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This article is about the figure in the Abrahamic religions. For personifications of evil in various cultures, seeDevil.For other uses, seeSatan (disambiguation).
"The Devil" redirects here. For other uses, seeDevil (disambiguation).

Illustration of the Devil onfolio290rectoof the Latin, BohemianCodex Gigas,dating to the early thirteenth century

Satan,[a]also known asthe Devil[b]is anentityinAbrahamic religionsthat seduces humans intosinor falsehood. InJudaism,Satan is seen as an agent subservient toGod,typically regarded as a metaphor for theyetzer hara,or "evil inclination". InChristianityandIslam,he is usually seen as afallen angelorjinnwho has rebelled againstGod,who nevertheless allows him temporary power over the fallen world and a host ofdemons.In theQuran,Shaitan,also known asIblis,is an entity made of fire who was cast out of Heaven because he refused to bow before the newly createdAdamand incites humans to sin by infecting their minds withwaswās( "evil suggestions" ).

A figure known asha-satan( "the satan" ) first appears in theHebrew Bibleas a heavenlyprosecutor,subordinate toYahweh(God), who prosecutes thenation of Judahin the heavenly court and tests the loyalty of Yahweh's followers. During theintertestamental period,possibly due to influence from theZoroastrianfigure ofAngra Mainyu,the satan developed into a malevolent entity with abhorrent qualities indualistic oppositionto God. In theapocryphalBook of Jubilees,Yahweh grants the satan (referred to asMastema) authority over agroup of fallen angels,ortheir offspring,to tempt humans to sin and punish them.

Although theBook of Genesisdoes not mention him, Christians often identify theserpent in the Garden of Edenas Satan. In theSynoptic Gospels,Satantempts Jesus in the desertand is identified as the cause of illness and temptation. In theBook of Revelation,Satan appears as aGreat Red Dragon,who is defeated byMichael the Archangeland cast down from Heaven. He is later bound forone thousand years,but is briefly set free before being ultimately defeated and cast into theLake of Fire.

In theMiddle Ages,Satan played a minimal role inChristian theologyand was used as acomic relieffigure inmystery plays.During theearly modern period,Satan's significance greatly increased as beliefs such asdemonic possessionandwitchcraftbecame more prevalent. During theAge of Enlightenment,belief in the existence of Satan was harshly criticized by thinkers such asVoltaire.Nonetheless, belief in Satan has persisted, particularly in theAmericas.

Although Satan is generally viewed as evil, some groups have very different beliefs. Intheistic Satanism,Satan is considered a deity who is either worshipped or revered. InLaVeyan Satanism,Satan is a symbol of virtuous characteristics and liberty. Satan's appearance is never described in the Bible, but, since the ninth century, he has often been shown inChristian artwith horns, cloven hooves, unusually hairy legs, and a tail, often naked and holding a pitchfork. These are an amalgam of traits derived from various pagan deities, includingPan,Poseidon,andBes.Satan appears frequently inChristian literature,most notably inDante Alighieri'sInferno,all variants of the classicFauststory,John Milton'sParadise LostandParadise Regained,and the poems ofWilliam Blake.[6]He continues to appear in film, television, and music.

Historical development

Hebrew Bible

Balaam and the Angel(1836) byGustav Jäger.The angel in this incident is referred to as a "satan".[7]

TheHebrewtermśāṭān(Hebrew:שָׂטָן) is a generic noun meaning "accuser" or "adversary",[8][9]and is derived from a verb meaning primarily "to obstruct, oppose".[10]In the earlier biblical books, e.g. 1 Samuel 29:4, it refers to human adversaries, but in the later books, especiallyJob1–2 andZechariah3, to a supernatural entity.[9]When used without the definite article (simplysatan), it can refer to any accuser,[11]but when it is used with the definite article (ha-satan), it usually refers specifically to the heavenly accuser, literally,thesatan.[11]

The word with thedefinite articleHa-Satan(Hebrew:הַשָּׂטָןhasSāṭān) occurs 17 times in theMasoretic Text,in two books of the Hebrew Bible:Jobch. 1–2 (14×) andZechariah3:1–2 (3×).[12][13]It is translated in English bibles mostly as 'Satan'.

The word without the definite article is used in ten instances,[citation needed]of which two are translateddiabolosin the Septuagint. It is generally translated in English Bibles as 'an accuser' (1x) or 'an adversary' (9x as inBook of Numbers,1 & 2 Samueland1 Kings). In some cases, it is translated as 'Satan':

The word does not occur in theBook of Genesis,which mentions only atalking serpentand does not identify the serpent with any supernatural entity.[16]The first occurrence of the word "satan" in the Hebrew Bible in reference to a supernatural figure comes from Numbers 22:22,[17][8]which describes theAngel of YahwehconfrontingBalaamon his donkey:[7]"Balaam's departure aroused the wrath ofElohim,and the Angel of Yahweh stood in the road as a satan against him. "[8]In 2 Samuel 24,[18]Yahweh sends the "Angel of Yahweh" to inflict a plague against Israel for three days,killing 70,000 peopleas punishment forDavidhaving taken a census without his approval.[19]1 Chronicles 21:1[20]repeats this story,[19]but replaces the "Angel of Yahweh" with an entity referred to as "a satan".[19]

Some passages clearly refer to the satan, without using the word itself.[21]1 Samuel 2:12[22]describes thesons of Elias "sons ofBelial";[23]the later usage of this word makes it clearly a synonym for "satan".[23]In 1 Samuel 16:14–2,[24]Yahweh sends a "troubling spirit" to torment KingSaulas a mechanism to ingratiate David with the king.[25]In 1 Kings 22:19–25,[26]the prophetMicaiahdescribes to KingAhaba vision of Yahweh sitting on his throne surrounded by theHost of Heaven.[23]Yahweh asks the Host which of them will lead Ahab astray.[23]A "spirit", whose name is not specified, but who is analogous to the satan, volunteers to be "a Lying Spirit in the mouth of all his Prophets".[23]

Book of Job

The Examination of Job(c. 1821) byWilliam Blake

The satan appears in theBook of Job,a poetic dialogue set within a prose framework,[27]which may have been written around the time of theBabylonian captivity.[27]In the text,Jobis a righteous man favored by Yahweh.[27]Job 1:6–8[28]describes the "sons of God"(bənê hāʼĕlōhîm) presenting themselves before Yahweh.[27]Yahweh asks one of them, "the satan", where he has been, to which he replies that he has been roaming around the earth.[27]Yahweh asks, "Have you considered My servant Job?"[27]The satan replies by urging Yahweh to let him torture Job, promising that Job will abandon his faith at the first tribulation.[29]Yahweh consents: the satan destroys Job's servants and flocks, yet Job refuses to condemn Yahweh.[29]The first scene repeats itself, with the satan presenting himself to Yahweh alongside the other "sons of God".[30]Yahweh points out Job's continued faithfulness, to which the satan insists that more testing is necessary;[30]Yahweh once again gives him permission to test Job.[30]In the end, Job remains faithful and righteous, and it is implied that the satan is shamed in his defeat.[31]

Book of Zechariah

Zechariah 3:1–7[32]contains a description of a vision dated to the middle of February of 519 BC,[33]in which an angel showsZechariaha scene ofJoshua the High Priestdressed in filthy rags, representing the nation of Judah and its sins,[34]on trial with Yahweh as the judge and the satan standing as theprosecutor.[34]Yahweh rebukes the satan[34]and orders for Joshua to be given clean clothes, representing Yahweh's forgiveness of Judah's sins.[34]

Second Temple period

Map showing the expansion of theAchaemenid Empire,in which Jews lived during the earlySecond Temple Period,[9]allowingZoroastrianideas aboutAngra Mainyuto influence the Jewish conception of Satan[9]

