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Science and technology in Russia

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Shukhov Towerin Moscow.

Science and technology in Russiahave developed rapidly since theAge of Enlightenment,whenPeter the Greatfounded theRussian Academy of SciencesandSaint Petersburg State UniversityandpolymathMikhail Lomonosovfounded theMoscow State University,establishing a strong native tradition in learning and innovation.

In the 19th and 20th centuries,Russiaproduced many notablescientists,making important contributions inphysics,astronomy,mathematics,computing,chemistry,biology,geologyandgeography.Russian inventorsand engineers excelled in such areas aselectrical engineering,shipbuilding,aerospace,weaponry,communications,IT,nuclear technologyandspace technology.

The crisis of the 1990s led to the drastic reduction of state support for science and technology, leading many Russian scientists and university graduates to move to Western Europe or the United States. In the 2000s, on the wave of a new economic boom, the situation has improved, and the Russian governmentlaunched a campaignaimed intomodernisationandinnovationwith mixed success.[citation needed]

History[edit]

Main articles:Timeline of Russian inventions and technology records,Russian scientists,andRussian inventors
Mikhail Lomonosov,Russianpolymathscientist, inventor, poet and artist, the founder ofMoscow State University.

At the start of the 18th century thereforms of Peter the Great(founder of the Russian Academy of Sciences and Saint Petersburg State University) and the work of such champions as polymath Mikhail Lomonosov (the founder of Moscow State University) gave a great boost to the development of science and innovation in Russia.

Many famous Russian scientists and inventors wereémigrés,likeIgor Sikorsky,credited with the invention of the first helicopters,Vladimir Zworykin,often called the father of TV, chemistIlya Prigogine,noted for his work ondissipative structuresandcomplex systems(1977Nobel Prize for Chemistry), economistsSimon Kuznets(1971Nobel Prize) andWassily Leontief(1973Nobel Prize), physicistGeorgiy Gamov(an author of theBig Bangtheory), engineerAlexander M. Poniatoff,who created the world's firstrotary head recorderand social scientistPitirim Sorokinwho played an important role in development of sociology in the US. Many foreigners such asLeonhard EulerandAlfred Nobelworked in Russia for a long time.[1][2]

Despite many technological achievements in the 19th and 20th centuries, since the time ofBrezhnev stagnationRussia has lagged significantly behindthe Westin a number of technologies, especially those concerningenergy conservationandconsumer goodsproduction. The crisis of the 1990s led to the drastic reduction of state support for science. Many Russian scientists and university graduates left Russia for Europe or United States; this migration is known as a "brain drain".

In the 2000s, on the wave of a new economic boom, the situation in the Russian science and technology has improved, and the government launched a campaign to encourage modernisation and innovation. Russian PresidentDmitry Medvedevformulated the top five priorities for the country's technological development:energy efficiency,IT (including both common products and the products combined withspace technology),nuclear energyandpharmaceuticals.[citation needed]Some progress already has been achieved, with Russia's having nearly completedGLONASS,the only globalsatellite navigation systemapart from AmericanGPS,EuropeanGalileoand ChineseBeiDou,and Russia's being the only country constructingmobile nuclear plants.

Science and education[edit]

Main articles:Russian Academy of Sciences,Education in Russia,andList of Russian scientists

Physics[edit]

Main article:List of Russian physicists

The Russianphysicsschool began to develop after Lomonosov who proposed the law of conservation of matter preceding theenergy conservation law.Early in the development ofelectrodynamics,Vasily Petrovdiscovered theelectric arceffect in 1802 andHeinrich Lenzdiscovered the importantlawnamed in his honor.Nikolay Umovdiscovered a fundamental concept of theUmov–Poynting vectorand was the first scientist to indicate an interrelation between mass and energy, proposing the formulaas early as in 1873.[3]Alexander Popovwas among theinventors of radio.

During the 20th century, Russian and Soviet scientists were among the world leaders in physics.Alexander Friedmannwas the first scientist to propose an expanding universe model in 1922 which greatly influenced cosmology in the 20th century.Georgiy Gamovproposed the theory of theAlpha decayof a nucleus viatunnelling(1928) and was an author of the Big Bang theory.Dmitri Ivanenkowas the first to propose the proton-neutron model ofatomic nuclei(1932) andnuclear shell model(1932).

