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"Scifi" redirects here. For other uses, seeScience fiction (disambiguation)andScifi (disambiguation).

Thealien invasionfeatured inH. G. Wells' 1897 novelThe War of the Worlds,as illustrated byHenrique Alvim Corrêa
vampire, face of little green man, feather pen (quill) and fire-breathing dragon – to the right of that are scripted words "Speculative (over) Fiction"
Speculative fiction
Alternate history
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Space exploration,as predicted in August 1958 by thescience fiction magazineImagination

Science fiction(sometimes shortened toSForsci-fi) is agenreofspeculative fiction,which typically deals withimaginativeandfuturisticconcepts such as advancedscienceandtechnology,space exploration,time travel,parallel universes,andextraterrestrial life.It is related tofantasy,horror,andsuperhero fictionand contains manysubgenres.Itsexact definitionhas long been disputed among authors, critics, scholars, and readers.

Science fiction, inliterature,film,television,and other media, has become popular and influential over much of the world. It has been called the "literature ofideas",and has sometimes been described as an exploration of the potential consequences ofscientific, social, and technological innovations[1][2]or as an outlet to anticipate future scientific and technological innovations.[3]Besides providingentertainment,it can also criticize present-day society and explore alternatives. It is also often said to inspire a "sense of wonder".[4]

Definitions

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Main article:Definitions of science fiction

According toIsaac Asimov,"Science fiction can be defined as that branch of literature which deals with the reaction of human beings to changes inscienceandtechnology."[5]Robert A. Heinleinwrote that "A handy short definition of almost all science fiction might read: realistic speculation about possible future events, based solidly on adequate knowledge of the real world, past and present, and on a thorough understanding of the nature and significance of thescientific method."[6]

American science fiction author and editorLester del Reywrote, "Even the devoted aficionado or fan—has a hard time trying to explain what science fiction is," and the lack of a "full satisfactory definition" is because "there are no easily delineated limits to science fiction."[7]

Another definition comes fromThe Literature BookbyDKand is, "scenarios that are at the time of writing technologically impossible, extrapolating from present-day science...[,]...or that deal with some form of speculative science-based conceit, such as a society (on Earth or another planet) that has developed in wholly different ways from our own."[8]

Part of the reason that it is so difficult to pin down an agreed definition of science fiction is because there is a tendency among science fiction enthusiasts to act as their own arbiter in deciding what exactly constitutes science fiction.[9]Damon Knightsummed up the difficulty, saying "Science fiction is what we point to when we say it."[10]David Seed says it may be more useful to talk about science fiction as the intersection of other, more concrete, genres and subgenres.[11]

Alternative terms

[edit]
Further information:Skiffy

Forrest J Ackermanhas been credited with first using the term "sci-fi" (analogous to the then-trendy "hi-fi") in about 1954;[12]the first known use in print was a description ofDonovan's Brainby movie critic Jesse Zunser in January 1954.[13]As science fiction enteredpopular culture,writers and fans active in the field came to associate the term with low-budget, low-tech "B-movies"and with low-qualitypulp science fiction.[14][15][16]By the 1970s, critics within the field, such asDamon KnightandTerry Carr,were using "sci fi" to distinguish hack-work from serious science fiction.[17]Peter Nichollswrites that "SF" (or "sf" ) is "the preferred abbreviation within the community of sf writers and readers."[18]Robert Heinleinfound even "science fiction" insufficient for certain types of works in this genre, and suggested the termspeculative fictionto be used instead for those that are more "serious" or "thoughtful".[19]

History

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Main articles:History of science fictionandTimeline of science fiction
H. G. Wells

Some scholars assert that science fiction had its beginnings inancient times,when the line betweenmythandfactwas blurred.[20]Written in the 2nd century CE by thesatiristLucian,A True Storycontains many themes and tropes characteristic of modern science fiction, including travel to other worlds,extraterrestrial lifeforms,interplanetary warfare, andartificial life.Some consider it the first science fictionnovel.[21]Some of the stories fromThe Arabian Nights,[22][23]along with the 10th-centuryThe Tale of the Bamboo Cutter[23]andIbn al-Nafis's 13th-centuryTheologus Autodidactus,[24]are also argued to contain elements of science fiction.