During theSecond Temple Period,when Jews were living in theAchaemenid Empire,Judaism was heavily influenced byZoroastrianism,the religion of the Achaemenids.[35][9][36]Jewish conceptions of Satan were impacted byAngra Mainyu,[9][37]the Zoroastrian spirit of evil, darkness, and ignorance.[9]In theSeptuagint,the Hebrewha-Satanin Job andZechariahis translated by theGreekworddiabolos(slanderer), the same word in theGreek New Testamentfrom which the English word "devil"is derived.[38]Wheresatanis used to refer to human enemies in the Hebrew Bible, such asHadad the EdomiteandRezon the Syrian,the word is left untranslated but transliterated in the Greek assatan,aneologismin Greek.[38]

The idea of Satan as an opponent of God and a purely evil figure seems to have taken root in Jewishpseudepigraphaduring the Second Temple Period,[39]particularly in theapocalypses.[40]TheBook of Enoch,which theDead Sea Scrollshave revealed to have been nearly as popular as the Torah,[41]describes a group of 200 angels known as the "Watchers",who are assigned to supervise the earth, but instead abandon their duties and have sexual intercourse with human women.[42]The leader of the Watchers isSemjâzâ[43]and another member of the group, known asAzazel,spreads sin and corruption among humankind.[43]The Watchers are ultimately sequestered in isolated caves across the earth[43]and are condemned to face judgement at the end of time.[43]TheBook of Jubilees,written in around 150 BC,[44]retells the story of the Watchers' defeat,[45]but, in deviation from the Book of Enoch,Mastema,the "Chief of Spirits", intervenes before all of their demon offspring are sealed away, requesting for Yahweh to let him keep some of them to become his workers.[46]Yahweh acquiesces to this request[46]and Mastema uses them to tempt humans into committing more sins, so that he may punish them for their wickedness.[47]Later, Mastema induces Yahweh to testAbrahamby ordering him tosacrifice Isaac.[47][48]

TheSecond Book of Enoch,also called the Slavonic Book of Enoch, contains references to a Watcher called Satanael.[49]It is apseudepigraphictext of an uncertain date and unknown authorship. The text describes Satanael as being the prince of the Grigori who was cast out of heaven[50]and an evil spirit who knew the difference between what was "righteous" and "sinful".[51]In theBook of Wisdom,the devil is taken to be the being who brought death into the world, but originally the culprit was recognized as Cain.[52][53][54]The nameSamael,which is used in reference to one of thefallen angels,later became a common name for Satan in JewishMidrashandKabbalah.[55]

Judaism

The sound of ashofar(pictured) is believed to symbolically confuse Satan.

Most Jews do not believe in the existence of a supernatural omnimalevolent figure.[56]Traditionalists and philosophers inmedieval Judaismadhered torational theology,rejecting any belief in rebel or fallen angels, and viewingevilas abstract.[57]The rabbis usually interpreted the wordsatanlacking the articleha-as it is used in the Tanakh as referring strictly tohumanadversaries.[58]Nonetheless, the wordsatanhas occasionally been metaphorically applied to evil influences,[59]such as theJewish exegesisof theyetzer hara( "evil inclination" ) mentioned in Genesis 6:5.[60][61]TheTalmudicimage of Satan is contradictory. While Satan's identification with the abstractyetzer hararemains uniform over the sages' teachings, he is generally identified as an entity with divine agency. For instance, the sages considered Satan to be anangel of death(later given the name "Samael"), since God prohibiting Satan killing Job would imply he would otherwise be able to do so,[62]yet despite this syncretization with a known heavenly body, Satan is identified as theyetzer harain the very same passage. Satan's status as a 'physical' entity is strengthened by numerous other rabbinical anecdotes: one tale describes two separate incidents where Satan appeared as a woman in order to temptRabbi MeirandRabbi Akivainto sin,[63]while another describes Satan taking the form of an ill-mannered, diseased beggar in order to tempt the sage Peleimu into breaking themitzvahof hospitality.[64]Another passage relates that Satan once kissed the feet ofAha bar Jacobfor having taught his students that his objectionable actions are done only to serve the intents of God.[65]

Rabbinical scholarship on theBook of Jobgenerally follows theTalmudandMaimonidesin identifying "the satan" from the prologue as a metaphor for theyetzer haraand not an actual entity.[66]Satan is rarely mentioned inTannaiticliterature, but is found in Babylonianaggadah.[40]According to a narration, the sound of theshofar,which is primarily intended to remind Jews of the importance ofteshuva,is also intended symbolically to "confuse the accuser" (Satan) and prevent him from rendering anylitigationtoGodagainst the Jews.[67]Kabbalahpresents Satan as an agent of God whose function is to tempt humans into sinning so that he may accuse them in the heavenly court.[68]TheHasidic Jewsof the eighteenth century associated ha-Satan withBaal Davar.[69]

Each modern sect of Judaism has its own interpretation of Satan's identity.Conservative Judaismgenerally rejects the Talmudic interpretation of Satan as a metaphor for theyetzer hara,and regard him as a literal agent of God.[citation needed]Orthodox Judaism,on the other hand, outwardly embraces Talmudic teachings on Satan, and involves Satan in religious life far more inclusively than other sects. Satan is mentioned explicitly in some daily prayers, including duringShacharitand certain post-meal benedictions, as described in theTalmud[70]andthe Jewish Code of Law.[71]InReform Judaism,Satan is generally seen in his Talmudic role as a metaphor for theyetzer haraand the symbolic representation of innate human qualities such as selfishness.[72]

Christianity

Main article:Devil in Christianity

Names

Illustration forJohn Milton's“Paradise Lost“,depicting the" Fall of Lucifer "

The most common English synonym for "Satan" is "devil",which descends fromMiddle Englishdevel,fromOld Englishdēofol,that in turn represents an earlyGermanicborrowing ofLatindiabolus(also the source of "diabolical" ). This in turn was borrowed fromGreekdiabolos"slanderer",fromdiaballein"to slander":dia-"across, through" +ballein"to hurl".[73]In the New Testament, the wordsSatananddiabolosare used interchangeably as synonyms.[74][75]Beelzebub,meaning "Lord of Flies", is the contemptuous name given in the Hebrew Bible and New Testament to aPhilistinegod whose original name has been reconstructed as most probably "Ba'al Zabul", meaning "Baalthe Prince ".[76]TheSynoptic Gospelsidentify Satan and Beelzebub as the same.[74]The nameAbaddon(meaning "place of destruction" ) is used six times in the Old Testament, mainly as a name for one of the regions ofSheol.[77]Revelation 9:11describes Abaddon, whose name is translated into Greek asApollyon,meaning "the destroyer", as an angel who rules theAbyss.[78]In modern usage, Abaddon is sometimes equated with Satan.[77]

New Testament

Gospels, Acts, and epistles

The Devil depicted inThe Temptation of Christ,byAry Scheffer,1854

The three Synoptic Gospels all describe thetemptation of Christby Satan in the desert (Matthew 4:1–11,Mark 1:12–13,andLuke 4:1–13).[79]Satan first shows Jesus a stone and tells him to turn it into bread.[79]He also takes him to the pinnacle of theTemplein Jerusalem and commands Jesus to throw himself down so that the angels will catch him.[79]Satan takes Jesus to the top of a tall mountain as well; there, he shows him the kingdoms of the earth and promises to give them all to him if he will bow down and worship him.[79]Each time Jesus rebukes Satan[79]and, after the third temptation, he is administered by the angels.[79]Satan's promise inMatthew 4:8–9andLuke 4:6–7to give Jesus all the kingdoms of the earth implies that all those kingdoms belong to him.[80]The fact that Jesus does not dispute Satan's promise indicates that the authors of those gospels believed this to be true.[80]