Nikolay Bogolyubovsuggested a tripletquarkmodel, introducing a new quantum degree of freedom (later called ascolor charge) for quarks[4]and formulated a microscopic theory ofsuperconductivity.[5]Lev Landaumade fundamental contributions to many areas oftheoretical physics,and was awarded theNobel Prize in Physicsin 1962.Nikolai BasovandAlexander Prokhorovwere co-inventors oflasersandmasers,winning the Nobel Prize in Physics 1964.Igor Tamm,Andrei SakharovandLev Artsimovichdeveloped the idea oftokamakfor controllednuclear fusionand created its first prototype, which finally led to the modernITERproject.Yevgeny Zavoiskydiscoveredelectron paramagnetic resonance,which plays an important role in studying chemical species.Zhores Alferovgreatly contributed to the creation of modernheterostructure physics and electronics[6]which find many applications in modern life: from CD and DVD players tofiber optictransceivers(Nobel Prize in Physics, 2000). In 2010 two Russian-born and educated physicistsKonstantin NovoselovandAndre Geimwere awarded with the Nobel Prize in Physics for their work ingraphene,a material which may have important applications in electronics, aviation and medicine.

Kunstkamerabuilding, the first headquarters of theRussian Academy of SciencesinSaint Petersburg.

A number of achievements of Russian/Soviet scientists remained unknown to general public due to security considerations or bureaucratic obstacles. For example, the first design ofmagnetic resonance imagingwas proposed byVladislav Ivanovin 1960 but was not realized at that time.

Mathematics[edit]

Main article:List of Russian mathematicians

InmathematicsNikolai Lobachevsky,aCopernicusofgeometry,founded thenon-Euclidean geometryplaying an important role in modern physics. In the 19th century international recognition was also gained by such mathematicians asMikhail OstrogradskyandSofia Kovalevskaya,the first major Russian female mathematician,[7]responsible for important original contributions to analysis, differential equations and mechanics, and the first woman appointed to a full professorship in Northern Europe.Yevgraf Fyodorovwas a founder of the modern structuralcrystallography(Fedorov group). After such prominent scientists asChebyshevthe Russian mathematical school became one of the most influential in the world and was represented by numerous figures greatly contributing to different fields of mathematics, physics and computing sciences.[8]Chebyshev's students includedAleksandr Lyapunovwho founded the modernstability theory(lately developed by such scientists asAleksandr AndronovandVladimir Arnold), andAndrey Markovwho developed the theory ofMarkov chains,playing a central role in information sciences and modern applied mathematics.

At the beginning of the 20th centuryNikolai ZhukovskyandSergei Chaplyginwere among founding fathers of the modernaero-andhydrodynamicsandVladimir Kotelnikovwas a pioneer ininformation theoryby independently proposing the fundamentalsampling theorem.Andrei Kolmogorov,a leading mathematician of the 20th century, developed the foundation of the moderntheory of probabilityand made other key contributions to broadest range of mathematical branches, such asturbulence,mathematical logic,topology,differential equations,set theory,automata theory,information theory,theory of algorithms,dynamical systems,stochastic processes,theory of integration,classical mechanics,mathematical linguistics,mathematical biologyand applied sciences.Israel Gelfandis credited with many important discoveries in algebra, topology, mathematical physics and applied sciences.Sergei Sobolevdeveloped the theory ofSobolev spacewhich played an extremely important role in formation of modern mathematical views and introduced the notion ofdistributionsgeneralizing ideas of Newton and Leibniz.

Such mathematicians asLev Pontryagin,who made major contributions to topology and functional analysis and a founder of the modernoptimal controltheory,Andrey Tychonoff,who was the author of the"central theorem"[9]ofgeneral topology,Pavel Alexandrov,a very important figure in topology of the 20th century, and many others made fundamental contributions to different fields of mathematics. Nine Soviet/Russian mathematicians were awarded withFields Medal,a most prestigious award in mathematics. RecentlyGrigori Perelmanwas offered the first ever ClayMillennium Prize Problemsaward for his final proof of thePoincaré conjecturein 2002.[10]

Astronomy[edit]

Main article:List of Russian astronomers

Chemistry[edit]

Main articles:List of Russian chemistsandPharmaceutical industry in Russia

Lomonosov was the first Russian chemist, among others he was the founder of the science ofglass.

