Samanid Empire

Samanid Empire سامانیان
819–999
Extent of the Samanid realm at the death ofNasr IIin 943
Capital	Samarkand(819–892) Bukhara(892–999)
Common languages	Persian(lingua franca,court, academia, literary), Arabic(theology, bureaucracy)
Religion	Sunni Islam(minorityShia Islam,Nestorianism,Zoroastrianism)
Government	Hereditary monarchy
Amir (Emir)
• 819–864/5	Ahmad ibn Asad
• 999	'Abd al-Malik II
Historical era	Middle Ages
• Established	819
• Disestablished	999
Area
928 est.	2,850,000 km2(1,100,000 sq mi)
Preceded by Succeeded by Saffarid dynasty Abbasid Caliphate Alid dynasties of northern Iran Banijurids Bukhar Khudahs Principality of Ushrusana Principality of Farghana Sogdia Ghaznavid dynasty Karakhanids Banu Ilyas Farighunids Muhtajids Buyid dynasty

TheSamanid Empire(Persian:سامانیان,romanized:Sāmāniyān), also known as theSamanian Empire,Samanid dynasty,Samanid amirate,or simply as theSamanids,was aPersianateSunni Muslimempire, ofIraniandehqanorigin. The empire was centred inKhorasanandTransoxiana;at its greatest extent encompassing northeasternIranandCentral Asia,from 819 to 999.

Four brothers—Nuh,Ahmad,Yahya,andIlyas—founded the Samanid state. Each of them ruled territories under Abbasid suzerainty. In 892,Ismail Samani(892–907) united the Samanid state under one ruler, thus effectively putting an end to thefeudalsystem used by the Samanids. It was also under him that the Samanids became independent ofAbbasidauthority. However, by 945, the government was under the de facto control of the Turkic military slave faction, and the Samanid family's authority had become purely symbolic.

The Samanid Empire is part of theIranian Intermezzo,which saw the creation of aPersianateculture and identity that brought Iranian speech and traditions into the fold of theIslamic world.This later contributed to the formation of theTurko-Persianculture.

The Samanids promoted the arts, giving rise to the advancement of science and literature, and thus attracted scholars such asRudaki,Ferdowsi,andAvicenna.While under Samanid control,Bukharawas a rival toBaghdadin its glory.Scholars note that the Samanids revivedPersian languageand culture more than theBuyidsand theSaffaridswhile continuing to useArabicfor sciences as well as religious studies. They considered themselves to be descendants of theSasanian Empire.In a famous edict, Samanid authorities declared that "here, in this region, the language isPersian,and the kings of this realm are Persian kings. "

History

Origins

Early 14th century copy of the Samanid-periodTarikhnamaofBal'ami(d. 992–997 CE) depictingal-Saffah(r.750–754) as he receivespledges of allegianceinKufa.This is the earliest known extant prose book in the Persian language.

The Samanid dynasty was founded bySaman Khuda,his descendants became rulers of the Samanid Empire. He was adehqanof Iranian origin from the village of Saman inBalkh province,in present-day northernAfghanistan.The earliest appearance of the Samanid family appears to be inGreater Khorasanrather thanTransoxiana.In some sources, the Samanids claimed to be descended from theHouse of MihranofBahram Chobin.It has been claimed that the House of Saman belonged to theOghuz Turks,although the veracity is unlikely.Originally aZoroastrian,Saman Khuda converted toIslamduring the governorship ofAsad ibn Abdallah al-QasriinKhorasan,and named his oldest son asAsad ibn Samanin the governor's honour.In 819, the governor of Greater Khorasan, Ghassan ibn Abbad, rewarded the four sons of Asad ibn Saman for their aid against the rebelRafi ibn al-Layth.Nuh ibn AsadreceivedSamarkand;Ahmad ibn AsadreceivedFarghana;Yahya ibn AsadreceivedTashkent,andIlyas ibn AsadreceivedHerat.