Satan plays a role in some of theparables of Jesus,namely theParable of the Sower,theParable of the Weeds,Parable of the Sheep and the Goats,and theParable of the Strong Man.[81]According to the Parable of the Sower, Satan "profoundly influences" those who fail to understand the gospel.[82]The latter two parables say that Satan's followers will be punished onJudgement Day,with the Parable of the Sheep and the Goats stating that the Devil, his angels, and the people who follow him will be consigned to "eternal fire".[83]When thePhariseesaccused Jesus of exorcising demons through the power of Beelzebub, Jesus responds by telling the Parable of the Strong Man, saying: "how can someone enter a strong man's house and plunder his goods, unless he first binds the strong man? Then indeed he may plunder his house" (Matthew 12:29).[84]The strong man in this parable represents Satan.[85]

The Synoptic Gospels identify Satan and his demons as the causes of illness,[80]includingfever(Luke 4:39),leprosy(Luke 5:13), andarthritis(Luke 13:11–16),[80]while theEpistle to the Hebrewsdescribes the Devil as "him who holds the power of death" (Hebrews 2:14).[86]The author ofLuke-Actsattributes more power to Satan than either Matthew and Mark.[87]InLuke 22:31,Jesus grants Satan the authority to testPeterand the otherapostles.[88]Luke 22:3–6states thatJudas Iscariotbetrayed Jesus because "Satan entered" him[87]and, inActs 5:3,Peter describes Satan as "filling"Ananias's heart and causing him to sin.[89]TheGospel of Johnonly uses the nameSatanthree times.[90]InJohn 8:44,Jesus says that his Jewish or Judean enemies are the children of the Devil rather than the children of Abraham.[90]The same verse describes the Devil as "a man-killer from the beginning"[90]and "a liar and the father of lying."[90][91]John 13:2describes the Devil as inspiring Judas to betray Jesus[92]andJohn 12:31–32identifies Satan as "theArchonof this Cosmos ", who is destined to be overthrown through Jesus's death and resurrection.[93]John 16:7–8promises that theHoly Spiritwill "accuse the World concerning sin, justice, and judgement", a role resembling that of the Satan in the Old Testament.[94]

Jude 9refers to a dispute betweenMichael the Archangeland the Devil over the body ofMoses.[95][96][97]Some interpreters understand this reference to be an allusion to the events described inZechariah 3:1–2.[96][97]The classical theologianOrigenattributes this reference to the non-canonicalAssumption of Moses.[98][99]According toJames H. Charlesworth,there is no evidence the surviving book of this name ever contained any such content.[100]Others believe it to be in the lost ending of the book.[100][101]The second chapter of the pseudepigraphicalSecond Epistle of Peter[102]copies much of the content of the Epistle of Jude,[102]but omits the specifics of the example regarding Michael and Satan, with2 Peter 2:10–11instead mentioning only an ambiguous dispute between "Angels" and "Glories".[102]Throughout the New Testament, Satan is referred to as a "tempter" (Matthew 4:3),[9]"the ruler of the demons" (Matthew 12:24),[103][9]"the God of this Age" (2 Corinthians 4:4),[104]"the evil one" (1 John 5:18),[9]and "a roaring lion" (1 Peter 5:8).[103]

Book of Revelation

St. Michael Vanquishing Satan(1518) byRaphael,depicting Satan being cast out of heaven byMichael the Archangel,as described inRevelation 12:7–8

TheBook of Revelationrepresents Satan as the supernatural ruler of theRoman Empireand the ultimate cause of all evil in the world.[105]InRevelation 2:9–10,as part of the letter to the church atSmyrna,John of Patmosrefers to the Jews of Smyrna as "asynagogue of Satan"[106]and warns that "the Devil is about to cast some of you into prison as a test [peirasmos], and for ten days you will have affliction. "[106]InRevelation 2:13–14,in the letter to the church ofPergamum,John warns that Satan lives among the members of the congregation[107]and declares that "Satan's throne" is in their midst.[107]Pergamum was the capital of theRoman Province of Asia[107]and "Satan's throne" may be referring to the monumentalPergamon Altarin the city, which was dedicated to the Greek godZeus,[107]or to a temple dedicated to the Roman emperorAugustus.[107]

La Bête de la Mer(from theTapisserie de l'ApocalypseinAngers,France). A medieval tapestry, depicting the devil as adragonwith 7 heads in theBook of Revelation.

Revelation 12:3describes a vision of aGreat Red Dragonwith seven heads, ten horns, seven crowns, and a massive tail,[108]an image which is likely inspired by the vision of thefour beasts from the seain theBook of Daniel[109]and theLeviathandescribed in various Old Testament passages.[110]The Great Red Dragon knocks "a third of the sun... a third of the moon, and a third of the stars" out the sky[111]and pursues theWoman of the Apocalypse.[111]Revelation 12:7–9declares: "And war broke out in Heaven.Michael and his angels fought against the Dragon. The Dragon and his angels fought back, but they were defeated, and there was no longer any place for them in Heaven. Dragon the Great was thrown down, that ancient serpent who is called Devil and Satan, the one deceiving the whole inhabited World – he was thrown down to earth, and his angels were thrown down with him. "[112]Then a voice booms down from Heaven heralding the defeat of "the Accuser" (ho Kantegor), identifying the Satan of Revelation with the satan of the Old Testament.[113]

InRevelation 20:1–3,Satan is bound with a chain and hurled into theAbyss,[114]where he is imprisoned forone thousand years.[114]InRevelation 20:7–10,he is set free and gathers his armies along withGog and Magogto wage war against the righteous,[114]but is defeated with fire from Heaven, and cast into thelake of fire.[114]Some Christians associate Satan with the number666,whichRevelation 13:18describes as theNumber of the Beast.[115]However,the beastmentioned in Revelation 13 is not Satan,[116]and the use of 666 in the Book of Revelation has been interpreted as a reference to the Roman EmperorNero,as 666 is the numeric value of his name in Hebrew.[115]

Patristic era

The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man by Jan Brueghel the Elder and Pieter Paul Rubens, c. 1615, depicting Eve reaching for the forbidden fruit beside the Devil portrayed as a serpent
The Garden of Eden with the Fall of ManbyJan Brueghel the ElderandPieter Paul Rubens,c. 1615, depicting Eve reaching for theforbidden fruitbeside the Devil portrayed as aserpent

Christians have traditionally interpreted the unnamed serpent in theGarden of Edenas Satan due toRevelation 12:7,which calls Satan "that ancient serpent".[113][9]This verse, however, is probably intended to identify Satan with theLeviathan,[113]a monstrous sea-serpent whose destruction by Yahweh is prophesied inIsaiah 27:1.[110]The first recorded individual to identify Satan with the serpent from the Garden of Eden was the second-century AD Christian apologistJustin Martyr,[117][118]in chapters 45 and 79 of hisDialogue with Trypho.[118]Other earlychurch fathersto mention this identification includeTheophilusandTertullian.[119]The early Christian Church, however, encountered opposition from pagans such asCelsus,who claimed in his treatiseThe True Wordthat "it is blasphemy... to say that the greatest God... has an adversary who constrains his capacity to do good" and said that Christians "impiously divide the kingdom of God, creating a rebellion in it, as if there were opposing factions within the divine, including one that is hostile to God".[120]

Lucifer(1890) byFranz Stuck.Because of Patristic interpretations ofIsaiah 14:12andJerome's LatinVulgatetranslation, the name "Lucifer"is sometimes used in reference to Satan.[121][122]