SomniumbyJohannes Kepler

Written during theScientific Revolutionand theAge of Enlightenment,Johannes Kepler'sSomnium(1634),Francis Bacon'sNew Atlantis(1627),[25]Athanasius Kircher'sItinerarium extaticum(1656),[26]Cyrano de Bergerac'sComical History of the States and Empires of the Moon(1657) andThe States and Empires of the Sun(1662),Margaret Cavendish's "The Blazing World"(1666),[27][28][29][30]Jonathan Swift'sGulliver's Travels(1726),Ludvig Holberg'sNicolai Klimii Iter Subterraneum(1741) andVoltaire'sMicromégas(1752) are sometimes regarded as some of the first truescience-fantasyworks.[31]Isaac AsimovandCarl SaganconsideredSomniumthe first science fiction story; it depicts a journey to theMoonand how theEarth's motion is seen from there.[32][33]Kepler has been called the "father of science fiction".[34][35]

Following the 17th-century development of thenovelas aliterary form,Mary Shelley'sFrankenstein(1818) andThe Last Man(1826) helped define the form of the science fiction novel.Brian Aldisshas argued thatFrankensteinwas the first work of science fiction.[36][37]Edgar Allan Poewrote several stories considered to be science fiction, including "The Unparalleled Adventure of One Hans Pfaall"(1835), which featured a trip to theMoon.[38][39]Jules Vernewas noted for his attention to detail and scientific accuracy, especially inTwenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas(1870).[40][41][42][43]In 1887, the novelEl anacronópeteby Spanish authorEnrique Gaspar y Rimbauintroduced the firsttime machine.[44][45]An early French/Belgian science fiction writer wasJ.-H. Rosny aîné(1856–1940). Rosny's masterpiece isLes Navigateurs de l'Infini(The Navigators of Infinity) (1925) in which the word astronaut, "astronautique", was used for the first time.[46][47]

Many critics consider H. G. Wells one of science fiction's most important authors,[40][48]or even "theShakespeareof science fiction ".[49]His notable science fiction works includeThe Time Machine(1895),The Island of Doctor Moreau(1896),The Invisible Man(1897), andThe War of the Worlds(1898). His science fiction imaginedalien invasion,biological engineering,invisibility,andtime travel.In hisnon-fictionfuturologistworks he predicted the advent ofairplanes,military tanks,nuclear weapons,satellite television,space travel,and something resembling theWorld Wide Web.[50]

Edgar Rice Burroughs'A Princess of Mars,published in 1912, was the first of his three-decade-longplanetary romanceseries ofBarsoom novels,which were set onMarsand featuredJohn Carteras thehero.[51]These novels were predecessors toYA novels,and drew inspiration from European science fiction and AmericanWestern novels.[52]

In 1924,Weby Russian writerYevgeny Zamyatin,one of the firstdystopiannovels, was published.[53]It describes a world of harmony and conformity within a unitedtotalitarian state.It influenced the emergence of dystopia as aliterary genre.[54]

In 1926,Hugo Gernsbackpublished the firstAmericanscience fiction magazine,Amazing Stories.In its first issue he wrote:

By 'scientifiction' I mean the Jules Verne, H. G. Wells and Edgar Allan Poe type of story—a charming romance intermingled with scientific fact and prophetic vision... Not only do these amazing tales make tremendously interesting reading—they are always instructive. They supply knowledge... in a very palatable form... New adventures pictured for us in the scientifiction of today are not at all impossible of realization tomorrow... Many great science stories destined to be of historical interest are still to be written... Posterity will point to them as having blazed a new trail, not only in literature and fiction, but progress as well.[55][56][57]

In 1928,E. E. "Doc" Smith's first published work,The Skylark of Space,written in collaboration withLee Hawkins Garby,appeared inAmazing Stories.It is often called the first greatspace opera.[58]The same year,Philip Francis Nowlan's originalBuck Rogersstory,Armageddon 2419,also appeared inAmazing Stories.This was followed by a Buck Rogerscomic strip,the first seriousscience fiction comic.[59]

