Sangam literature

Sculpture of the Ancient Tamil SiddharAgastyarwho is traditionally believed to have chaired the firstTamil SangaminMadurai

TheSangam literature(Tamil:சங்க இலக்கியம்,caṅka ilakkiyam), historically known as 'the poetry of the noble ones' (Tamil:சான்றோர் செய்யுள்,Cāṉṟōr ceyyuḷ),connotes the early classicalTamil literatureand is the earliest known literature ofSouth India.The Tamil tradition and legends link it tothree legendary literary gatheringsaroundMaduraiand Kapāṭapuram: the first lasted over 4,440 years, the second over 3,700 years, and the third over 1,850 years.Scholars consider this Tamil tradition-based chronology as ahistorical and mythical.Most scholars suggest the historical Sangam literature era, also called theSangam period,spanned fromc. 300 BCEto 300 CE,while others variously place this early classical Tamil literature period a bit later and more narrowly but all before 300 CE.According toKamil Zvelebil,a Tamil literature and history scholar, the most acceptable range for the Sangam literature is 100 BCE to 250 CE, based on the linguistic, prosodic and quasi-historic allusions within the texts and thecolophons.

The Sangam literature had fallen into oblivion for much of the second millennium of the common era, but were preserved by and rediscovered in themonasteriesofHinduism,nearKumbakonam,by colonial-era scholars in the late nineteenth century.The rediscovered Sangam classical collection is largely a bardic corpus. It comprises anUrtextof oldest surviving Tamil grammar (Tolkappiyam), the Ettuttokai anthology (the "Eight Collections" ), the Pathuppaattu anthology (the "Ten Songs" ).The Tamil literature that followed the Sangam period – that is, afterc. 250 CEbut beforec. 600 CE– is generally called the "post-Sangam" literature.

This collection contains 2381 poems inTamilcomposed by 473 poets, some 102 anonymous.Of these, 16 poets account for about 50% of the known Sangam literature,withKapilar– the most prolific poet – alone contributing just little less than 10% of the entire corpus.These poems vary between 3 and 782 lines long.The bardic poetry of the Sangam era is largely about love (akam) and war (puram), with the exception of the shorter poems such as inParipaatalwhich is more religious and praiseVishnuandMurugan.The Sangam literature also includesBuddhistandJainistepics.

Legendary Tamil Sangams

Main article:Tamil Sangams

Sangamliterally means "gathering, meeting, fraternity, academy". According to David Shulman, a scholar of Tamil language and literature, the Tamil tradition believes that the Sangam literature arose in distant antiquity over three periods, each stretching over many millennia.The first has roots in the Hindu deityShiva,his sonMurugan,Kuberaas well as 545 sages including the famedRigvedicpoetAgastya.The first academy, states the legend, extended over four millennia and was located far to the south of modern city of Madurai, a location later "swallowed up by the sea", states Shulman.The second academy, also chaired by a very long-lived Agastya, was near the eastern seaside Kapāṭapuram and lasted three millennia. This was swallowed by floods. From the second Sangam, states the legend, theAkattiyamand theTolkāppiyamsurvived and guided the third Sangam scholars.

A prose commentary by Nakkiranar – likely about the eighth century CE – describes this legend.The earliest known mention of the Sangam legend, however, appears inTirupputtur Tantakamby Appar in about the seventh century CE, while an extended version appears in the twelfth-centuryTiruvilaiyatal puranamby Perumparrap Nampi.The legend states that the third Sangam of 449 poet scholars worked over 1,850 years in northern Madurai (Pandyan kingdom). He lists six anthologies of Tamil poems (later a part ofEttuttokai):

• Netuntokai nanuru(400 long poems)
• Kuruntokai anuru(400 short poems)
• Narrinai(400 Tinai landscape poems)
• Purananuru(400 Outer poems)
• Ainkurunuru(500 very short poems)
• Patirruppattu(Ten Tens)

These claims of the Sangams and the description of sunken land massesKumari Kandamhave been dismissed as frivolous by historiographers. Noted historians like Kamil Zvelebil have stressed that the use of 'Sangam literature' to describe this corpus of literature is a misnomer andClassicalliterature should be used instead.According to Shulman, "there is not the slightest shred of evidence that any such [Sangam] literary academies ever existed", though there are many Pandya inscriptions that mention an academy of scholars. Of particular note, states Shulman, is the tenth-century CE Sinnamanur inscription that mentions a Pandyan king who sponsored the "translation of theMahabharatainto Tamil "and established a" Madhurapuri (Madurai) Sangam ".