Rise

The Samanids in Herat (819–857)

Further information:Anarchy at SamarraandFifth Fitna

Ilyas died in 856, and his sonIbrahim ibn Ilyasbecame his successor. TheTahiridgovernor of Khorasan,Muhammad ibn Tahir,subsequently appointed him as the commander of his army, and sent him on an expedition against theSaffaridrulerYa'qub ibn al-Layth al-SaffarinSistan.After facing defeat in battle nearPushangin 857, he fled toNishapur,only to be captured by Ya'qub al-Saffar and sent to Sistan as a hostage.

The Samanid dynasty in Transoxiana (819–892)

See also:Samanid Civil War of 888

Map ofKhorasanandTransoxiana.

In 839/40, Nuh seizedIsfijabfrom the nomadicpaganTurksliving in thesteppe.Consequently, he had a wall constructed around the city to protect it from their attacks. He died in 841/2—his two brothers Yahya and Ahmad, were then appointed as the joint rulers of the city by the Tahirid governor of Khorasan.After Yahya died in 855, Ahmad took control over Châch, thus becoming the ruler of most ofTransoxiana.He died in 864/5; his sonNasr Ireceived Farghana and Samarkand, while his other son Ya'qub received Châch (areas around modern Tashkent/Chachkent).

Meanwhile, the Tahirids' authority had significantly weakened after suffering several defeats to Saffarid ruler Ya'qub al-Saffar. Hence, causing the Tahirids to lose their grip over the Samanids, who became more or less independent. Nasr I, used this opportunity to strengthen his authority by sending his brotherIsmailtoBukhara,which was in an unstable condition after suffering from raids by theAfrighid dynastyofKhwarazm.When Ismail reached the city, he was warmly received by its inhabitants, who saw him as one who could restore order.

After not so long, disagreement over where to distribute tax money caused a conflict between the brothers. Ismail was eventually victorious in the dynastic struggle and took control of the Samanid state. However, Nasr had been the one who had been invested with Transoxiana, and the Abbasidcaliphscontinued to recognize him as the rightful ruler.Because of this, Ismail continued to recognize his brother as well, but Nasr was completely powerless, a situation that would continue until his death in August 892.

Final unification and height of power (892–907)

Picture of theSamanid Mausoleum,the burial site ofIsmail Samani.

Following Nasr's death, Ismail moved the capital of the Samanid dynasty from Samarkand to Bukhara.A few months later the Saffarid emir, Ya'qub al-Saffar, also died and was succeeded by his brotherAmr ibn al-Layth,who saw himself as the heir of the Saffarids.In the spring of 900, Amrclashedwith Ismail nearBalkh,but was defeated and taken into captivity.Ismail thereafter sent him to Baghdad, where he was executed.Ismail was thereafter recognized as the ruler of all of Khorasan and Transoxiana by the caliph.Furthermore, he also received the investiture overTabaristan,RayandIsfahan.It was also during this period that the Afrighid dynasty was forced into submission.

Before Ismail Samani's major victory against the Saffarids, he had made various expeditions in Transoxiana; in 892, he put an end to thePrincipality of Ushrusanaby seizing all of its lands. During the same period, he put an end to the Bukhar Khudas in Bukhara. In 893,Ismail Samaniinvaded the territories of theKarluk Turks,takingTalasand converting theNestorian churchthere into amosque.The same year, he conducted a campaign to gather slaves, taking ten to fifteen thousand captives. TheSamanid slave tradewas the main trade income of the Samanid Empire, forming the base of economy of the state.

In 900, Ismail sent an army under Muhammad ibn Harun al-Sarakhsi againstMuhammad ibn Zayd,theZaydiruler of Tabaristan andGorgan.The invasion was successful; Muhammad ibn Zayd was killed and Tabaristan was conquered by the Samanids. However, Muhammad ibn Harun shortly revolted, forcing Ismail himself to invade the region the following year. Muhammad ibn Harun thereafter fled toDaylam,while Ismail reconquered Tabaristan and Gorgan.In 901,Amr Saffariwas defeated at the battle of Balkh by the Samanids, which reduced the Saffarid dynasty to a minor tributary in Sistan.It was during this period that the Samanids were at their height of power, ruling as far asQazvinin the westandPeshawarin the east.