The nameHeylel,meaning "morning star" (or, in Latin,Lucifer),[c]was a name forAttar,the god of the planetVenusinCanaanite mythology,[123][124]who attempted to scale the walls of the heavenly city,[125][123]but was vanquished by thegod of the sun.[125]The name is used inIsaiah 14:12in metaphorical reference to the king of Babylon.[125]Ezekiel 28:12–15uses a description of acherub in Edenas a polemic againstIthobaal II,the king of Tyre.[126]

TheChurch FatherOrigen of Alexandria(c.184 –c.253), who was only aware of the actual text of these passages and not the original myths to which they refer, concluded in his treatiseOn the First Principles,which is preserved in a Latin translation byTyrannius Rufinus,that neither of these verses could literally refer to a human being.[127]He concluded that Isaiah 14:12 is an allegory for Satan and that Ezekiel 28:12–15 is an allusion to "a certain Angel who had received the office of governing the nation of the Tyrians", but was hurled down to Earth after he was found to be corrupt.[128][129]In his apologetic treatiseContra Celsum,however, Origen interprets both Isaiah 14:12 and Ezekiel 28:12–15 as referring to Satan.[130]According to Henry Ansgar Kelly, Origen seems to have adopted this new interpretation to refute unnamed persons who, perhaps under the influence of Zoroastrian radical dualism, believed "that Satan's original nature was Darkness."[131]The later Church FatherJerome(c.347 – 420), translator of the LatinVulgate,accepted Origen's theory of Satan as a fallen angel[132]and wrote about it in his commentary on the Book of Isaiah.[132]In Christian tradition ever since, both Isaiah 14:12[133][134]and Ezekiel 28:12–15 have been understood as allegorically referring to Satan.[135][136]For most Christians, Satan has been regarded as an angel who rebelled againstGod.[137][134]

According to theransom theory of atonement,which was popular among early Christian theologians,[138][139]Satan gained power over humanity throughAdam and Eve's sin[138][140]andChrist's death on the crosswas a ransom to Satan in exchange for humanity's liberation.[138][141]This theory holds that Satan was tricked by God[138][142]because Christ was not only free of sin, but also the incarnate Deity, whom Satan lacked the ability to enslave.[142]Irenaeus of Lyonsdescribed aprototypicalform of the ransom theory,[138]but Origen was the first to propose it in its fully developed form.[138]The theory was later expanded by theologians such asGregory of NyssaandRufinus of Aquileia.[138]In the eleventh century,Anselm of Canterburycriticized the ransom theory, along with the associatedChristus Victortheory,[138][143]resulting in the theory's decline in western Europe.[138][143]The theory has nonetheless retained some of its popularity in theEastern Orthodox Church.[138]

Mostearly Christiansfirmly believed that Satan and his demons had the power to possess humans,[144]andexorcismswere widely practiced by Jews, Christians, and pagans alike.[144]Belief indemonic possessioncontinued through theMiddle Agesinto theearly modern period.[145][146]Exorcisms were seen as a display of God's power over Satan.[147]The vast majority of people who thought they were possessed by the Devil did not suffer from hallucinations or other "spectacular symptoms", but "complained of anxiety, religious fears, and evil thoughts".[148]

Middle Ages

Medieval miniature depictingPope Sylvester IIconsorting with Satan (c. 1460)
Detail of Satan fromHans Memling'sTriptych of Earthly Vanity and Divine Salvation(c.1485)

Satan had minimal role inmedieval Christian theology,[149]but he frequently appeared as a recurring comedicstock characterin late medievalmystery plays,in which he was portrayed as acomic relieffigure who "frolicked, fell, and farted in the background".[149]Jeffrey Burton Russelldescribes the medieval conception of Satan as "more pathetic and repulsive than terrifying"[149][150]and he was seen as little more than a nuisance to God's overarching plan.[149]TheGolden Legend,a collection of saints' lives compiled in around 1260 by the Dominican FriarJacobus de Voragine,contains numerous stories about encounters between saints and Satan,[151]in which Satan is constantly duped by the saints' cleverness and by the power of God.[151]Henry Ansgar Kelly remarks that Satan "comes across as the opposite of fearsome".[152]TheGolden Legendwas the most popular book during the High and Late Middle Ages[153]and more manuscripts of it have survived from the period than for any other book, including even the Bible itself.[153]

TheCanon Episcopi,written in the eleventh century AD, condemns belief inwitchcraftas heretical,[154]but also documents that many people at the time apparently believed in it.[154]Witches were believed tofly through the air on broomsticks,[154]consort with demons,[154]perform in "lurid sexual rituals"in the forests,[154]murder human infants and eat them as part of Satanic rites,[155]and engage inconjugal relationswith demons.[156][155]In 1326,Pope John XXIIissued thepapal bullSuper illius Specula,[157]which condemned folk divination practices as consultation with Satan.[157]By the 1430s, the Catholic Church began to regard witchcraft as part of avast conspiracyled by Satan himself.[158]

Early modern period

Painting fromc. 1788byFrancisco GoyadepictingSaint Francis Borgiaperforming an exorcism. During theearly modern period,exorcisms were seen as displays of God's power over Satan.[147]
During the early modern period, witches were widely believed to engage in sexually explicit Satanic rituals with demons,[154]such as the one shown in this illustration byMartin van Maëlein the 1911 edition ofSatanism and WitchcraftbyJules Michelet.

During theEarly Modern Period,Christians gradually began to regard Satan as increasingly powerful[156]and the fear of Satan's power became a dominant aspect of the worldview of Christians across Europe.[147][149]During theProtestant Reformation,Martin Luthertaught that, rather than trying to argue with Satan, Christians should avoid temptation altogether by seeking out pleasant company;[159]Luther especially recommended music as a safeguard against temptation, since the Devil "cannot enduregaiety".[159]John Calvinrepeated a maxim fromSaint Augustinethat "Man is like a horse, with either God or the devil as rider."[160]

In the late fifteenth century, a series of witchcraft panics erupted in France and Germany.[157][158]The GermanInquisitorsHeinrich KramerandJacob Sprengerargued in their bookMalleus Maleficarum,published in 1487, that allmaleficia( "sorcery" ) was rooted in the work of Satan.[161]In the mid-sixteenth century, the panic spread to England and Switzerland.[157]Both Protestants and Catholics alike firmly believed in witchcraft as a real phenomenon and supported its prosecution.[162][163]In the late 1500s, the Dutch demonologistJohann Weyerargued in his treatiseDe praestigiis daemonumthat witchcraft did not exist,[164]but that Satan promoted belief in it to lead Christians astray.[164]The panic over witchcraft intensified in the 1620s and continued until the end of the 1600s.[157]Brian Levack estimates that around 60,000 people were executed for witchcraft during the entire span of the witchcraft hysteria.[157]

The early English settlers of North America, especially thePuritansofNew England,believed that Satan "visibly and palpably" reigned in theNew World.[165]John Winthropclaimed that the Devil made rebellious Puritan women give birth tostillbornmonsters with claws, sharp horns, and "on each foot three claws, like a young fowl".[166]Cotton Matherwrote that devils swarmed around Puritan settlements "like thefrogs of Egypt".[167]The Puritans believed that theNative Americanswere worshippers of Satan[168]and described them as "children of the Devil".[165]Some settlers claimed to have seen Satan himself appear in the flesh at native ceremonies.[167]During theFirst Great Awakening,the "new light"preachers portrayed their" old light "critics as ministers of Satan.[169]By the time of theSecond Great Awakening,Satan's primary role inAmerican evangelicalismwas as the opponent of the evangelical movement itself, who spent most of his time trying to hinder the ministries of evangelical preachers,[170]a role he has largely retained among present-dayAmerican fundamentalists.[171]