According to Zvelebil, within the myth there is a kernel of reality, and all literary evidence leads one to conclude that "such an academy did exist in Madurai (Maturai) at the beginning of the Christian era". The homogeneity of the prosody, language and themes in these poems confirms that the Sangam literature was a community effort, a "group poetry".The Sangam literature is also referred sometimes with terms such ascaṅka ilakkiyamor "Sangam age poetry".

Historical Sangam period

South India in Sangam Period

InOld Tamil language,the termTamilakam(Tamiḻakam,Purananuru168. 18) referred to the whole of the ancient Tamil-speaking area,corresponding roughly to the area known assouthern Indiatoday, consisting of the territories of the present-day Indian states ofTamil Nadu,Kerala,parts ofAndhra PradeshandKarnataka.Sri Lankais distinguished from it and is known as Ilam orEelam,although also influenced by the Sangam Period.

In Indian history, the Sangam period or age (Tamil:சங்ககாலம்,caṅkakālam) is the period of the history of ancient Tamil Nadu and Kerala (then known asTamilakam), and parts of Sri Lanka fromc. 300 BCEto 300 CE.It was named after the literature of poets and scholars of the legendarySangam academiescentered in the city ofMadurai.

In the period between 300 BCE and 300 CE, Tamilakam was ruled by the three Tamil dynasties ofPandya,CholaandChera,and a few independent chieftains, theVelir.The evidence on the early history of the Tamil kingdoms consists of the epigraphs of the region, the Sangam literature, and archaeological data.

The fourfold Vedic system of caste hierarchy did not exist during the Sangam period. The society was organised by occupational groups living apart from each other.

Corpus

Ilango Adigalis the author ofSilappatikaram,one of thefive great epicsofTamil literature.

Main articles:Sources of ancient Tamil history,Sangam literature,The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature,andTamil history from Sangam literature

Authors

The Sangam literature was composed by 473 poets, some 102 anonymous.According to Nilakanta Sastri, the poets came from diverse backgrounds: some were from a royal family, some merchants, some farmers.At least 27 of the poets were women. These poets emerged, states Nilakanta Sastri, in a milieu where the Tamil society had already interacted and inseparably amalgamated with north Indians (Indo-Aryan) and both sides had shared mythology, values and literary conventions.

Compilations

Main article:Sangam landscape

The available literature from this period was categorised and compiled in the tenth century CE into two categories based roughly on chronology. The categories are thePatiṉeṇmēlkaṇakku( "Eighteen Greater Texts" ) comprisingEttuthogai(orEttuttokai,"Eight Anthologies" ) and thePattuppāṭṭu( "Ten Idylls" ) andPatiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku( "Eighteen Lesser Texts" ). According toTakanobu Takahashi,the compilation of Patiṉeṇmēlkaṇakku poems are as follows:

Ettuttokai

Name	Extant poems	Original poems	Lines in poems	Number of poets
Natrrinai	400	400	9–12	175
Kuruntokai	402	400	4–8	205
Ainkurunuru	499	500	3–6	5
Patirruppattu	86	10x10	varies	8
Paripatal	33	70	varies	13
Kalittokai	150	150	varies	5
Akananuru	401	400	12–31	145
Purananuru	398	400	varies	157

Pattuppattu

Name	Lines	Author
Tirumurukarruppatai	317	Nakkirar
Porunararruppatai	234	Mutattamakkanniyar
Cirupanarruppatai	296	Nattattanar
Perumpanarruppatai	500	Uruttirankannaiyar
Mullaippattu	103	Napputanar
Maturaikkanci	782	Mankuti Marutanar
Netunalvatai	188	Nakkirar
Kurincippattu	261	Kapilar
Pattinappalai	301	Uruttirankannanar
Malaipatukatam	583	Perunkaucikanar

The compilation of poems from Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku are as follows:

• Nālaṭiyār
• Nāṉmaṇikkaṭikai
• Iṉṉā Nāṟpatu
• Iṉiyavai Nāṟpatu
• Kār Nāṟpatu
• Kaḷavaḻi Nāṟpatu
• Aintiṇai Aimpatu
• Tiṉaimoḻi Aimpatu
• Aintinai Eḻupatu
• Tiṉaimalai Nūṟṟu Aimpatu
• Tirukkuṛaḷ
• Tirikaṭukam
• Ācārakkōvai
• Paḻamoḻi Nāṉūṟu
• Ciṟupañcamūlam
• Mutumoḻikkānci
• Elāti
• Kainnilai

Classification

Sangam literature is broadly classified intoakam(அகம்,inner), andpuram(புறம்,outer).Theakampoetry is about emotions and feelings in the context of romantic love, sexual union and eroticism. Thepurampoetry is about exploits and heroic deeds in the context of war and public life.Approximately three-fourths of the Sangam poetry isakamthemed, and about one fourth ispuram.

