585-6.
- ^Anatoly Zak."OPS-2 (Salyut-3)".RussianSpaceWeb.
- ^abPortree (1995).
- ^Hall and Shayer (2003).
- ^Zimmerman (2003).
- ^Bond (2002).
- ^"Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A".NASA.
- ^Anatoly Zak. "OPS-2 (Salyut-3)". RussianSpaceWeb.
- ^Giuseppe De Chiara; Michael H. Gorn (2018).Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space.Minneapolis: Quarto/Voyageur. pp. 132–135.ISBN978-0-760-35418-6.
- ^Cite error: The named reference
Salyut 6 SSSMwas invoked but never defined (see thehelp page). - ^Philip Baker (1 June 2007).The Story of Manned Space Stations.New York: Springer-Praxis.ISBN978-0-387-30775-6.
- ^abcdeCite error: The named reference
Salyut 7 portree1was invoked but never defined (see thehelp page). - ^"Mir".astronautix.Archived fromthe originalon 20 August 2016.Retrieved19 November2020.
- ^David Shayler (3 June 2004).Walking in Space.Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 291–.ISBN978-1-85233-710-0.
- ^All data forZvezda(DOS-8) as of 18 May 2021[update].
External links[edit]
- Bluth, B. J.; Helppie, Martha (August 1986).Soviet Space Stations as Analogs(PDF)(2nd ed.). California State University. NASA CR-180920; N87-21996.
- Portree, David S. F. (March 1995).Mir Hardware Heritage(PDF).NASA. NASA RP-1357. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 19 April 2003.
- "Diaries of the Salyut missions"at Zarya.info
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