In 1937,John W. CampbellbecameeditorofAstounding Science Fiction,an event that is sometimes considered the beginning of theGolden Age of Science Fiction,which was characterized by stories celebrating scientific achievement andprogress.[60][61]In 1942,Isaac Asimovstarted hisFoundation series,which chronicles the rise and fall of galactic empires and introducedpsychohistory.[62][63]The series was later awarded a one-timeHugo Awardfor "Best All-Time Series".[64][65]The "Golden Age" is often said to have ended in 1946, but sometimes the late 1940s and the 1950s are included.[66]

Theodore Sturgeon'sMore Than Human(1953) explored possible futurehuman evolution.[67][68][69]In 1957,Andromeda: A Space-Age Taleby theRussianwriter andpaleontologistIvan Yefremovpresented a view of a future interstellarcommunistcivilization and is considered one of the most importantSovietscience fiction novels.[70][71]In 1959,Robert A. Heinlein'sStarship Troopersmarked a departure from his earlier juvenile stories and novels.[72]It is one of the first and most influential examples ofmilitary science fiction,[73][74]and introduced the concept ofpowered armorexoskeletons.[75][76][77]TheGermanspace operaseriesPerry Rhodan,written by various authors, started in 1961 with an account of the firstMoon landing[78]and has since expanded inspaceto multipleuniverses,and intimeby billions of years.[79]It has become the most popular science fictionbook seriesof all time.[80]

In the 1960s and 1970s,New Wave science fictionwas known for its embrace of a high degree of experimentation, both in form and in content, and ahighbrowandself-consciously"literary"or"artistic"sensibility.[81][82]In 1961,SolarisbyStanisław Lemwas published inPoland.[83]The novel dealt with thethemeofhumanlimitations as its characters attempted to study a seeminglyintelligentoceanon a newly discoveredplanet.[84][85]1965'sDunebyFrank Herbertfeatured a much more complex and detailed imagined future society than had previous science fiction.[86]

In 1967Anne McCaffreybegan herDragonriders of Pernscience fantasyseries.[87]Two of the novellas included in the first novel,Dragonflight,made McCaffrey the first woman to win aHugoorNebula Award.[88]In 1968,Philip K. Dick'sDo Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?,was published. It is the literary source of theBlade Runnermovie franchise.[89][90]1969'sThe Left Hand of DarknessbyUrsula K. Le Guinwas set on a planet in which the inhabitants have no fixedgender.It is one of the most influential examples ofsocial science fiction,feminist science fiction,andanthropological science fiction.[91][92][93]

In 1979,Science Fiction Worldbegan publication in thePeople's Republic of China.[94]It dominates the Chinesescience fiction magazinemarket,at one time claiming a circulation of 300,000 copies per issue and an estimated 3–5 readers per copy (giving it a total estimated readership of at least 1 million), making it the world's most popular science fictionperiodical.[95]

In 1984,William Gibson's first novel,Neuromancer,helped popularizecyberpunkand the word "cyberspace",a term he originallycoinedin his 1982short storyBurning Chrome.[96][97][98]In 1986,Shards of HonorbyLois McMaster Bujoldbegan herVorkosigan Saga.[99][100]1992'sSnow CrashbyNeal Stephensonpredictedimmense social upheaval due to theinformation revolution.[101]

In 2007,Liu Cixin's novel,The Three-Body Problem,was published in China. It was translated into English byKen Liuand published byTor Booksin 2014,[102]and won the 2015Hugo Award for Best Novel,[103]making Liu the first Asian writer to win the award.[104]

Emerging themes in late 20th and early 21st century science fiction includeenvironmental issues,the implications of theInternetand the expanding information universe, questions aboutbiotechnology,nanotechnology,andpost-scarcitysocieties.[105][106]Recent trends andsubgenresincludesteampunk,[107]biopunk,[108][109]andmundane science fiction.[110][111]

Film

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Main articles:Science fiction filmandLists of science fiction films
TheMaschinenmenschfromMetropolis

The first, or at least one of the first, recorded science fictionfilmis 1902'sA Trip to the Moon,directed byFrenchfilmmakerGeorges Méliès.[112]It was profoundly influential on laterfilmmakers,bringing a different kind ofcreativityandfantasyto the cinematicmedium.[113][114]In addition, Méliès's innovativeeditingandspecial effectstechniques were widely imitated and became important elements of the medium.[115][116]