By the early 1600s, skeptics in Europe, including the English authorReginald Scotand the Anglican bishopJohn Bancroft,had begun to criticize the belief that demons still had the power to possess people.[172]This skepticism was bolstered by the belief thatmiraclesonly occurred during theApostolic Age,which had long since ended.[173]Later,Enlightenmentthinkers, such asDavid Hume,Denis Diderot,andVoltaire,attacked the notion of Satan's existence altogether.[174]Voltaire labelledJohn Milton'sParadise Losta "disgusting fantasy"[174]and declared that belief in Hell and Satan were among the many lies propagated by the Catholic Church to keep humanity enslaved.[174]By the eighteenth century, trials for witchcraft had ceased in most western countries, with the notable exceptions ofPolandandHungary,where they continued.[175]Belief in the power of Satan, however, remained strong among traditional Christians.[175]

Modern era

The Fallen Angel(1847) byAlexandre Cabanel
The Genius of Evil(1848) byGuillaume Geefs

Mormonismdeveloped its own views on Satan. According to theBook of Moses,the Devil offered to be the redeemer of mankind for the sake of his own glory. Conversely, Jesus offered to be the redeemer of mankind so that his father's will would be done. After his offer was rejected, Satan became rebellious and was subsequently cast out of heaven.[176]In the Book of Moses,Cainis said to have "loved Satan more than God"[177]and conspired with Satan to killAbel.It was through this pact that Cain became aMaster Mahan.[178]The Book of Moses also says thatMoseswas tempted by Satan before calling upon the name of the "Only Begotten",which caused Satan to depart.Douglas Daviesasserts that this text "reflects" the temptation of Jesus in the Bible.[179]

Belief in Satan and demonic possession remains strong among Christians in the United States[180][181][182]andLatin America.[183]According to a 2013 poll conducted byYouGov,fifty-seven percent of people in the United States believe in a literal Devil,[180]compared to eighteen percent of people in Britain.[180]Fifty-one percent of Americans believe that Satan has the power to possess people.[180]W. Scott Poole, author ofSatan in America: The Devil We Know,has opined that "In the United States over the last forty to fifty years, a composite image of Satan has emerged that borrows from both popular culture and theological sources" and that most American Christians do not "separate what they know [about Satan] from the movies from what they know from various ecclesiastical and theological traditions".[166]The Catholic Church generally played down Satan and exorcism during late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries,[183]butPope Francisbrought renewed focus on the Devil in the early 2010s, stating, among many other pronouncements, that "The devil is intelligent, he knows more theology than all the theologians together."[183][184]According to theEncyclopædia Britannica,liberal Christianitytends to view Satan "as a [figurative] mythological attempt to express the reality and extent of evil in the universe, existing outside and apart from humanity but profoundly influencing the human sphere".[185]

Bernard McGinndescribes multiple traditions detailing the relationship between theAntichristand Satan.[186]In the dualist approach, Satan will become incarnate in the Antichrist, just asGod became incarnate in Jesus.[186]However, inOrthodox Christianthought, this view is problematic because it is too similar to Christ's incarnation.[186]Instead, the "indwelling" view has become more accepted,[186]which stipulates that the Antichrist is a human figure inhabited by Satan,[186]since the latter's power is not to be seen as equivalent to God's.[186]

Islam

Main articles:AzazilandIblis
See also:Devil § Islam

TheArabicequivalent of the wordSatanisShaitan(شيطان, from thetriliteral rootš-ṭ-n شطن). The word itself is anadjective(meaning "astray" or "distant", sometimes translated as "devil" ) that can be applied to bothman( "al-ins", الإنس) andal-jinn(الجن), but it is also used in reference to Satan in particular. In theQuran,Satan's name isIblis(Arabic pronunciation:[ˈibliːs]), probably a derivative of the Greek worddiabolos.[187]Muslims do not regard Satan as the cause of evil, but as a tempter, who takes advantage of humans' inclinations toward self-centeredness.[188]

Quran

Illustration from a manuscript ofAbu Ali Bal'ami's Persian translation of theAnnals of al-Tabari,showing Satan (Iblis) refusing to prostrate before the newly created man (Adam)

Sevensurasin the Quran describe howGodordered all theangelsand Iblis to bow before the newly created human,Adam.[9][189][187]All the angels bowed, but Iblis refused,[9][189][187]claiming to be superior to Adam because he was made from fire, whereas Adam was made from clay (7:12).[187]Consequently, God expelled him fromParadise[9][187]and condemned him toJahannam.[190][187]Iblis thereafter became akafir,"an ungrateful disbeliever",[9]whose sole mission is to lead humanity astray.[9](Q17:62) God allows Iblis to do this,[9][191]because he knows that the righteous will be able to resist Iblis's attempts to misguide them.[9]OnJudgement Day,while the lot of Satan remains in question,[192]those who followed him will be thrown into the fires of Jahannam.[190][187]After his banishment from Paradise, Iblis, who thereafter became known asAl-Shaitan( "the Demon" ),[190]luredAdam and Eveintoeatingtheforbidden fruit.[190][187][193]

The primary characteristic of Satan, aside from hishubrisanddespair,is his ability to cast evil suggestions (waswās) into men and women.[194]15:45states that Satan has no influence over the righteous,[195]but that those who fall in error are under his power.[195]7:156implies that those who obey God's laws are immune to the temptations of Satan.[195]56:79warns that Satan tries to keep Muslims from reading the Quran[196]and16:98–100recommends reciting the Quran as an antidote against Satan.[196]35:6refers to Satan as the enemy of humanity[196]and36:60forbids humans from worshipping him.[196]In the Quranic retelling of the story ofJob,Job knows that Satan is the one tormenting him.[196]

Islamic tradition

Affiliation

The angels meet Adam, and their body language reveals they share, albeit to a lesser degree, the defiant reaction of Iblīs, who stands at the back haughtily turning his head away. According to some traditions, God created Iblīs as a beautiful angel namedʿAzāzīland he is depicted here as such. He is portrayed with his characteristic darker skin to denote his impending fall but has wings of an angel and wears the contemporary ‘angelic hairstyle,’ a loop of hair tied on top of the head.

In the Quran, Satan is apparently an angel,[187]while, in18:50,he is described as "from the jinns".[187]This, combined with the fact that he describes himself as having been made from fire, posed a major problem forMuslim exegetes of the Quran,[187]who disagree on whether Satan is a fallen angel or the leader of a group of evil jinn.[197]According to a hadith fromIbn Abbas,Iblis was actually an angel whom God created out of fire. Ibn Abbas asserts that the wordjinncould be applied to earthly jinn, but also to "fiery angels" like Satan.[198]

Hasan of Basra,an eminent Muslim theologian who lived in the seventh century AD, was quoted as saying: "Iblis was not an angel even for the time of an eye wink. He is the origin of Jinn as Adam is of Mankind."[199]The medieval Persian scholarAbu al-Zamakhsharistates that the wordsangelsandjinnare synonyms.[200]Another Persian scholar,al-Baydawi,instead argues that Satanhopedto be an angel,[200]but that his actions made him a jinn.[200]Abu Mansur al-Maturidiwho is reverred as the founder ofMaturidiyyahSunni orthodoxy(kalam) argued that since angels can be blessed by God, they are also put to a test and can be punished. Accordingly, Satan became a devil (shaiṭān) or jinn after he refused to obey.[201]TheTarikh Khamisnarrates that Satan was a jinn who was admitted into Paradise as a reward for his righteousness and, unlike the angels, was given the choice to obey or disobey God.[202]When he was expelled from Paradise, Satan blamed humanity for his punishment.[203]Concerning the fiery origin of Iblis,Zakariya al-Qazwiniand Muhammad ibn Ahmad Ibshihi[204]state that all supernatural creatures originated from fire but the angels from its light and the jinn from its blaze, thus fire denotes a disembodiment origin of all spiritual entities.[205]Abd al-Ghani al-Maqdisiargued that only the angels of mercy are created from light, butangels of punishmenthave been created from fire.[206]