A sculpture in honor ofDmitry Mendeleevand hisperiodic tableinSlovakia.

Dmitry Mendeleevinvented theperiodic table,that is the main framework of the modernchemistry,whileAleksandr Butlerovwas one of the creators of the theory ofchemical structure,playing a central role inorganic chemistry.Vladimir Shukhovinvented thefirst cracking method.Sergei Lebedevinvented the first commercially viable and mass-produced type ofsynthetic rubber(polybutadiene synthetic rubber).Nikolay Semyonovmade major contributions to explanation of the mechanism of chemical transformation (1956Nobel Prize in Chemistry).

Biology[edit]

Main article:List of Russian biologists

InbiologyDmitry Ivanovskydiscoveredviruses(1892)[11]andNikolai Lunindiscoveredvitamins(1881).Ivan Pavlovis widely known for first describing the phenomenon ofclassical conditioningand using it for studying brain functions.Ilya Mechnikovwas a pioneer in investigations of theimmune system(1908,Nobel Prize in Medicine).Alexander A. Maximowintroduced the notion ofstem cells.Alexander Oparinwas a founder of the modern theory oforigin of life.Nikolai Koltsov,a founder ofmolecular biology,proposed the idea of the molecular mechanism of heredity as early as in 1927 stating that inherited traits would be inherited via a "giant hereditary molecule" which would be made up of "two mirror strands that would replicate in a semi-conservative fashion using each strand as a template".Alexey Olovnikovsuggestedtelomere hypothesis of agingwhich greatly contributed to the theory ofagingand later was awarded withNobel Prize(not shared by Olovnikov).

Electrical engineering[edit]

Main article:List of Russian electrical engineers

Nikolay Benardosintroduced thearc welding,further developed byNikolay Slavyanov,Konstantin Khrenovand other Russian engineers.Alexander LodyginandPavel Yablochkovwere pioneers ofelectric lighting,andMikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolskyinvented and introduced the firstthree-phase electric powersystems, widely used today.Oleg Losevis often considered as the inventor of thelight-emitting diode (LED).

Medicine[edit]

Main article:List of Russian physicians

Economic theory and social sciences[edit]

Earth sciences[edit]

Main article:List of Russian Earth scientists

Vasily Dokuchaev(1845–1902) is credited with laying the foundations of soil science.

Vladimir Vernadsky(1863–1945) is considered one of the founders of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, and of radiogeology and deeply developed the concepts ofbiosphereandnoosphere.

Mikhail Lomonosovproposed theconservation of massinchemical reactions,discovered theatmosphere of Venus,and founded modern geology.[12]

Linguistics[edit]

Main article:List of Russian linguists

Performance of Russian students in International Science Olympiads[edit]

Russia's rank based on number of Gold Medals in last 10 years(2014-2023):

Technology[edit]

Main articles:List of Russian inventorsandTimeline of Russian inventions

Aviation[edit]

Main articles:Aircraft industry of Russia,United Aircraft Corporation,andList of Russian aerospace engineers
TheSukhoi Superjet 100is the latest civilian product of theRussian aircraft industry.
Rostecheadquarters in Moscow

The history of Russian aircraft engineering begins with a pioneer of aviationAlexander Mozhayskywho made his first attempt to fly in an aircraft (monoplane) of his own design as early as in 1881. In the 20th century a number of prominent Soviet aerospace engineers, inspired by the fundamental works of Nikolai Zhukovsky and Sergei Chaplygin among others, supervised the creation of many dozens of models of military and civilian aircraft and founded a number ofKBs(Construction Bureaus) that now constitute the bulk of Russia'sUnited Aircraft Corporation.A number of individual inventors also made important contributions to aircraft technology, such asGleb Kotelnikovwho invented theknapsackparachute,orEvgeniy Chertovskywho introduced thepressure suit.Theoretical works byPetr Ufimtsevplayed a critical role in development ofstealth technology.

Famous Russian airplanes include the firstsupersonicpassenger jetTupolev Tu-144byAlexei Tupolev,MiG fighter aircraftseries byArtem MikoyanandMikhail Gurevich,andSuseries byPavel Sukhoiand his followers. TheMiG-15is the jet aircraft with the world'shighest productionin history, whileMiG-21is the most producedsupersonic aircraft.Since the World War II era theIlyushin Il-2bomber remains themost produced military aircraft in history.ThePolikarpov Po-2Kukuruznikis the world's most producedbiplane,and theMil Mi-8is the most producedhelicopter.