1927'sMetropolis,directed byFritz Lang,is the firstfeature-lengthscience fiction film.[117]Though not well received in its time,[118]it is now considered a great and influential film.[119][120][121]

In 1954,Godzilla,directed byIshirō Honda,began thekaijusubgenreof science fiction film, which feature large creatures of any form, usually attacking amajor cityor engaging othermonstersinbattle.[122][123]

1968's2001: A Space Odyssey,directed byStanley Kubrickand based on the work ofArthur C. Clarke,rose above the mostlyB-movieofferings up to that time both in scope and quality, and greatly influenced later science fiction films.[124][125][126][127]That same year,Planet of the Apes(the original), directed byFranklin J. Schaffnerand based on the 1963FrenchnovelLa Planète des SingesbyPierre Boulle,was released to popular and critical acclaim, due in large part to its vivid depiction of apost-apocalyptic worldin which intelligentapesdominatehumans.[128]

In 1977,George Lucasbegan theStar Warsfilm serieswith the film now identified as "Star Wars: Episode IV – A New Hope."[129]The series, often called aspace opera,[130]went on to become a worldwidepopular culturephenomenon,[131][132]and thesecond-highest-grossing film seriesof all time.[133]

Since the 1980s,science fiction films,along withfantasy,horror,andsuperherofilms, have dominatedHollywood'sbig-budget productions.[134][133]Science fiction films often "cross-over"with other genres, includinganimation(WALL-E– 2008,Big Hero 6– 2014),gangster(Sky Racket– 1937),Western(Serenity– 2005),comedy(Spaceballs−1987,Galaxy Quest– 1999),war(Enemy Mine– 1985),action(Edge of Tomorrow– 2014,The Matrix– 1999),adventure(Jupiter Ascending– 2015,Interstellar– 2014),sports(Rollerball– 1975),mystery(Minority Report– 2002),thriller(Ex Machina– 2014),horror(Alien– 1979),film noir(Blade Runner– 1982),superhero(Marvel Cinematic Universe– 2008–),drama(Melancholia– 2011,Predestination– 2014), andromance(Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind– 2004,Her– 2013).[135]

Television

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Main articles:Science fiction on televisionandList of science fiction television programs
Don Hastings (left) and Al Hodge inCaptain Video and His Video Rangers

Science fiction andtelevisionhave consistently been in a close relationship. Television or television-liketechnologiesfrequently appeared in science fiction long before television itself became widely available in the late 1940s and early 1950s.[136]

The first known science fiction television program was a thirty-five-minuteadaptedexcerpt of the playRUR,written by theCzechplaywrightKarel Čapek,broadcastlivefrom the BBC'sAlexandra Palacestudios on 11 February 1938.[137]The first popular science fiction program onAmerican televisionwas thechildren'sadventureserialCaptain Video and His Video Rangers,which ran from June 1949 to April 1955.[138]

The Twilight Zone(the original series), produced and narrated byRod Serling,who also wrote or co-wrote most of the episodes, ran from 1959 to 1964. It featuredfantasy,suspense,andhorroras well as science fiction, with each episode being a complete story.[139][140]Criticshave ranked it as one of the bestTV programsof anygenre.[141][142]

TheanimatedseriesThe Jetsons,while intended ascomedyand only running for oneseason(1962–1963),predictedmany inventions now in common use:flat-screentelevisions,newspaperson acomputer-likescreen,computer viruses,video chat,tanning beds,hometreadmills,and more.[143]In 1963, the time travel-themedDoctor Whopremiered on BBC Television.[144]The original series ran until 1989 and was revived in 2005.[145]It has been extremelypopularworldwide and has greatly influenced later TV science fiction.[146][147][148]Other programs in the 1960s includedThe Outer Limits(1963–1965),[149]Lost in Space(1965–1968), andThe Prisoner(1967).[150][151][152]

Star Trek(the original series), created byGene Roddenberry,premiered in 1966 onNBC Televisionand ran for three seasons.[153]It combined elements ofspace operaandSpace Western.[154]Only mildly successful at first, the series gainedpopularitythroughsyndicationand extraordinaryfan interest.It became a very popular and influentialfranchisewith manyfilms,television shows,novels,and other works and products.[155][156][157][158]Star Trek: The Next Generation(1987–1994) led to six additional live actionStar Trekshows:Deep Space Nine(1993–1999),Voyager(1995–2001),Enterprise(2001–2005),Discovery(2017–present),Picard(2020–2023), andStrange New Worlds(2022–present), with more in some form of development.[159][160][161][162]