Ismail is known in history as a competent general and a strong ruler; many stories about him are written in Arabic and Persian sources. Furthermore, because of his campaigns in the north, his empire was so safe from enemy incursions that the defences of Bukhara and Samarkand went unused. However, this later had consequences; at the end of the dynasty, the walls—earlier strong, but now falling apart—were greatly missed by the Samanids, who were constantly under attack by theKarakhanidsand other enemies.

Ismail died in November 907, and was succeeded by his sonAhmad Samani(r. 907–914).

Intermediate period (907–961)

KARAKHANID
KHANATE

900

Cumans

KIEVAN
RUS'

Pechenegs

Kimeks

Khitans

YENESEI KYRGYZ KHAGANATE

QOCHO

KHOTAN

SAFFARIDS

SAMANIDS

SRIVIJAYA

GURJARA-
PRATIHARAS

RASHTRA-
KUTAS

MULTAN

ABBASID
CALIPHATE

PALA
EMPIRE

OGHUZ
YABGUS

TANG
DYNASTY

PAGAN

DVARAVATI

NAN-
ZHAO

KHMER

BYZANTINE
EMPIRE

SILLA

HINDU
SHAHIS

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The Samanids and main Asian politiesc. 900

Not long after his accession, Ahmad invaded Sistan; by 911, Sistan was under complete Samanid control, and Ahmad's cousinAbu Salih Mansurwas appointed as its governor. Meanwhile, anAlidnamedHasan al-Utrushwas slowly re-establishing Zaydi over Tabaristan. In 913, Ahmad sent an army under Muhammad ibn Sa'luk to deal with him. Although the Samanid army was much larger, Hasan managed to emerge victorious. Ahmad, before he could plan another expedition to Tabaristan, was the following year murdered by some of his slaves in a tent near Bukhara.During his reign, Ahmad is also said to have replaced the language of the court from Persian toArabic,which made him unpopular among his subjects, and forced him to change it back to Persian. After Ahmad's death, his eight-year-old sonNasr II(r. 914–943) succeeded him.

Coin ofNasr II,minted inNishapur(933/4).

Due to Nasr's youth, his prime ministerAbu 'Abd-Allah al-Jaihanitook care over most of the state affairs. Jaihani was not only an experienced administrator, but also a prominent geographer and greatly educated man. Almost right after Nasr II had ascended the throne, several revolts erupted, the most dangerous one being under his paternal grand-uncle, Ishaq ibn Ahmad, who seized Samarkand and began minting coins there, while his son Abu Salih Mansur seizedNishapurand several cities in Khorasan. Ishaq was eventually defeated and captured, while Abu Salih Mansur died of natural causes in 915.Some time later Nasr II once again had to deal with rebels; in 919, the governor of Khorasan, Husayn ibn Ali Marvarrudhi, rebelled against Samanid authority. Nasr responded by sending an army underAhmad ibn Sahlto suppress the rebellion, which the latter managed to accomplish. After a few weeks, however, Ahmad shortly rebelled himself at Nishapur, made incursions into Gorgan, and then fortified himself inMervto avoid a Samanid counter-attack. Nevertheless, the Samanid general Hamuya ibn Ali managed to lure Ahmad out of Merv, and defeated him in a battle atMarw al-Rudh;he was captured and imprisoned in Bukhara, where he remained until his death in 920.