Aircraft manufacturing is one of the most science-intensive high tech sectors of modern Russian economy and employs the largest number of skilled personnel. The production and value of the military aircraft branch far outstrips otherdefense industrysectors, and aircraft products make up more than half of the country's arms exports.[13]The Russian aircraft industry offers a portfolio of internationally competitive military aircraft, while new projects such as theSukhoi Superjet 100are hoped to revive the fortunes of the civilian aircraft segment. In 2009, companies belonging to the United Aircraft Corporation delivered 95 new fixed-wing aircraft to its customers, including 15 civilian models. In addition, the industry produced over 141 helicopters.

Space technology[edit]

Main articles:Soviet space program,Russian Federal Space Agency,andSpace industry of Russia

Roscosmosis Russia's national space agency;[14]while Russian achievements in the field ofspace technologyandspace explorationare traced back toKonstantin Tsiolkovsky,the father of theoreticalastronautics.[15]His works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such asSergey Korolyov,Valentin Glushko,and many others who contributed to the success of theSoviet space programin the early stages of theSpace Raceand beyond.

In 1957, the first Earth-orbiting artificialsatellite,Sputnik 1,was launched.[16]In 1961, the first human trip into space was successfully made byYuri Gagarin.[17]Many other Soviet and Russianspace exploration recordsensued, including the firstspacewalkperformed byAlexei Leonov.[18]Vostok 6was the first human spaceflight to carry a woman into space (Valentina Tereshkova).[19]Luna 9was the first spacecraft to land on theMoon,[20]Sputnik 2was the first spacecraft to carry an animal (Laika),[21]Zond 5brought the first Earthlings (two tortoises and other life forms) to circumnavigate the Moon,[22]Venera 7was the first spacecraft to land on another planet (Venus),[23]andMars 3was the first spacecraft to land onMars.[24]Lunokhod 1was the firstspace exploration rover,[25]andSalyut 1was the world's firstspace station.[26]

Russia is among the world's largest satellite launchers,[27]and has completed theGLONASSsatellite navigation system.It is developing its own fifth-generation jet fighter (Sukhoi Su-57),[28]and has built the world's firstfloating nuclear power plant.[29]Luna-Globis a Russian Moon exploration programme, with its first mission scheduled to launch in October 2021 (Luna 25).[30]To replace the ageingSoyuz,Roscosmos is also developing theOrel spacecraft,which could conduct its first crewed fight in 2025.[31]In February 2019, it was announced that Russia is intending to conduct its first crewed mission to land on the Moon in 2031.[32]In April 2021, Roscosmos declared that it is planning to quit theISS,and will create its own space station with the aim of launching it into orbit by 2030.[33]In June 2021, Roscosmos andChina National Space Administrationannounced that they are jointly developing alunar base,which is planned to be utilized from 2036.[34]

Military[edit]

Main articles:Defence industry of Russia,Rosoboronexport,andList of Russian weaponry makers

Famous Russian battle tanks include theT-34,a well-regarded middle tank design of World War II,[35]and further tanks of the T-series, including the most produced tank in history, theT-54/55,[36]the first fullygas turbinetankT-80,and the most modern Russian tanksT-90andT-14 Armata.TheAK-47andAK-74byMikhail Kalashnikovconstitute the most widely used type ofassault riflethroughout the world—so much so that more AK-type rifles have been manufactured than all other assault rifles combined.[37][38]With these and other weapons Russia for a long time has been among the world'stop arms suppliers,accounting for around 30% of worldwide weapons sales[39]and exporting weapons to about 80 countries.[citation needed]

Thedefence industry of Russiais a strategically important sector and a large employer. Russia is the second largest conventional arms exporter after the United States, with $8 billions' worth of exports in 2008. The most popular types of weaponry bought from Russia are Sukhoi and MiG fighters,air defensesystems, helicopters,tanks,armored personnel carriersandinfantry fighting vehicles.[citation needed]Aviation products make up about half of the country's arms exports.[citation needed]One of the industry's recent technological achievements was the maiden flight of the fifth generation fighterSukhoi Su-57,which broke the United States' complete monopoly on development and production of fifth generation jets. TheMoscow Defense Briefjournal hailed the occasion as a major coup for Russia's defence industry, saying that:

{W}hile not America’s equal militarily, Russia is still a solid second in terms of defense technology, outranking both Western Europe and China and punching well above its economic weight.[40]

Computing[edit]

Main article:Information technology in Russia

Sergei Lebedevdeveloped one of the first universally programmable computers in continental Europe in 1950,MESM.The firstternary computerSetunwas developed byNikolay Brusentsov,together withSergei Sobolevin 1958.