TheminiseriesVpremiered in 1983 on NBC.[163]It depicted an attempted takeover of Earth byreptilian aliens.[164]Red Dwarf,acomic science fictionseries aired onBBC Twobetween 1988 and 1999, and onDavesince 2009.[165]The X-Files,which featuredUFOsandconspiracy theories,was created byChris Carterand broadcast byFox Broadcasting Companyfrom 1993 to 2002,[166][167]and again from 2016 to 2018.[168][169]Stargate,a film aboutancient astronautsand interstellarteleportation,was released in 1994.Stargate SG-1premiered in 1997 and ran for 10 seasons (1997–2007). Spin-off series includedStargate Infinity(2002–2003),Stargate Atlantis(2004–2009), andStargate Universe(2009–2011).[170]Other 1990s series includedQuantum Leap(1989–1993) andBabylon 5(1994–1999).[171]

SyFy,launched in 1992 as The Sci-Fi Channel,[172]specializes in science fiction,supernatural horror,andfantasy.[173][174]

The space-Western seriesFireflypremiered in 2002 on Fox. It is set in the year 2517, after the arrival of humans in a new star system, and follows the adventures of the renegade crew ofSerenity,a "Firefly-class "spaceship.[175]Orphan Blackbegan its five-season run in 2013, about a woman who assumes the identity of one of her several genetically identical human clones. In late 2015SyFypremieredThe Expanseto great critical acclaim, an American TV series about humanity's colonization of the Solar System. Its later seasons would then be aired throughAmazon Prime Video.

Social influence

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Science fiction's rapid rise in popularity during the first half of the 20th century was closely tied to the popular respect paid to science at that time, as well as the rapid pace oftechnological innovationand newinventions.[176]Science fiction has oftenpredictedscientific and technologicalprogress.[177][178]

Some works predict that new inventions and progress will tend to improve life and society, for instance the stories ofArthur C. ClarkeandStar Trek.[179]Others, such asH.G. Wells'sThe Time MachineandAldous Huxley'sBrave New World,warn about possible negative consequences.[180][181]

In 2001 theNational Science Foundationconducted asurveyon "PublicAttitudesand Public Understanding: Science Fiction andPseudoscience".[182]It found that people who read or prefer science fiction may think about or relate to science differently than other people. They also tend to support thespace programand the idea of contactingextraterrestrial civilizations.[182][183]Carl Saganwrote: "Many scientists deeply involved in the exploration of thesolar system(myself among them) were first turned in that direction by science fiction. "[184]

Science fictionhas predicted several existing inventions,such as theatomic bomb,[185]robots,[186]andborazon.[187]In the 2020 seriesAwayastronauts use a real-life Mars rover called InSight to listen intently for a landing onMars.Two years later in 2022 scientists used InSight to listen for the landing of a real spacecraft.[188]

Brian Aldissdescribed science fiction as "cultural wallpaper".[189]Evidence for this widespread influence can be found in trends for writers to employ science fiction as a tool for advocacy and generating cultural insights, as well as for educators when teaching across a range of academic disciplines not limited to the natural sciences.[190]

Scholar and science fiction criticGeorge Edgar Slussersaid that science fiction "is the one real internationalliterary formwe have today, and as such has branched out tovisual media,interactive mediaand on to whatever new media the world will invent in the 21st century. Crossover issues between thesciencesand thehumanitiesare crucial for thecenturyto come. "[191]

Science fiction in Latin America and Spain has been around for decades although not as well known. The concept ofauthoritarianismin Latin America has been prevalent in certain stories from this genre.[192]

As protest literature

[edit]
Further information:Social novel
"Happy 1984" in Spanish or Portuguese, referencingGeorge Orwell'sNineteen Eighty-Four,on a standing piece of theBerlin Wall(sometime after 1998)