Sangam literature, bothakamandpuram,can be subclassified into seven minor genre calledtiṇai(திணை). This minor genre is based on the location or landscape in which the poetry is set.These are:kuṟiñci(குறிஞ்சி), mountainous regions;mullai(முல்லை), pastoral forests;marutam(மருதம்), riverine agricultural land;neytal(நெய்தல்) coastal regions;pālai(பாலை) arid.In addition to the landscape basedtiṇais, forakampoetry,ain-tinai(well matched, mutual love),kaikkilai(ill matched, one sided), andperunthinai(unsuited, big genre) categories are used.TheAinkurunuru– 500 short poems anthology – is an example of mutual love poetry.

Similartiṇais pertain topurampoems as well, categories are sometimes based on activity:vetchi(cattle raid),vanchi(invasion, preparation for war),kanchi(tragedy),ulinai(siege),tumpai(battle),vakai(victory),paataan(elegy and praise),karanthai,andpothuviyal.Theakampoetry uses metaphors and imagery to set the mood, never uses names of person or places, often leaves the context as well that the community will fill in and understand given theiroral tradition.Thepurampoetry is more direct, uses names and places, states Takanobu Takahashi.

Style and prosody

The early Sangam poetry diligently follows two meters, while the later Sangam poetry is a bit more diverse.The two meters found in the early poetry areakavalandvanci.The fundamental metrical unit in these is theacai(metreme), itself of two types –nerandnirai.Theneris the stressed/long syllable in European prosody tradition, while theniraiis the unstressed/short syllable combination (pyrrhic(dibrach) andiambic) metrical feet, with similar equivalents in the Sanskrit prosody tradition.Theacaiin the Sangam poems are combined to form acir(foot), while thecirare connected to form atalai,while the line is referred to as theati.Thesutrasof theTolkappiyam– particularly aftersutra315 – state the prosody rules, enumerating the 34 component parts of ancient Tamil poetry.

The prosody of an example early Sangam poem is illustrated byKuruntokai:

ciṟuveḷ ḷaravi ṉavvarik kuruḷai
kāṉa yāṉai aṇaṅki yāaṅ
kiḷaiyaṇ muḷaivā ḷeyiṟṟaḷ
vaḷaiyuṭaik kaiyaḷem maṇaṅki yōḷē
–Kuruntokai 119,Author: Catti Nataanr

The prosodic pattern in this poem follows the 4-4-3-4 feet per line, according toakaval,also calledaciriyam,Sangam meter rule:

= – / = – / – = / = –
– – / – – / = – / – –
= – / = – / = –
= = / – = / = – / – –

Note: "=" is aner,while "–" is aniraiin Tamil terminology.

A literal translation ofKuruntokai 119:

little-white-snake of lovely-striped young-body
jungle elephant troubling like
the young-girl sprouts-brightness toothed-female
bangle(s) possessing hand(s)-female "
– Translator: Kamil Zvelebil

English interpretation and translation ofKuruntokai 119:

As a little white snake
with lovely stripes on its young body
troubles the jungle elephant
this slip of a girl
her teeth like sprouts of new rice
her wrists stacked with bangles
troubles me.
– Creative translator: A.K. Ramanujan (1967)

This metrical pattern, states Zvelebil, gives the Sangam poetry a "wonderful conciseness, terseness, pithiness", then an inner tension that is resolved at the end of the stanza.The metrical patterns within theakavalmeter in early Sangam poetry has minor variations.The later Sangam era poems follow the same general meter rules, but sometimes feature 5 lines (4-4-4-3-4).The later Sangam age texts employ other meters as well, such as the Kali meter inKalittokaiand the mixed Paripatal meter inParipatal.

Preservation and rediscovery

Apalm-leaf manuscript(UVSL 589) with 100 folios, handwritten in miniature scripts by Shaiva Hindus. This multi-text manuscript includes many Tamil texts, including the Sangam eraTirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai.The folio languages include mainly Tamil and Sanskrit, with some Telugu; scripts include Tamil, Grantha and Telugu. It is currently preserved in U.V. Swaminatha Aiyar library in Chennai.