In the west, Nasr II clashed several times withDaylamiteandGiliterulers; In 921, the Zaydids under the Gilite rulerLili ibn al-Nu'maninvaded Khorasan, but were defeated by theSimjuridgeneralSimjur al-Dawati.Later in 930, a Dailamite military leader,Makan ibn Kaki,seized Tabaristan and Gurgan, and even took possession of Nishapur in western Khorasan. He was, however, forced to withdraw back to Tabaristan one year later, due to the threat that Samanids posed.Makan then returned to Tabaristan, where he was defeated by theZiyaridrulerMardavij,who managed to conquer the region.In 935, Nasr II re-established Samanid control in Gurgan and made Mardavij's successorVushmgirhis vassal. However, in 939 he declared independence, but was defeated the following year atIskhabad.

In 943 several Samanid army officers, angry at Nasr's support ofIsma'ilimissionaries, formed a conspiracy to murder him. Nasr's sonNuh I,however, learned of the conspiracy. He went to a banquet designed to organize the plot and had the head of their leader cut off. To appease the other officers, he promised to stop the Isma'ili missionaries from continuing their activities. He then convinced his father to abdicate, who died oftuberculosisafter a few months.

Right when Nuh I ascended the throne, a revolt erupted in Khwarazm, which he managed to suppress. Later in 945, he had to deal with theMuhtajidrulerAbu 'Ali Chaghani,who refused to relinquish his post as governor of Khorasan toIbrahim ibn Simjur.Abu 'Ali Chaghani then rebelled, and was joined by several prominent figures such asAbu Mansur Muhammad,whom he appointed as his commander-in-chief. In 947, he installed Nuh's uncleIbrahim ibn Ahmadasamirin Bukhara. Abu 'Ali Chaghani then returned to his domains inChaghaniyan.Ibrahim, however, was unpopular with the people of Bukhara, and Nuh soon retaliated by retaking the city and blinding Ibrahim and two brothers.

When Abu Ali Chaghani received the news of the re-capture of Bukhara, he once again marched towards it, but was defeated by an army sent by Nuh and withdrew back to Chaghaniyan. After some time, he left the region and tried to obtain support from other Samanid vassals. Meanwhile, Nuh had Chaghaniyan ravagedand its capital sacked.Another battle shortly ensued between Abu 'Ali Chaghani and a Samanid army inTukharistan,which resulted in a Samanid victory. Fortunately for Abu Ali Chaghani, he managed to secure the support of other Samanid vassals, such as the rulers ofKhuttal,and the Kumijimountain people,but in the end made peace with Nuh, who allowed him to keep Chaghaniyan in return for sending his son Abu'l Muzaffar Abdallah as hostage to Bukhara.

Iranin the mid-10th century.

By 945, the Turkic military slave faction (who were formerly recruited by the Samanid rulers in positions of governance) were fully in charge of the government. By this time, the Samanid family only held nominal power; similar to how theBuyidsheld de facto power over theAbbasid Caliphatearound the same time.

Alp Tigin,nominal vassal of the Samanids, conquered Ghazna in 962 from the Lawik dynasty.The fifth of these commanders was Sebüktigin, who governed Ḡazna for twenty years till 387 AH/997 CE with the title (as it appears from his tomb inscription) of al-ḥājeb al-ajall (most noble commander). He would later be the founder of an independent dynasty based in Ghazna, following the decline of the Samanid Empire in the 990s.

Decline and fall (961–999)

The power of the Samanids began to crumble in the latter half of the 10th century. In 962, one of theghulams,Alp Tigin,commander of the army in Khorasan, seizedGhaznaand established himself there.His successors, however, includingSebük Tigin,continued to rule as Samanid "governors". With the weakened Samanids facing rising challenges from theKarakhanidsfor control ofTransoxiana,Sebük later took control of all the provinces south of the Oxus and established theGhaznavid Empire.

In 992, aKarakhanid,Harun Bughra Khan, grandson of the paramount tribal chief of theKarlukconfederationSultan Satuq Bughra Khan,capturedBukhara,the Samanid capital.Harun died shortly afterwards, however, and the Samanids returned to Bukhara. In 999, Nasr b. Ali, a nephew of Harun, returned and took possession of Bukhara, meeting little resistance. The Samanid domains were split up between theGhaznavids,who gainedKhorasanandAfghanistan,and theKarakhanids,who receivedTransoxiana;theOxus Riverthus became the boundary between the two rival empires.