Science fiction has sometimes been used as a means ofsocial protest.George Orwell'sNineteen Eighty-Four(1949) is an important work ofdystopian science fiction.[193][194]It is often invoked in protests against governments and leaders who are seen astotalitarian.[195][196]James Cameron's 2009 filmAvatarwas intended as a protest againstimperialism,and specifically theEuropean colonization of the Americas.[197]

Robots,artificial humans,humanclones,intelligentcomputers,and their possible conflicts with human society have all been major themes of science fiction since, at least, the publication of Shelly'sFrankenstein.Some critics have seen this as reflecting authors' concerns over thesocial alienationseen in modern society.[198]

Feminist science fictionposes questions about social issues such as how society constructsgender roles,the rolereproductionplays in defininggender,and the inequitable political or personal power of one gender over others. Some works have illustrated these themes usingutopiasto explore a society in which gender differences or gender power imbalances do not exist, ordystopiasto explore worlds in whichgender inequalitiesare intensified, thus asserting a need for feminist work to continue.[199][200]

Climate fiction,or "cli-fi", deals with issues concerningclimate changeandglobal warming.[201][202]Universitycoursesonliteratureandenvironmental issuesmay include climate change fiction in theirsyllabi,[203]and it is often discussed by othermediaoutside ofscience fiction fandom.[204]

Libertarian science fictionfocuses on thepoliticsandsocial orderimplied byright libertarianphilosophies with an emphasis onindividualismandprivate property,and in some casesanti-statism.[205]Robert A. Heinleinis one of the most popular authors of this subgenre, writingThe Moon is a Harsh MistressandStranger in a Strange Land.[206]

Science fiction comedyoftensatirizesandcriticizespresent-daysociety,and sometimes makes fun of theconventionsandclichésof more serious science fiction.[207][208]

The potential for Science Fiction as agenreis not just limited to being a literary sandbox for exploring otherworldly narratives but can act as a vehicle to analyze and recognize a society's past, present, and potential futuresocial relationshipswiththe Other.More specifically, Science Fiction offers a medium and representation ofAlterityand differences insocial identity.[209]

Sense of wonder

[edit]
Main article:Sense of wonder
Further information:Wonder (emotion)
1894 illustration byAubrey BeardsleyforLucian'sA True Story

Science fiction is often said to inspire a "sense of wonder".Science fiction editor, publisher and criticDavid Hartwellwrote: "Science fiction's appeal lies in combination of the rational, the believable, with the miraculous. It is an appeal to the sense of wonder."[210]

Carl Sagan said:

One of the great benefits of science fiction is that it can convey bits and pieces, hints, and phrases, of knowledge unknown or inaccessible to the reader... works you ponder over as the water is running out of the bathtub or as you walk through the woods in an early winter snowfall.[184]

In 1967, Isaac Asimov commented on the changes then occurring in the science fiction community:

And because today's real life so resembles day-before-yesterday's fantasy, the old-time fans are restless. Deep within, whether they admit it or not, is a feeling of disappointment and even outrage that the outer world has invaded their private domain. They feel the loss of a 'sense of wonder' because what was once truly confined to 'wonder' has now become prosaic and mundane.[211]

Science fiction studies

[edit]
Main article:Science fiction studies

The study of science fiction, orscience fiction studies,is thecriticalassessment,interpretation,anddiscussionof science fictionliterature,film,TV shows,new media,fandom,andfan fiction.[212]Science fictionscholarsstudy science fiction to better understand it and its relationship to science, technology, politics, other genres, and culture-at-large.[213]

Science fiction studies began around the turn of the 20th century, but it was not until later that science fiction studies solidified as a discipline with the publication of the academic journalsExtrapolation(1959),Foundation: The International Review of Science Fiction(1972), andScience Fiction Studies(1973),[214][215]and the establishment of the oldest organizations devoted to thestudyof science fiction in 1970, theScience Fiction Research Associationand theScience Fiction Foundation.[216][217]The field has grown considerably since the 1970s with the establishment of morejournals,organizations,andconferences,as well as science fictiondegree-granting programs such as those offered by theUniversity of Liverpool.[218]