The works of Sangam literature were lost and forgotten for most of the 2nd millennium. They were rediscovered by colonial-era scholars such asArumuka Navalar(1822–1879),C.W. Damodaram Pillai(1832–1901) andU. V. Swaminatha Aiyar(1855–1942).

Arumuka NavalarfromJaffnafirst inaugurated the modern editions of Tamil classics, publishing a fine edition ofTirukkuṟaḷby 1860.Navalar – who translated the Bible into Tamil while working as an assistant to a Methodist Christian missionary, chose to defend and popularizeShaiva Hinduismagainst missionary polemics, in part by bringing ancient Tamil andShaivaliterature to wider attention.He brought the first Sangam text into print in 1851 (Tirumurukāṟṟuppaṭai,one of theTen Idylls). In 1868, Navalar published an early commentary onTolkappiyam.

C.W. Damodaram Pillai,also fromJaffna,was the earliest scholar to systematically hunt for long-lost manuscripts and publish them using modern tools of textual criticism.These included:

• Viracoliyam (1881)
• Iraiyanar Akapporul(1883)
• Tolkappiyam-Porulatikaram (1885)
• Kalittokai(1887) - the first of the Eight Anthologies (Eṭṭuttokai).

Aiyar– a Tamil scholar and aShaivapundit, in particular, is credited with his discovery of major collections of the Sangam literature in 1883. During his personal visit to the Thiruvavaduthurai Adhinam – a Shaiva matha about twenty kilometers northeast ofKumbhakonam,he reached out to the monastery head Subrahmanya Desikar for access to its large library of preserved manuscripts. Desikar granted Aiyar permission to study and publish any manuscripts he wanted.There, Aiyar discovered a major source of preserved palm-leaf manuscripts of Sangam literature.Aiyar published his first print of theTen Idyllsin 1889.

Together, these scholars printed and publishedKalittokai(1887),Tholkappiyam,Nachinarkiniyar Urai(1895),Tholkappiyam Senavariyar urai(1868),Manimekalai(1898),Silappatikaram(1889),Pattuppāṭṭu(1889),Patiṟṟuppattu(1889).Puṟanāṉūṟu(1894),Aiṅkurunūṟu(1903),Kuṟuntokai(1915),Naṟṟiṇai(1915),Paripāṭal(1918) andAkanāṉūṟu(1923) all with scholarly commentaries. They published more than 100 works in all, including minor poems.

Significance

The Sangam literature is the historic evidence of indigenous literary developments in South India in parallel toSanskrit,and the classical status of the Tamil language. While there is no evidence for the first and second mythical Sangams, the surviving literature attests to a group of scholars centered around the ancientMadurai(Maturai) that shaped the "literary, academic, cultural and linguistic life of ancient Tamil Nadu", states Zvelebil.On their significance, Zvelebil quotesA. K. Ramanujan,"In their antiquity and in their contemporaneity, there is not much else in any Indian literature equal to these quiet and dramatic Tamil poems. In their values and stances, they represent a mature classical poetry: passion is balanced by courtesy, transparency by ironies and nuances of design, impersonality by vivid detail, austerity of line by richness of implication. These poems are not just the earliest evidence of the Tamil genius."

The Sangam literature offers a window into some aspects of the ancient Tamil culture, secular and religious beliefs, and the people. For example, in the Sangam eraAinkurunurupoem 202 is one of the earliest mentions of "pigtail ofBrahminboys ".These poems also allude to historical incidents, ancient Tamil kings, the effect of war on loved ones and households.ThePattinappalaipoem in the Ten Idylls group, for example, paints a description of the Chola capital, the king Karikal, the life in a harbor city with ships and merchandise for seafaring trade, the dance troupes, the bards and artists, the worship of the Hindu godVishnu,Muruganand the monasteries of Buddhism and Jainism. This Sangam era poem remained in the active memory and was significant to the Tamil people centuries later, as evidenced by its mention nearly 1,000 years later in the 11th- and 12th-century inscriptions and literary work.

Sangam literature embeds evidence of loan words from Sanskrit, suggesting on-going linguistic and literary collaboration between ancient Tamil Nadu and other parts of the Indian subcontinent.One of the early loan words, for example, isacarya–from Sanskrit for a "spiritual guide or teacher", which in Sangam literature appears asaciriyan(priest, teacher, scholar),aciriyamorakavarorakavalorakavu(a poetic meter).