The Muslim historianAl-Tabari,who died in around 923 AD,[187]writes that, before Adam was created, earthly jinn made of smokeless fire roamed the earth and spread corruption.[207]He further relates that Iblis was originally an angel namedAzazilorAl-Harith,[208]from a group of angels, created from thefires of simoom,[209]sent by God to confront the earthly jinn.[210][187]Azazil defeated the jinn in battle and drove them into the mountains,[210]but he became convinced that he was superior to humans and all the other angels, leading to his downfall.[210]In this account, Azazil's group of angels were calledjinnbecause they guardedJannah(Paradise).[211]In another tradition recorded by Al-Tabari, Satan was one of the earthly jinn, who was taken captive by the angels[195][187]and brought to Heaven as a prisoner.[195][187]God appointed him as judge over the other jinn and he became known asAl-Hakam.[195]He fulfilled his duty for a thousand years before growing negligent,[187]but was rehabilitated again and resumed his position until his refusal to bow before Adam.[187]

Other traditions

A stoning of the Devil from 1942

During the first two centuries of Islam, Muslims almost unanimously accepted the traditional story known as theSatanic Versesas true.[212]According to this narrative,Muhammadwas told by Satan to add words to the Quran which would allow Muslims to pray for the intercession of pagan goddesses.[213]He mistook the words of Satan fordivine inspiration.[212]Modern Muslims almost universally reject this story as heretical, as it calls the integrity of the Quran into question.[214]

On the third day of theHajj,Muslim pilgrims toMeccathrow seven stones at a pillar known as theJamrah al-’Aqabah,symbolizing thestoning of the Devil.[215]This ritual is based on the Islamic tradition that, when God orderedAbrahamto sacrifice his sonIshmael,Satan tempted him three times not to do it, and, each time, Abraham responded by throwing seven stones at him.[215][216]

Thehadithteach that newborn babies cry because Satan touches them while they are being born, and that this touch causes people to have an aptitude for sin.[217]This doctrine bears some similarities to the doctrine oforiginal sin.[217]Muslim tradition holds that onlyJesusandMarywere not touched by Satan at birth.[217]However, when he was a boy, Muhammad'sheartwas literally opened by an angel, who removed a blackclotthat symbolized sin.[217]

Angels bow before the newly created Adam, butIblis(top right on the picture) refuses to prostrate.

Muslim tradition preserves a number of stories involving dialogues between Jesus and Iblis,[210]all of which are intended to demonstrate Jesus's virtue and Satan's depravity.[218]Ahmad ibn Hanbalrecords an Islamic retelling of Jesus's temptation by Satan in the desert from the Synoptic Gospels.[210]Ahmad quotes Jesus as saying, "The greatest sin is love of the world. Women are the ropes of Satan. Wine is the key to every evil."[218]Abu Uthman al-Jahizcredits Jesus with saying, "The world is Satan's farm, and its people are his plowmen."[210]Al-Ghazalitells an anecdote about how Jesus went out one day and saw Satan carrying ashes and honey;[219]when he asked what they were for, Satan replied, "The honey I put on the lips of backbiters so that they achieve their aim. The ashes I put on the faces of orphans, so that people come to dislike them."[219]The thirteenth-century scholarSibt ibn al-Jawzistates that, when Jesus asked him what truly broke his back, Satan replied, "The neighing of horses in the cause ofAllah."[219]

Muslims believe that Satan is also the cause of deceptions originating from the mind and desires for evil. He is regarded as a cosmic force for separation, despair and spiritual envelopment. Muslims do distinguish between the satanic temptations and the murmurings of the bodily lower self (nafs). The lower self-commands the person to do a specific task or to fulfill a specific desire; whereas the inspirations of Satan tempt the person to do evil in general and, after a person successfully resists his first suggestion, Satan returns with new ones.[220]If a Muslim feels that Satan is inciting him to sin, he is advised to seek refuge with God by reciting: "In the name of Allah, I seek refuge in you, from Satan the outcast." Muslims are also obliged to "seek refuge" before reciting the Quran.[221]

Islamic mysticism

According to some adherents ofSufimysticism, Iblis refused to bow to Adam because he was fully devoted to God alone and refused to bow to anyone else.[222][200]For this reason, Sufi masters regard Satan and Muhammad as the two most perfect monotheists.[222]Sufis reject the concept ofdualism[222][223]and instead believe in theunity of existence.[223]In the same way that Muhammad was the instrument of God's mercy,[222]Sufis regard Satan as the instrument of God's wrath.[222]For the Muslim Sufi scholarAhmad Ghazali,Iblis was the paragon of lovers in self-sacrifice for refusing to bow down to Adam out of pure devotion to God[224]Ahmad Ghazali's studentSheikh Adi ibn Musafirwas among the Sunni Muslim mystics who defended Iblis, asserted that evil was also God's creation, Sheikh Adi argued that if evil existed without the will of God, then God would be powerless and powerlessness can't be attributed to God.[225]Some Sufis assert, since Iblis was destined by God to become a devil, God will also restore him to his former angelic nature.Attarcompares Iblis's damnation to the BiblicalBenjamin:Both were accused unjustly, but their punishment had a greater meaning. In the end, Iblis will be released from hell.[226]

However, not all Muslim Sufi mystics are in agreement with a positive depiction of Iblis.Rumi's viewpoint on Iblis is much more in tune with Islamic orthodoxy. Rumi views Iblis as the manifestation of thegreat sinsofhaughtinessandenvy.He states: "(Cunning) intelligence is from Iblis, and love from Adam."[227]

Baháʼí Faith

In theBaháʼí Faith,Satan is not regarded as an independent evil power as he is in some faiths,[228][229]but signifies thelower natureof humans.[228][229]`Abdu'l-Baháexplains: "This lower nature in man is symbolized as Satan—the evil ego within us, not an evil personality outside."[228][229]All other evil spirits described in various faith traditions—such asfallen angels,demons, and jinns—are also metaphors for the base character traits a human being may acquire and manifest when he turns away from God.[230]Actions, that are described as "satanic" in some Baháʼí writings, denote humans' deeds caused by selfish desires.[231]

Satanism

Main article:Satanism

Theistic Satanism

Theinverted pentagram,along withBaphomet,is the most notable and widespread symbol of Satanism.[232]

Theistic Satanism, commonly referred to as "devil worship",[233]views Satan as adeity,whom individuals may supplicate to.[234][235]It consists of loosely affiliated or independent groups and cabals, which all agree that Satan is a real entity.[236]

Atheistic Satanism

Atheistic Satanism, as practiced bythe Satanic Templeand by followers ofLaVeyan Satanism,holds that Satan does not exist as a literal anthropomorphic entity, but rather as asymbolof acosmoswhich Satanists perceive to be permeated and motivated by a force that has been given many names by humans over the course of time. In this religion, "Satan" is not viewed or depicted as a hubristic, irrational, and fraudulent creature, but rather is revered withPrometheus-like attributes, symbolizing liberty and individual empowerment. To adherents, he also serves as a conceptual framework and an external metaphorical projection of the Satanist's highest personal potential.[237]In his essay "Satanism: The Feared Religion", the current High Priest of the Church of Satan,Peter H. Gilmore,further expounds that "...Satan is a symbol of Man living as his prideful, carnal nature dictates. The reality behind Satan is simply the dark evolutionary force ofentropythat permeates all of nature and provides the drive for survival and propagation inherent in all living things. Satan is not a conscious entity to be worshiped, rather a reservoir of power inside each human to be tapped at will ".[238]