Automotive industry[edit]

Main article:Automotive industry in Russia

Nivawas one of the first off-road vehicles gaining international success and is still exported to Canada, South America and Europe. KAMAZtrucks are exported to many areas of the world including Eastern Europe, Latin America, China, the Middle East, and North Africa and are persistent winners (ten times) of the famousDakar Rally.

Railroads[edit]

Ivan Polzunovis credited with creation of the first steam engine in Russia and the first two-cylinder engine in the world.

Naval[edit]

Main articles:Shipbuilding in RussiaandList of Russian naval engineers

Nuclear[edit]

Main articles:Nuclear power in RussiaandRosatom

The creation of the firstnuclear power plantalong with the firstnuclear reactorsforsubmarinesandsurface shipswas directed byIgor Kurchatov.NSLeninwas the world's firstnuclear-powered surface shipas well as the firstnuclear-powered civilian vessel,andNSArktikabecame the first surface ship to reach theNorth Pole.

Science and politics[edit]

Russian scientists must provide detailed reports to theKremlinabout their contacts to foreign scientists—even if these contacts are of private nature. This requirement includes even Russian scientists who work outside Russia. In addition, Russian scientists must inform the government about their plans to meet foreign scientists at least 5 days in advance.[41]

Russia ranked 51st in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2023, down from 45th in 2021.[42][43]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^Gautschi, Walter (March 2008). "Leonhard Euler: His Life, the Man, and His Works".SIAM Review.50(1).Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics:3–33.Bibcode:2008SIAMR..50....3G.doi:10.1137/070702710.JSTOR20454060.
  2. ^Jorpes, J. Erik (3 January 1959)."Alfred Nobel".The British Medical Journal.1(5113): 1–6.doi:10.1136/bmj.1.5113.1.JSTOR25386146.PMC1992347.PMID13608066.
  3. ^Умов Н. А.Избранные сочинения. М. — Л., 1950.
  4. ^N. Bogolubov, B. Struminsky, A. Tavkhelidze. On composite models in the theory of elementary particles.JINRPreprint D-1968,Dubna1965.
  5. ^N. N. Bogoliubov (1958). "On a New Method in the Theory of Superconductivity".Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics.34(1): 58.
  6. ^Ivanov, Sergey (10 September 2019). "Remembering Zhores Alferov".Nature Photonics.13(10): 657–659.Bibcode:2019NaPho..13..657I.doi:10.1038/s41566-019-0525-0.S2CID203099794.
  7. ^Rappaport, Karen D. (October 1981). "S. Kovalevsky: A Mathematical Lesson".The American Mathematical Monthly.88(8).Taylor & Francis:564–574.doi:10.2307/2320506.JSTOR2320506.
  8. ^"Russian Mathematicians in the 20th Century".Princeton University.Retrieved10 Apr2010.
  9. ^Kelley, John L.(1975).General Topology.Springer Science & Business Media.ISBN0-387-90125-6.
  10. ^"The Poincaré Conjecture".Archived fromthe originalon 2013-07-27.
  11. ^Sebastion, Anton (2001).A dictionary of the history of science.Google Books Excerpt: Informa Health Care. p. 267.ISBN9781850704188.Retrieved24 Oct2008.
  12. ^Usitalo, Steven A. (2011). "Lomonosov: Patronage and Reputation at the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences".Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas.59(2).Franz Steiner Verlag:217–239.doi:10.25162/jgo-2011-0011.JSTOR41302521.S2CID252450664.
  13. ^Manturov, Denis (2009)."Prospects for the Domestic Aircraft Industry".Military Parade(4): 8–9.