The Sangam poetry focuses on the culture and people. It is religious as well as non-religious, as there are several mentions of the Hindu gods and more substantial mentions of various gods in the shorter poems. The 33 surviving poems ofParipaatalin the "Eight Anthologies" group praisesVishnu,DurgaandMurugan.Similarly, the 150 poems ofKalittokai– also from the Eight Anthologies group – mention Krishna, Shiva, Murugan, various Pandava brothers of theMahabharata,Kama, goddesses such as Ganga, divine characters from classical love stories of India.One of the poems also mentions the "merciful men ofBenares",an evidence of interaction between the northern holy city of the Hindus with the Sangam poets.Some of theParipaatallove poems are set in the context of bathing festivals (Magh Mela) and various Hindu gods. They mention temples and shrines, confirming the significance of such cultural festivals and architectural practices to the Tamil culture.

Religion in the Sangam agewas an important reason for the increase inTamil Literature.AncientTamilsPrimarily followedVaishnavism(Who consider Vishnu as the Supreme Deity) andKaumaram(who worship Murugan as the Supreme god). According toKamil Zvelebil,Vishnuwas considered ageless (The god who stays for ever) and the Supreme god ofTamilswhere asSkandawas considered young and a personal god ofTamils.

Mayonis indicated to be the deity associated with themullai tiṇai(pastoral landscape) in theTolkappiyam.Tolkappiyar MentionsMayonfirst when he made reference to deities in the different land divisions.TheParipādal(Tamil:பரிபாடல்,meaningthe paripadal-metre anthology) is a classicalTamilpoetic work and traditionally the fifth of theEight Anthologies(Ettuthokai) in the Sangam literature.According toTolkappiyam,Paripadal is a kind of verse dealing only with love (akapporul) and does not fall under the general classification of verses. Sangam literature (200 BCE to 500 CE) mentionsMayonor the "dark one," as the Supreme deity who creates, sustains, and destroys the universe and was worshipped in the Plains and mountains ofTamilakam.The Earliest verses ofParipadaldescribe the glory of Perumal in the most poetic of terms. Many Poems of theParipadalconsiderPerumalas the Supreme god ofTamils.He is regarded to be the only deity who enjoyed the status ofParamporul(achieving oneness withParamatma) during theSangam age.He is also known as Māyavan, Māmiyon, Netiyōn, and Māl in Sangam literature and considered as the most mentioned god in the Sangam literature.

Cēyōṉ"the red one", who is identified withMurugan,whose name is literallyMurukaṉ"the youth" in theTolkāppiyam;Extant Sangam literature works, dated between the third century BCE and the fifth century CE glorified Murugan, "the red god seated on the blue peacock, who is ever young and resplendent," as "the favoured god of the Tamils."There are no Mentions ofShaivisminTolkappiyam.ShivaandBrahmaare said to be forms OfMaha Vishnuand considers Vishnu as The Supreme god inParipāṭal.

There are two poems depicted as example ofBhaktiin AncientTamil Nadu,one in the praise ofMaha Vishnuand other ofMurugan

To Tirumal (Maha Vishnu):

தீயினுள் தெறல் நீ;
பூவினுள் நாற்றம் நீ;
கல்லினுள் மணியும் நீ;
சொல்லினுள் வாய்மை நீ;
அறத்தினுள் அன்பு நீ;
மறத்தினுள் மைந்து நீ;
வேதத்து மறை நீ;
பூதத்து முதலும் நீ;
வெஞ் சுடர் ஒளியும் நீ;
திங்களுள் அளியும் நீ;
அனைத்தும் நீ;
அனைத்தின் உட்பொருளும் நீ;

In fire, you are the heat;
in blossoms, the fragrance;
among the stones, you are the diamond;
in speech, truth;
among virtues, you are love;
in valour—strength;
in the Veda, you are the secret;
among elements, the primordial;
in the burning sun, the light;
in moonshine, its sweetness;
you are all,
and you are the substance and meaning of all.

—Paripadal, iii: 63-68 —F Gros, K Zvelebil

To Seyyon (Skandha):

We pray you not for wealth,
not for gold, not for pleasure;
But for your grace, for love, for virtue,
these three,
O god with the rich garland ofkaṭampuflowers
with rolling clusters!

–Pari. v.: 78–81

The other gods also referred to in theTolkappiyamareVēntaṉ"the sovereign" (identified withIndra) andKorravai"the victorious" (identified withDurga) andVarunan"the sea god".