Isma'il Muntasir's attempt to resurrect the Samanid state (1000–1005)

“Battle Between Abu’l-Qasim and the Samanid Muntasir”, 14th century illustration.

Isma'il Muntasirwas the youngest son of Nuh II—he was imprisoned by the Karakhanids after their conquest of Bukhara in 999. Some time later, Isma'il managed to escape to Khwarazm, where he gained support. Driving the Karakhanids out of Bukhara, he then moved on to and captured Samarkand. The approach of the Karakhanid army, however, forced Isma'il to give up all of his possessions, following which he travelled to Khorasan, where he captured Nishapur. Mahmud's army, however, made its way to the region, and Isma'il decided it necessary to flee again.

In 1003 Isma'il came back to Transoxiana, where he requested and received assistance from the Oghuz Turks of theZarafshanvalley. They defeated the Karakhanids in several battles, even when Nasr Khan was involved. For various reasons, however, Isma'il came to feel that he could not rely on the Oghuz to restore him, so he went back to Khorasan. He tried to gain Mahmud's support for a campaign to restore the Samanid state, but failed. Some time afterwards, he returned to the Zarafshan valley, where he gained the support of the Oghuz and others. A Karakhanid army was defeated in May 1004, but subsequently the Oghuz deserted Isma'il during another battle, and his army fell apart.

Fleeing to Khorasan yet again, Isma'il attempted to reenter Transoxiana in the end of 1004. The Karakhanids stopped this and Isma'il was nearly killed. Following this, he sought the hospitality of anArabtribe nearMerv.Their chief, however, killed Isma'il in 1005. His death marked the defeat of the last attempt to restore the Samanid state. Descendants of the Samanid family continued to live in Transoxiana where they were well regarded, but their power was relatively broken.

Iranian intermezzo

Along with several other states, the Samanid Empire was part of theIranian Intermezzo,or "Persian renaissance". This period has been described as having a key importance in the formation of the Islamic civilization, both politically and culturally. In political terms, it saw an effective break up of theAbbasid powerand the rise of several successor states such as the Samanids and Buyids while in cultural terms, it witnessed the rise of new Persian as an administrative and literary language.

Culture

Government

Silver medallion of the Samanid rulerMansur Iwith bilingual Middle Persian and Arabic minted inBukhara.
Obversein Middle Persian:khvarrah apzut shahanshah"theKing of Kingshas increased the royal splendor "
Reversein Arabic:la ilaha illa allah wahdahu la sharik lahu muhammad rasul allah al-muti' lillah al-malik al-muzaffar mansur bin nuh "There is no god butAllah,the One, there is no partner to Him,Muhammadis the messenger of Allah,al-Muti' lillah,the victorious king, Mansur son ofNuh.

The system of the Samanid state was modelled after the Abbasid system,which in turn was modelled after the Sasanian system.The ruler of the state was theamir,and the provinces were governed by appointed governors or localvassalrulers.The administrative, political and economic affairs were administered by thedivan,and the Samanid bureaucracy used Arabic in its diplomatic discourses.The economy was managed by themustawfi,diplomatic correspondence and important state papers by thediwanal-rasa'il,and the royal guard and military affairs by thesahib al-shurta.The main responsibility of both governors and local rulers was to collect taxes and support the Samanid ruler with troops if needed. The most important province in the Samanid Empire was Khorasan, which was initially given to a relative of the Samanid ruler or a local Iranian prince (such as theMuhtajids), but was later given to one of his most trusted slaves. The governor of Khorasan was normally thesipah-salar(commander-in-chief).

Like in the Abbasid Caliphate, Turkic slaves could rise to high office in the Samanid state, which would sometimes give them enough power to nearly make the ruler their puppet.

Cultural and religious efforts

Great decorated panel from a Samanid residential complex, 9th-10th century,Afrasiab,Samarkand.