LaVeyan Satanists embrace the original etymological meaning of the word "Satan" (Hebrew:שָּׂטָןsatan,meaning "adversary" ). According to Gilmore, "The Church of Satan has chosen Satan as its primary symbol because in Hebrew it means adversary, opposer, one to accuse or question. We see ourselves as being these Satans; the adversaries, opposers and accusers of all spiritual belief systems that would try to hamper enjoyment of our life as a human being."[239]

Post-LaVeyan Satanists, like the adherents ofThe Satanic Temple,argue that the human animal has a natural altruistic and communal tendency, and frame Satan as a figure of struggle against injustice and activism. They also believe in bodily autonomy, that personal beliefs should conform to science and inspire nobility, and that people should atone for their mistakes.[240]

Allegations of worship

A depiction ofSanta Muerte

The main deity in the tentativelyIndo-Europeanpantheon of theYazidis,Melek Taus,is similar to the devil in Christian and Islamic traditions, as he refused to bow down before humanity.[241][242]Therefore,ChristiansandMuslimsoften consider Melek Taus to be Satan.[241][242]However, rather than being Satanic, Yazidism can be understood as a remnant of a pre-IslamicMiddle EasternIndo-European religion, and/or aghulatSufimovement founded byShaykh Adi.In fact, there is no entity in Yazidism which represents evil in opposition to God; suchdualismis rejected by Yazidis.[243]

In theMiddle Ages,theCathars,practitioners of adualisticreligion, were accused of worshipping Satan by theCatholic Church.Pope Gregory IXstated in his workVox in Ramathat the Cathars believed that God had erred in castingLuciferout of heaven and that Lucifer would return to reward his faithful. On the other hand, according to Catharism, thecreator godof the material world worshipped by the Catholic Church is actually Satan.[244]

Wiccais a modern,syncreticNeopaganreligion,[245]whose practitioners many Christians have incorrectly assumed to worship Satan.[245]In actuality, Wiccans do not believe in the existence of Satan or any analogous figure[245]and have repeatedly and emphatically rejected the notion that they venerate such an entity.[245]The cult of the skeletal figure ofSanta Muerte,which has grown exponentially in Mexico,[246][247]has been denounced by the Catholic Church as Devil-worship.[248]However, devotees of Santa Muerte view her as anangel of deathcreated by God,[249]and many of them identify as Catholic.[250]

Much modern folklore about Satanism does not originate from the actual beliefs or practices of theistic or atheistic Satanists, but rather from a mixture of medieval Christian folk beliefs, political or sociological conspiracy theories, and contemporaryurban legends.[251][252][253][254]An example is theSatanic ritual abusescare of the 1980s—beginning with the memoirMichelle Remembers—which depicted Satanism as a vastconspiracyof elites with a predilection forchild abuseandhuman sacrifice.[252][253]This genre frequently describes Satan as physically incarnating in order to receive worship.[254]

In culture

See also:Devil in popular culture

In literature

If he was once as handsome as he now is ugly and, despite that, raised his brows against his Maker, one can understand,
how every sorrow has its source in him!

— DanteinInferno,Canto XXXIV (Verse translation byAllen Mandelbaum)

Here we may reign secure, and in my choice
to reign is worth ambition though in Hell:
Better to reign in Hell, than serve in Heaven.

— Satan inJohn Milton'sParadise LostBook I, lines 261–263

InDante Alighieri'sInferno,Satanappears as a giant demon, frozen mid-breast in ice at the center of theNinth Circle of Hell.[255][256]Satan has three faces and a pair of bat-like wings affixed under each chin.[257]In his three mouths, Satan gnaws onBrutus,Judas Iscariot, andCassius,[257]whom Dante regarded as having betrayed the "two greatest heroes of the human race":[258]Julius Caesar,the founder of the new order of government, and Jesus, the founder of the new order of religion.[258]As Satan beats his wings, he creates a cold wind that continues to freeze the ice surrounding him and the other sinners in the Ninth Circle.[257]Dante andVirgilclimb up Satan's shaggy legs until gravity is reversed and they fall through the earth into the southern hemisphere.[258]

Satan appears in several stories fromThe Canterbury TalesbyGeoffrey Chaucer,[259]including "The Summoner's Prologue",in which afriararrives in Hell and sees no other friars,[260]but is told there are millions.[260]Then Satan lifts his tail to reveal that all of the friars live inside his anus.[260]Chaucer's description of Satan's appearance is clearly based on Dante's.[260]The legend ofFaust,recorded in the 1589 chapbookThe History of the Damnable Life and the Deserved Death of Doctor John Faustus,[261]concerns a pact allegedly made by the German scholarJohann Georg Faustwith a demon namedMephistophelesagreeingto sell his soul to Satanin exchange for twenty-four years of earthly pleasure.[261]This chapbook became the source forChristopher Marlowe'sThe Tragical History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus.[262]

John Milton'sepic poemParadise LostfeaturesSatanas its main protagonist.[263][264]Milton portrays Satan as a tragicantiherodestroyed by his ownhubris.[264]The poem, which draws extensive inspiration fromGreek tragedy,[265]recreates Satan as a complex literary character,[266]who dares to rebel against the "tyranny" of God,[267][268]in spite of God's ownomnipotence.[267][269]The English poet and painterWilliam Blakefamously quipped that "The reason Milton wrote in fetters when he wrote of Angels & God, and at liberty when of Devils & Hell, is because he was a true poet and of the Devils party without knowing it."[270]Paradise Regained,the sequel toParadise Lost,is a retelling of Satan's temptation of Jesus in the desert.[271]

William Blake regarded Satan as a model ofrebellionagainstunjust authority[174]and features him in many of his poems and illustrations,[174]including his 1780 bookThe Marriage of Heaven and Hell,[174]in which Satan is celebrated as the ultimate rebel, the incarnation of human emotion and the epitome of freedom from all forms ofreasonandorthodoxy.[174]Based on the Biblical passages portraying Satan as the accuser of sin,[272]Blake interpreted Satan as "a promulgator of moral laws".[272]

In visual art

Early 6th century Byzantine mosaic Art, depictingJesus separating the sheep from the goats.The blue angel is possibly the earliest artistic depiction of Satan.[273]

Satan's appearance does not appear in the Bible or in early Christian writings,[274][275]thoughPaul the Apostledoes write that "Satan disguises himself as an angel of light" (2 Corinthians 11:14).[276]The Devil was never shown inearly Christian artwork[274][275]and may have first appeared in the sixth century in one of the mosaics of theBasilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo.The mosaic "Christ the Good Sheppard" features a blue-violet angel at the left hand side of Christ behind three goats; opposite to a red angel on the right hand side and in front of sheep.[273]Depictions of the devil became more common in the ninth century,[277][278]where he is shown with cloven hooves, hairy legs, the tail of a goat, pointed ears, a beard, a flat nose, and a set of horns.[279][275][149]Satan may have first become associated with goats through theParable of the Sheep and the Goats,recorded inMatthew 25:31–46,[280]in which Jesus separates sheep (representing the saved) from goats (representing the damned); the damned are thrown into an "everlasting fire" along with Satan and his angels.[83]

AncientRoman mosaicshowing a horned, goat-leggedPanholding ashepherd's crook.Much of Satan's traditional iconography is apparently derived from Pan.[279][275]