The Sangam literature also emphasized on fair governance by Kings, who were often described as Sengol-valavan, the king who established just rule; the king was warned by priests that royal injustice would lead to divine punishment; and handing over of a royalscepter,Sengoldenoting decree to rule fairly, finds mention in texts such as the Purananooru, Kurunthogai, Perumpaanatrupadai, and Kalithogai.

Further, the colophons of theParipaatalpoems mention music and tune, signifying the development and the importance of musical arts in ancient Tamil Nadu. According to Zvelebil, these poems were likely from the late Sangam era (2nd or 3rd century CE) and attest to a sophisticated and prosperous ancient civilization.

Modern musical renditions

The first music album on Tamil Sangam poetry titledSandham: Symphony Meets Classical Tamilby ComposerRajan Somasundaramin collaboration with Durham Symphony, featured in Amazon's Top#10 'International Music albums' category in July 2020 and was called "A Major event in the world of Music" by The Hindu Music review.

Sangam poems are often quoted and paraphrased in modern Tamil cinema.

See also

• Project Madurai:open access Tamil literature repository
• List of historic Indian texts
• Tamiḻakam
• First Sangam
• Second Sangam
• Tamil Sangams
• List of Sangam poets
• Vaishnavism in Ancient Tamilakam

Sources

• Anjali (2017).Social and Cultural History of Ancient India.Lucknow: OnlineGatha—The Endless Tale.ISBN978-93-86352-69-9.
• JV Chelliah (1946).Pattupattu - Ten Tamil Idylls (Tamil Verses with Englilsh Translation).Tamil University (1985 print).
• Daniélou, Alain (11 February 2003).A Brief History of India.Simon and Schuster.ISBN9781594777943.
• Thomas Lehmann; Thomas Malten (1992).A Word Index of Old Tamil Caṅkam Literature.F. Steiner.ISBN978-3-515-05814-8.
• Manguin, Pierre-Yves; Mani, A.; Wade, Geoff (2011).Early Interactions Between South and Southeast Asia: Reflections on Cross Cultural exchange.Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.ISBN9789814345101.
• P. Meenakshi Sundaram (1965).History of Tamil Literature.Annamalai University.
• V. S. Rajam (1992).A Reference Grammar of Classical Tamil Poetry.American Philosophical Society.ISBN978-0-87169-199-6.
• Ray, Himanshu Prabha (2003).The archaeology of seafaring in ancient South Asia.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN9780521011099.
• Rosen, Elizabeth S. (1975). "Prince ILango Adigal, Shilappadikaram (The anklet Bracelet), translated by Alain Damelou. Review".Artibus Asiae.37(1/2): 148–150.doi:10.2307/3250226.JSTOR3250226.
• Nath sen, Sailendra (1999).Ancient Indian History and Civilization(Second ed.). Routledge. p. 205.ISBN9788122411980.
• Selby, Martha Ann (2011) Tamil Love Poetry: The Five Hundred Short Poems of the Aiṅkuṟunūṟu, an Early Third-Century Anthology. Columbia University Press,ISBN9780231150651
• Shinu, Abraham (2003)."Chera, Chola, Pandya: using archaeological evidence to identify the Tamil kingdoms of early historic South India".Asian Perspectives.42(2): 207–223.doi:10.1353/asi.2003.0031.hdl:10125/17189.S2CID153420843.
• Shulman, David (2016).Tamil.Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0-674-97465-4.
• Takanobu Takahashi (1995).Tamil Love Poetry and Poetics.BRILL Academic.ISBN90-04-10042-3.
• Herman Tieken (2001).Kāvya in South India: Old Tamil Caṅkam Poetry.BRILL.ISBN978-90-6980-134-6.
• Wilden, Eva Maria (2014).Manuscript, Print and Memory: Relics of the Cankam in Tamilnadu.Walter de Gruyter.ISBN978-3-11-035276-4.
• Wilson, A.Jeyaratnam (2000).Sri Lankan Tamil Nationalism: Its Origins and Development in 19th and 20th Centuries.UBC Press.ISBN9780774807593.Retrieved28 April2012.
• Kamil Zvelebil (1973).The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India.BRILL.ISBN90-04-03591-5.
• Kamil Zvelebil (1974).Tamil Literature.Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.ISBN978-3-447-01582-0.
• Kamil Zvelebil (1975).Tamil Literature.Handbook of Oriental Studies. BRILL.ISBN90-04-04190-7.

Web-sources

External links

• sangamtranslationsbyvaidehi Sangam poetry with translation in English,Vaidehi Herbert