The Samanids revivedPersian cultureby patronizingRudaki,Bal'amiandDaqiqi.The Samanids determinedly propagatedSunni Islam,and repressedIsmailiShiismbut were more tolerant ofTwelverShiism.Islamic architecture and Islamo-Persian culture was spread deep into the heartlands ofCentral Asiaby the Samanids. Following the first complete translation of theQur'anintoPersianin the 9th century, populations under the Samanid empire began acceptingIslamin significant numbers.The arabization of the Samanids was clearly minimal compared to the almost entirely arabized Tahirids.Despite Arabic literature and science flourishing in the Samanid Empire, its distance from Baghdad allowed the Samanids to be a crucial element in the renaissance of New Persian language and culture.This Persianate culture variant was the first to use a language besides Arabic in Islamic culture.

Although theZoroastrianpopulation had previously been suppressed by the Abbasid Caliphate,according to Al-Masudi, the Samanid empirestill had fire-temples that were still being venerated by the present Zoroastrian population.Despite the fact that the Samanids professedSunni Islam,however, they were much more tolerant towards its Zoroastrian population than the previous empires.

Through zealous missionary work as many as 30,000 tents ofTurkscame to profess Islam and later under the Ghaznavids more than 55,000 under theHanafischool of thought. The mass conversion of the Turks to Islam eventually led to a growing influence of theGhaznavids,who would later rule the region.

UnderNuh II,a Hanafi work, which was being used to contest Ismailism, was translated into Persian.

Agriculture and trading were the economic bases of the Samanid State. The Samanids heavily engaged in trade withEurope.Thousands of Samanid coins have been found in theBalticandScandinavia.

Literature

Early 14th century copy of the Samanid-periodTarikhnamaofBal'ami,withPersian miniaturedepicting the arrow of old Wahraz killingMasruq,the Ethiopian king of Yemen.

Early 14th century copy of the Samanid-periodTarikhnamaofBal'ami,withPersian miniaturedepictingAlexanderenthroned receives the coffin of Dara.

During the 9th and 10th centuries, there was a large amount of growth in literature, mostly in poetry. It was during the Samanid period thatPersian literatureappeared in Transoxiana and was formally recognized.The advancement of an Islamic New Persian literature thus started in Transoxiana and Khorasan instead ofFars,the homeland of the Persians. The best known poets of the Samanid period wereRudaki(d. 941),Daqiqi(d. 977) andFerdowsi(d. 1020).

Although Persian was the most-favored language,Arabiccontinued to enjoy a high status and was still popular among the members of the Samanid family.For example,al-Tha'alibiwrote an Arabic anthology namedYatimat al-Dahr( "The Unique Pearl" ). The fourth section of the anthology included a detailed account of the poets that lived under the Samanids. It also states that the poets of Khwarazm mostly wrote in Arabic.

The acknowledged founder of Persian classical poetry, and a man of great perception, was Rudaki, who was born in the village ofPanjrudak,which is today part of thePanjakent DistrictinTajikistan.Rudaki was already becoming popular during his early years, due to his poems, his voice, and his great skill in using thechang(an Iranian instrument similar to theharp). He was shortly invited to the Samanid court, where he stayed almost the rest of his life. Fewer than 2,000 lines of his poetry have survived, but are enough to prove his great poetic skills—he perfected every basic verse form of medieval Persian poetry: mathnawi,qasida,ghazalandruba'i.

"Look at the cloud, how it cries like a grieving man

Thunder moans like a lover with a broken heart.

Now and then the sun peeks from behind the clouds

Like a prisoner hiding from the guard. "– Rudaki

Another prominent poet wasShahid Balkhi,born in the village of Jakhudanak near Balkh. Not much is known about his life, but he is mentioned as being one of the best poets in the court of Nasr II, and one of the best scholars of the age. He was also a student of Rudaki, and had close relations with him. He died in 936, a few years before Rudaki's death. His death saddened Rudaki, who afterwards wrote an emotionalelegyabout him.