Medieval Christians were known to adapt previously existing pagan iconography to suit depictions of Christian figures.[279][275]Much of Satan's traditional iconography in Christianity appears to be derived fromPan,[279][275]a rustic, goat-legged fertility god inancient Greek religion.[279][275]Early Christian writers such asSaint Jeromeequated the Greeksatyrsand the Romanfauns,whom Pan resembled, with demons.[279][275]The Devil's pitchfork appears to have been adapted from thetridentwielded by the Greek godPoseidon[275]and Satan's flame-like hair seems to have originated from the Egyptian godBes.[275]By theHigh Middle Ages,Satan and devils appear in all works of Christian art: in paintings, sculptures, and on cathedrals.[281]Satan is usually depicted naked,[275]but his genitals are rarely shown and are often covered by animal furs.[275]The goat-like portrayal of Satan was especially closely associated with him in his role as the object of worship by sorcerers[282]and as theincubus,a demon believed to rape human women in their sleep.[282]

Italian frescoes from the late Middle Ages onward frequently show Satan chained in Hell, feeding on the bodies of the perpetually damned.[283]These frescoes are early enough to have inspired Dante's portrayal in hisInferno.[283]As the serpent in the Garden of Eden, Satan is often shown as a snake with arms and legs as well the head and full-breasted upper torso of a woman.[284]Satan and his demons could take any form in medieval art,[285]but, when appearing in their true form, they were often shown as short, hairy, black-skinned humanoids with clawed and bird feet and extra faces on their chests, bellies, genitals, buttocks, and tails.[285]The modern popular culture image of Satan as a well-dressed gentleman with small horns and a tail originates from portrayals of Mephistopheles in the operasLa damnation de Faust(1846) byHector Berlioz,Mefistofele(1868) byArrigo Boito,andFaustbyCharles Gounod.[282]

Illustrations of Satan/Iblis in Islamic paintings often depict him black-faced, a feature which would later symbolize any satanic figure or heretic, and with a black body, to symbolize his corrupted nature. Another common depiction of Iblis shows him wearing a special head covering, clearly different from the traditional Islamic turban. In one painting, however, Iblis wears a traditional Islamic head covering.[286]The turban probably refers to a narration of Iblis' fall: there he wore a turban, then he was sent down from heaven.[287]Many other pictures show and describe Iblis at the moment, when the angels prostrate themselves before Adam. Here, he is usually seen beyond the outcrop, his face transformed with his wings burned, to the envious countenance of a devil.[288]Iblis and his cohorts (divorshayatin) are often portrayed in Turko-Persian art as bangled creatures with flaming eyes, only covered by a short skirt. Similar to European arts, who took traits of pagan deities to depict devils, they depicted such demons often in a similar fashion to that of Hindu deities.[289]

In film and television

The Haunted Castle(1896) (3:12)

The Devil is depicted as avampire batinGeorges Méliès'The Haunted Castle(1896),[290]which is often considered the firsthorror film.[citation needed]So-called "Black Masses" have been portrayed in sensationalistB-moviessince the 1960s.[291]One of the first films to portray such a ritual was the 1965 filmEye of the Devil,also known as13.Alex Sanders,a former black magician, served as a consultant on the film to ensure that the rituals portrayed in it were depicted accurately.[292]Over the next thirty years, the novels ofDennis Wheatleyand the films ofHammer Film Productionsboth played a major role in shaping the popular image of Satanism.[291]

Thefilm versionofIra Levin'sRosemary's Babyestablished made Satanic themes a staple of mainstreamhorror fiction.[293]Later films such asThe Exorcist(1973),The Omen(1976),Angel Heart(1987) andThe Devil's Advocate(1997) feature Satan as an antagonist.[294]

TheTurkishhorror filmSemum(2008), based the representation of Satan onIslamic scriptures.Following the Quranic narrative, Satan and his servants have been cast away from the presence of God for dismissing the creation of humanity and seek revenge. The devils worship Satan as their new deity called by his angelic nameʿAzāzīl.The devils are challenged in hell, the supposed kingdom of Satan, by aHocanamed after the Islamic archangelMīkāʾīl.With aid of God's intervention, the devils are destroyed, while, in accordance with the Quranic depiction of Satan betraying his own servants, makes no appearance. Satan's absence during the final events is used to highlight the superiority of seeking refuge in God instead of Satan, even when Satan appears to be near and God far away.[295]

In music

Tartini's Dream(1824) byLouis-Léopold Boilly

References to Satan in music can be dated back to the Middle Ages.Giuseppe Tartiniwas inspired to write his most famous work, theViolin Sonata in G minor,also known as "The Devil's Trill", after dreaming of the Devil playing the violin. Tartini claimed that the sonata was a lesser imitation of what the Devil had played in his dream.[296]Niccolò Paganiniwas believed to have derived his musical talent from a deal with the Devil.[297]Charles Gounod'sFaustfeatures a narrative that involves Satan.[298]

In the early 1900s,jazzandbluesbecame known as the "Devil's Music" as they were considered "dangerous and unholy".[298]According to legend, blues musicianTommy Johnsonwas a terrible guitarist before exchanging his soul to the Devil for a guitar. Later,Robert Johnsonclaimed that he had sold his soul in return for becoming a great blues guitarist.[299]Satanic symbolism appears inrock musicfrom the 1960s.Mick Jaggerassumes the role of Lucifer inthe Rolling Stones' "Sympathy for the Devil"(1968),[298]whileBlack Sabbathportrayed the Devil in numerous songs, including "War Pigs"(1970) and"N.I.B."(1970).[300]

See also

Notes

  1. ^Hebrew:שָּׂטָן,romanized:sāṭān,lit. 'adversary';[1]Ancient Greek:ὁ σατανᾶςorσατάν,ho satanas/satan;[2]Arabic:الشَّيطانash-shayṭān,lit. 'astray', 'distant', or sometimes 'devil'
  2. ^In many cases, the translators of theSeptuagint,the pre-Christian translation of theHebrew Bibleintoancient Greek,chose to render the Hebrew wordsâtanas the Greek wordδιάβολος(diábolos), meaning "opponent" or "accuser".[3][2]This is the root of the modern English wordDevil.[2][4]Both the wordssatanasanddiábolosare used interchangeably in the New Testament and in later Christian writings.[2]ThePauline epistlesand theGospel of Markboth use the wordsatanasmore frequently thandiábolos,[2][5]but theGospel of Matthewuses the worddiábolosmore frequently and so do theChurch FathersJustin Martyr,Irenaeus,andOrigen.[2]
  3. ^The LatinVulgatetranslation of this passage rendersHeylelas "Lucifer"[121]and this name continues to be used by some Christians as an alternative name for Satan.[121]

References

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  5. ^Kelly 2006,p. 114.
  6. ^Baillie, E. M. (2014). Facing the Fiend: Satan as a Literary Character. England:Wipf and Stock Publishers.
  7. ^abKelly 2006,pp. 15–16.
  8. ^abcKelly 2006,p. 16.
  9. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrCampo 2009,p. 603.
  10. ^ed.Buttrick, George Arthur;The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, An illustrated Encyclopedia
  11. ^abKelly 2006,pp. 1–13, 28–29.
  12. ^Stephen M. Hooks – 2007 "As in Zechariah 3:1–2 the term here carries the definite article (has'satan=" the satan ") and functions not as a...the only place in the Hebrew Bible where the term" Satan "is unquestionably used as a proper name is1 Chronicles21:1. "
  13. ^Coogan, Michael D.;A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context,Oxford University Press, 2009
  14. ^Rachel AdelmanThe Return of the Repressed: Pirqe De-Rabbi Eliezerp65 "However, in the parallel versions of the story in Chronicles, it is Satan (without the definite article)"
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  17. ^Numbers 22:22
  18. ^2 Samuel 24
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Bibliography

Look upSatanin Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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Wikimedia Commons has media related toSatan.
  • The Devil,BBC Radio 4 discussion with Martin Palmer, Alison Rowlands and David Wootton (In Our Time,Dec. 11, 2003)
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