Classification

[edit]
Further information:Hard science fictionandSoft science fiction

Science fiction has historically been sub-divided betweenhard science fictionandsoft science fiction,with the division centering on the feasibility of the science central to the story.[219]However, this distinction has come under increasing scrutiny in the 21st century. Someauthors,such asTade ThompsonandJeff VanderMeer,have pointed out that stories that focus explicitly onphysics,astronomy,mathematics,andengineeringtend to be considered "hard" science fiction, while stories that focus onbotany,mycology,zoology,and thesocial sciencestend to be categorized as "soft", regardless of the relativerigorof the science.[220]

Max Gladstonedefined "hard" science fiction as stories "where themathworks ", but pointed out that this ends up with stories that often seem" weirdly dated ", as scientificparadigmsshift over time.[221]Michael Swanwickdismissed the traditional definition of "hard" SF altogether, instead saying that it was defined by characters striving to solve problems "in the right way–withdetermination,a touch ofstoicism,and theconsciousnessthat theuniverseis not on his or her side. "[220]

Ursula K. Le Guinalso criticized the more traditional view on the difference between "hard" and "soft" SF: "The 'hard' science fiction writers dismiss everything except, well,physics,astronomy,and maybechemistry.Biology,sociology,anthropology—that's notscienceto them, that's soft stuff. They're not that interested in whathuman beingsdo, really. But I am. I draw on thesocial sciencesa great deal. "[222]

Literary merit

[edit]
Further information:LiteratureandLiterary fiction
Engraving showing a naked man awaking on the floor and another man fleeing in horror. A skull and a book are next to the naked man and a window, with the moon shining through it, is in the background
Illustration byTheodor von Holstfor 1831 edition ofMary Shelley'sFrankenstein[223]

Many critics remain skeptical of theliterary valueof science fiction and other forms ofgenre fiction,though some accepted authors have written works argued by opponents to constitute science fiction.Mary Shelleywrote a number ofscientific romancenovels in theGothic literaturetradition, includingFrankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus(1818).[224]Kurt Vonnegutwas a highly respected American author whose works have been argued by some to contain science fiction premises or themes.[225][226]

Other science fiction authors whose works are widely considered to be "serious" literature includeRay Bradbury(including, especially,Fahrenheit 451(1953) andThe Martian Chronicles(1951)),[227]Arthur C. Clarke(especially forChildhood's End),[228][229]and Paul Myron Anthony Linebarger, writing under the nameCordwainer Smith.[230]Doris Lessing,who was later awarded theNobel Prize in literature,wrote a series of five SFnovels,Canopus in Argos: Archives(1979–1983), which depict the efforts of more advanced species and civilizations to influence those less advanced, including humans on Earth.[231][232][233][234]

David Barnetthas pointed out that there are books such asThe Road(2006) byCormac McCarthy,Cloud Atlas(2004) byDavid Mitchell,The Gone-Away World(2008) byNick Harkaway,The Stone Gods(2007) byJeanette Winterson,andOryx and Crake(2003) byMargaret Atwood,which use recognizable science fictiontropes,but which are not classified by their authors and publishers as science fiction.[235]Atwood in particular argued against the categorization of works likethe Handmaid's Taleas science fiction, labeling it,Oryx,andthe Testamentsasspeculative fiction[236]and deriding science fiction as "talking squids in outer space."[237]

In his book "The Western Canon", literary criticHarold BloomincludesBrave New World,Stanisław Lem'sSolaris,Kurt Vonnegut'sCat's Cradle,andThe Left Hand of Darknessas culturally and aesthetically significant works of western literature, though Lem actively spurned the Western label of "science fiction"[238]while Vonnegut was more commonly classified as apostmodernistor satirist.

In her 1976 essay "Science Fiction and Mrs Brown",Ursula K. Le Guinwas asked: "Can a science fiction writer write a novel?" She answered: "I believe that all novels... deal withcharacter... The great novelists have brought us to see whatever they wish us to see through some character. Otherwise, they would not be novelists, but poets, historians, or pamphleteers. "[239]

Orson Scott Card,best known for his 1985 science fiction novelEnder's Game,has postulated that in science fiction the message and intellectual significance of the work are contained within the story itself and, therefore, does not require accepted literary devices and techniques he instead characterized asgimmicksor literary games.[240][241]