Daqiqi, who was a native ofTus,began his career at the court of theMuhtajidruler Abu'l Muzaffar ibn Muhammad inChaghaniyan,and was later invited to the Samanid court.Under the Samanids, a special interest arose in ancient Iranian legends and heroic traditions, thus inspiring Daqiqi to write theShahnameh( "The Book of Kings" ), a longepic poembased on the history of the Iranians. However, by his death in 977, he had only managed to complete a small part of it, which was about the conflict betweenGushtaspandArjasp.

However, the most prominent poet of that age was Ferdowsi, born in Tus in 940 to adehqanfamily. It was during his youth that there was a period of growth under the Samanids. The rapid growth of interest in ancient Iranian history made him continue the work of Daqiqi, completing the Shahnameh in 994, only a few years before the fall of the Samanid Empire. He later completed a second version of the Shahnameh in 1010, which he presented to the Ghaznavid Sultan Mahmud. However, his work was not as appreciated by the Ghaznavids as it had been by the Samanids.

Population

Under the Samanid Empire, theZarafshanvalley,Kashka DaryaandUsrushanawere populated bySogdians;Tukharistanby the Bactrians;Khwarezmby the Khwarazmians; theFerghana valleyby the Ferghanans; southernKhorasanby Khorasanians; and thePamir mountainsand environs by theSakaand other early Iranian peoples. All these groups were of Iranian ethnicity and spoke dialects ofMiddle IranianandNew Persian.In the words of Negmatov, "they were the basis for the emergence and gradual consolidation of what became an Eastern Persian-Tajik ethnic identity."

Language

Ferghana, Samarkand, and Bukhara were starting to be linguisticallyPersianizedin originally Khwarazmian and Sogdian areas during Samanid rule.The Persian language spread and led to the extinction of Eastern Iranian languages likeBactrianandKhwarezmianwith only a tiny amount ofSogdian-descendedYaghnobispeakers remaining among the now Persian-speaking Tajik population of Central Asia. This was due to the fact that the Arab-Islamic army which invaded Central Asia at the time also included some Persians who later governed the region like the Samanids.Persian was rooted into Central Asia by the Samanids.

Intellectual life

In the 9th and 10th centuries, intellectual life in Transoxiana and Khorasan reached a high level. In the words of N.N. Negmatov, "It was inevitable that the local Samanid dynasty, seeking support among its literate classes, should cultivate and promote local cultural traditions, literacy and literature."

The main Samanid towns –Bukhara,Samarkand,Balkh,Merv,Nishapur,Khujand,Bunjikath,Hulbuk,Termezand others, became the major cultural centres under the state. Scholars, poets, artists and other men of education from many Muslim countries assembled in the Samanid capital of Bukhara, where a rich soil was created for the prosper of creative thought, thus making it one of the most distinguished cultural centres of the Eastern world. An outstanding library known asSiwān al-Hikma( "Storehouse of Wisdom" ) was put together in Bukhara, known for its various types of books.

Arts

Due to extensive excavations atNishapur,Iran, in the mid-twentieth century, Samanid pottery is well-represented in Islamic art collections around the world. These ceramics are largely made fromearthenwareand feature either calligraphic inscriptions of Arabic proverbs, or colorful figural decorations.The Arabic proverbs often speak to the values of "Adab" culture—hospitality, generosity, and modesty.

• 
  Lute player. Samanid (orSeljuk)metal work,Khorezm,10th century. Islamic Art Museum (Museum für Islamische Kunst), Berlin.
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  "Simurghplatter ", Iran, Samanid dynasty. 9th-10th century. Islamic Art Museum (Museum für Islamische Kunst), Berlin.
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  Example of figural earthenware ceramics from Samanid period. FromNishapur,Iran,10th century CE.
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  Bowl with Arabic inscription "Planning before work protects you from regret; prosperity and peace", 10th century CE,Iran.