  14. ^Gary Kitmacher (2006).Reference Guide to the International Space Station.Canada:Apogee Books.pp. 71–80.ISBN978-1-894959-34-6.ISSN1496-6921.{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help)
  15. ^"Konstantin E. Tsiolkovsky".NASA.Retrieved28 June2021.
  16. ^Brzezinski, Matthew B. (2007).Red Moon Rising: Sputnik and the Hidden Rivalries That Ignited the Space Age.New York City:Henry Holt and Company.ISBN978-0-8050-8147-3.
  17. ^Jenks, Andrew L. (2012).The Cosmonaut Who Couldn't Stop Smiling: The Life and Legend of Yuri Gagarin.Northern Illinois University Press.ISBN978-0875804477.
  18. ^Rincon, Paul (13 October 2014)."The First Spacewalk".BBC.Retrieved31 May2021.
  19. ^"Who was the first woman in space?".Royal Museums Greenwich.Retrieved8 June2021.
  20. ^"Luna 9".NASA.Retrieved1 June2021.
  21. ^"What was the first animal sent into space?".Royal Museums Greenwich.Retrieved1 June2021.
  22. ^"Zond 5".NASA.Retrieved1 June2021.
  23. ^"Venera 7".NASA.Retrieved1 June2021.
  24. ^Heil, Andy (31 July 2020)."The Soviet Mars Shot That Almost Everyone Forgot".Radio Free Europe.Retrieved1 June2021.
  25. ^"Lunokhod 01".NASA.Retrieved1 June2021.
  26. ^"50 Years Ago: Launch of Salyut, the World's First Space Station".NASA.19 April 2021.Retrieved1 June2021.
  27. ^"Russia launches 38 satellites for 18 countries".The Hindu.23 March 2021.Retrieved28 June2021.
  28. ^Ryan Bauer and Peter A. Wilson (17 August 2020)."Russia's Su-57 Heavy Fighter Bomber: Is It Really a Fifth-Generation Aircraft?".RAND Corporation.Retrieved28 June2021.
  29. ^"Russia floating nuclear power station sets sail across Arctic".BBC.23 August 2019.Retrieved28 June2021.
  30. ^"Россия запустит космический аппарат на Луну 1 октября 2021 года"[Russia will launch a spacecraft to the moon on October 1, 2021].RIA Novosti(in Russian). 17 March 2020.Retrieved28 June2021.
  31. ^"Russia to create Angara-A5P rocket for manned space launches by 2024".TASS.6 November 2019.Retrieved30 June2021.
  32. ^"Российские космонавты высадятся на Луну в 2031 году"[Russian cosmonauts will land on the moon in 2031].RIA Novosti(in Russian). 9 February 2019.Retrieved2 July2021.
  33. ^"Russia plans to launch own space station after quitting ISS".Reuters.21 April 2021.Retrieved28 June2021.
  34. ^Clark, Stuark (25 June 2021)."Russia and China team up to build a moon base".The Guardian.Retrieved28 June2021.
  35. ^George Parada."Panzerkampfwagen T-34(r) Soviet T-34 in German Service".Achtung Panzer!.Archived fromthe originalon 10 June 2008.
  36. ^Halberstadt, Hans Inside the Great Tanks The Crowood Press Ltd. Wiltshire, England 1997, p.94–96ISBN1-86126-270-1
    "The T-54/T-55 series is the hands down, all time most popular tank in history."
  37. ^Poyer, Joe.The AK-47 and AK-74 Kalashnikov Rifles and Their Variations.North Cape Publications. 2004.
  38. ^Killicoat, Phillip."Weaponomics: The Economics of Small Arms"(PDF).Centre for the Study of African Economies, Oxford University. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 11 October 2017.
  39. ^"US drives world military spending to record high".Australian Broadcasting Corporation.Retrieved27 Dec2007.
  40. ^"Russia Joins the Fifth-Gen Game".Moscow Defense Brief.1(19). 2010.
  41. ^"Wissenschaftler im Visier der russischen Regierung".forschung-und-lehre.de(in German). 2019-10-28.Retrieved2019-10-28.
  42. ^WIPO."Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition".wipo.int.Retrieved28 October2023.
  43. ^"RUSSIAN FEDERATION"(PDF).World Intellectual Property Organization.United Nations.Retrieved17 November2021.
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