Jonathan Lethem,in a 1998essayin theVillage Voiceentitled "Close Encounters: The Squandered Promise of Science Fiction", suggested that the point in 1973 whenThomas Pynchon'sGravity's Rainbowwas nominated for theNebula Awardand was passed over in favor of Clarke'sRendezvous with Rama,stands as "a hidden tombstone marking the death of the hope that SF was about to merge with the mainstream."[242]In the same year science fiction author and physicistGregory Benfordwrote: "SF is perhaps the defining genre of the twentieth century, although its conquering armies are still camped outside theRomeof the literary citadels. "[243]

Community

[edit]

Authors

[edit]
See also:List of science fiction authors

Science fiction is being written, and has been written, bydiverseauthors from around the world. According to 2013 statistics by the science fictionpublisherTor Books,men outnumber women by 78% to 22% among submissions to the publisher.[244]A controversy about voting slatesin the 2015Hugo Awardshighlighted tensions in the science fiction community between a trend of increasingly diverse works and authors being honored by awards, and reaction by groups of authors and fans who preferred what they considered more "traditional"science fiction.[245]

Awards

[edit]
Main article:List of science fiction awards

Among the most significant and well-known awards for science fiction are theHugo Awardforliterature,presented by theWorld Science Fiction SocietyatWorldcon,and voted on by fans;[246]theNebula Awardfor literature, presented by theScience Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America,and voted on by the community of authors;[247]theJohn W. Campbell Memorial Award for Best Science Fiction Novel,presented by a jury of writers;[248]and theTheodore Sturgeon Memorial Awardforshort fiction,presented by a jury.[249]One notable award for science fiction films and TV programs is theSaturn Award,which is presented annually byThe Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Horror Films.[250]

There are other national awards, like Canada'sPrix Aurora Awards,[251]regional awards, like theEndeavour Awardpresented atOryconfor works from theU.S. Pacific Northwest,[252]and special interest orsubgenreawards such as theChesley Awardfor art, presented by the Association of Science Fiction & Fantasy Artists,[253]or theWorld Fantasy Awardfor fantasy.[254]Magazines may organize reader polls, notably theLocus Award.[255]

Conventions

[edit]
Main article:Science fiction convention
WriterPamela Deanreading at the Minneapolis convention known asMiniconin 2006

Conventions(in fandom, often shortened as "cons", such as "comic-con") are held incitiesaround theworld,catering to a local, regional, national, or international membership.[256][52][257]General-interestconventions cover all aspects of science fiction, while others focus on a particular interest likemedia fandom,filking,and so on.[258][259]Mostscience fiction conventionsare organized byvolunteersinnon-profit groups,though most media-oriented events are organized bycommercialpromoters.[260]

Fandom and fanzines

[edit]
Main articles:Science fiction fandomandScience-fiction fanzine

Science fiction fandomemerged from theletters columninAmazing Storiesmagazine.Soon fans began writinglettersto each other, and then grouping their comments together in informalpublicationsthat became known as fanzines.[261]Once in regular contact, fans wanted to meet each other and organized local clubs.[261][262]In the 1930s, the firstscience fiction conventionsgathered fans from a wider area.[262]

The earliest organized onlinefandomwas the SF Lovers Community, originally amailing listin the late 1970s with a textarchive filethat was updated regularly.[263]In the 1980s,Usenetgroups greatly expanded the circle of fansonline.[264]In the 1990s, the development of theWorld-Wide Webexploded thecommunityof online fandom by orders of magnitude, with thousands and then millions ofwebsitesdevoted to science fiction and relatedgenresfor all media.[265]

The firstscience fiction fanzine,The Comet,was published in 1930 by the Science Correspondence Club in Chicago, Illinois.[266][267]One of the best known fanzines today isAnsible,editedbyDavid Langford,winner of numerousHugo awards.[268][269]Other notable fanzines to win one or more Hugo awards includeFile 770,Mimosa,andPlokta.[270]Artistsworking for fanzines have frequently risen to prominence in the field, includingBrad W. Foster,Teddy Harvia,and Joe Mayhew; theHugosinclude a category forBest Fan Artists.[270]

Elements

[edit]
Plaque atRiverside, Iowa,to honor the "future birth" ofStar Trek'sJames T. Kirk

Science fiction elements can include, among others:

International examples

[edit]

Subgenres

[edit]
For a topical guide, seeOutline of science fiction.
[edit]
Main article:Speculative fiction

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
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General and cited sources

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