Legacy

In commending the Samanids, the epic Persian poetFerdowsisays of them:

کجا آن بزرگان ساسانیان
ز بهرامیان تا به سامانیان

"Where have all the greatSasaniansgone?
From theBahrāmidsto the Samanids what has come upon? "

A Bukharian historian writing in 943 stated thatIsmail Samani:

was indeed worthy and right forpadishahship.He was an intelligent, just, compassionate person, one possessing reason and prescience...he conducted affairs with justice and good ethics. Whoever tyrannized people he would punish...In affairs of state he was always impartial.

The celebrated scholarNizam al-Mulk,in his famous workSiyasatnama,stated that Ismail Samani:

was extremely just, and his good qualities were many. He had pure faith in God (to Him be power and glory) and he was generous to the poor – to name only one of his notable virtues.

TheSomonicurrency ofTajikistanis named after the Samanids. A notable airline based inDushanbeis also namedSomon Air.Also, the highest mountain in Tajikistan and in the formerSoviet Unionis named after Ismail Samani.The mountain was formerly known as "Stalin Peak" and "Communism Peak" but in 1998 the name was officially changed toIsmoil Somoni Peak.

Samanid rulers

Bukhara	Samarkand	Ferghana	Shash	Herat
	Saman Khuda Persian:سامان خدا (A Persian landowner from the village of Saman inBalkhprovince in northernAfghanistan,he arrived inMervto the court of theUmayyadgovernor of Khorasan,Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri,under whose influence he became a Muslim and served the governor till his death. He was the founder of the Samanid dynasty)
	Asad ibn Saman Persian:اسد بن سامان
	Nuh ibn Asad Persian:نوح بن اسد 819–841/2	Ahmad ibn Asad Persian:احمد بن اسد 819–864/5	Yahya ibn Asad Persian:یحییٰ بن اسد 819–855	Ilyas ibn Asad Persian:الیاس بن اسد 819–856
	Ahmad ibn Asad Persian:احمد بن اسد 819–864/5			Ibrahim ibn Ilyas Persian:ابراهیم بن الیاس 856–867
Abu Ibrahim Isma'il ibn Ahmad Persian:ابو ابراهیم اسماعیل بن احمد 892–907	Nasr I Persian:نصر بن احمد 864–892		Ya'qub ibn Ahmad Persian:یعقوب بن احمد ?	Saffarids
Abu Ibrahim Isma'il ibn Ahmad Persian:ابو ابراهیم اسماعیل بن احمد 892–907
Ahmad ibn Isma'il Persian:احمد بن اسماعیل 907–914
Nasr II Persian:ابوالحسن نصر بن احمد 914–943
Nuh I Persian:نوح بن نصر 943–954
Ibrahim ibn Ahmad Persian:ابراهیم بن احمد 947
Abd al-Malik ibn Nuh I Persian:عبدالملک بن نوح 954–961
Abu Salih Mansur ibn Nuh I Persian:ابو صالح منصور بن نوح 961–976
Nuh ibn Mansur Persian:نوح بن منصور 976–997
Abd al-Aziz Persian:عبدالعزیز 992
Abu'l-Harith Mansur ibn Nuh II Persian:ابو الحارث منصور بن نوح 997–999
Abd al-Malik ibn Nuh II Persian:عبدالمالک بن نوح 999
Isma'il Muntasiribn Nuh II Persian:اسماعیل منتصر بن نوح 1000 – 1005
?

See also

• Iranian Intermezzo
• List of kings of Iran
• List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
• Samanid Epigraphic Ware

Sources

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• Pourshariati, Parvenah (2011).Decline and Fall of the Sasanian Empire: The Sasanian-Parthian Confederacy and the Arab Conquest of Iran.I.B. Tauris.
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• de la Vaissière, Étienne (2005).Sogdian Traders: A History.Brill.

Further reading

• Schindel, Nikolaus (2017). "POLAND: The Sāmānid Hoard of Pepineg (?)/ Przemysl from the Year 1849".The Numismatic Chronicle.177:451–458.JSTOR26637395.