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Sea kayak

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A modern sea kayak off west Wales
A sea kayak onValdes Island,British Columbia,Canada

Asea kayakortouring kayakis akayakused for the sport ofpaddlingon open waters of lakes, bays, and oceans. Sea kayaks areseaworthysmall boats with a covered deck and the ability to incorporate aspray deck.They trade off the manoeuvrability ofwhitewaterkayaks for higher cruising speed, cargo capacity, ease of straight-line paddling (tracking), and comfort for long journeys.

Sea kayaks are used around the world for marine (sea) journeys from a few hours to many weeks, and can accommodate one to three paddlers along with their camping gear, food, water, and other supplies. Solo sea kayaks are 3.0–5.5 m (10–18 ft) long, while tandem craft can be up to 8 m (26 ft) long;beam widthsrange from 53 cm (21 in) to 91 cm (36 in).

The term "sea kayak" may have originated with the 1981 bookSea Kayakingby John Dowd, who said, "It wasn't called sea kayaking until my book came out; it was called kayak touring or sea canoeing or canoe touring, blue-water paddling, coastal paddling, all those things".[1]

Origins

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Main article:Kayak
Inuitseal hunter in a kayak, armed with a harpoon.

Contemporary sea kayaks trace their origin to the native boats ofAlaska,northernCanada,and SouthwestGreenland.Inuit(formerlyEskimo) hunters developed a fast seagoing craft to huntsealsandwalrus.[2]The ancientAleutname for anAleutian kayakisIqyak,[3]and earliest models were constructed from a light wooden frame (tied together withsineworbaleen) and covered withsea mammal(sea lionorseal) hides. Archaeologists have found evidence indicating that kayaks are at least 4000 years old.[4]Wooden kayaks and fabric kayaks on wooden frames (such as theKlepper) dominated the market up until the 1950s, when fiberglass boats were introduced.Rotomoldedplastickayaks first appeared in 1984.

Design

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Kayaking in a double on Lake Union in Seattle, USA

Modern sea kayaks come in a wide array of materials, designs, and sizes to suit a variety of intended uses. In sea kayaking, where the designs continue along primarily traditional lines, the primary distinction is betweenrigidkayaks andFolding kayaks.Folding kayaks are in some ways more traditional boats, being similar in design toskin-on-framekayaks used by native people. Modern folding kayaks useashandbirchor contemporary materials such asaluminumfor the frame, and replace thesealskincovering with synthetic waterproof fabrics. Unlike rigid kayaks, folding kayaks can be easily disassembled and packed for transport. Many folding kayaks include inflatablesponsonsthat improve thesecondary stabilityof the vessel, helping to prevent capsize. More recently, a class of inflatable folding kayaks has emerged, combining a more limited rigid frame with a tightly inflated skin to produce greater rigidity than an inflatable boat alone.

In recent years, there has been an increase in production ofsit-on-top kayakssuitable for sea use.[citation needed][5]

Most rigid sea kayaks also derive from the external designs of native vessels, especially those from Greenland, but the strength of modern materials such asfiberglass,rotomolded plasticandcarbon fibereliminate the need for an internal frame, though significantly increasing weight. Modernskin-on-framesea kayaks constructed withnylonskins represent an ultralight niche within the rigid sea kayak spectrum. Some recent design innovations include:

  • Recreational kayaks— shorter kayaks with wide beams and large cockpits intended for sheltered waters
  • Sit-on-top kayaks — boats without an enclosed cockpit, but with the basic hull shape of a kayak.
  • Inflatable kayaks with either a removable bladder within a tough outer skin, or a single skin similar to that used inrigid inflatable boat(RIB) construction.

A different class of vessel emerged in the 1960s, thesurf ski,a long, narrow boat with low inherent stability that is intended for use in surf andfollowing waves.

Size

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Most production sea kayaks are between 3.7 and 7.3 m (12 and 24 ft) in length, the larger kayaks often built for two (or in rare cases, three) paddlers. The width (beam) of typical kayaks varies from 46 to 81 cm (18 to 32 in), though specialized boats such assurf skismay be narrower.[6][7]The length of a kayak affects not only its cargo capacity (for both gear and paddlers) but may also affect its "tracking" ability—the ease with which the boat travels in a straight line. While other design features also impact tracking, very long kayaks are easier to paddle straight (and harder to turn). The width of a kayak affects the cargo capacity, the maximum size of the cockpit (and thus the size of the paddler in that cockpit), and (to a degree that depends on the design of the hull) thestability.[8]

Material

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A sea kayak constructed from plywood, epoxy and fibreglass

Most rigid production kayaks are now made out offiberglass,rotomolded polyethylene,thermoformed plastic, blow moulded polyethylene orcarbon-kevlar.More exotic materials includecarbon fiberandfoam core.Some kayaks are hand-built fromplywoodor wood strips covered withfiberglass.Skin-on-frame kayaks are built on wood or aluminum frames covered incanvas,dacron,or other fabrics, and may include inflatable tubes calledsponsons.

Marine grade plywoodavailable today provides a high strength to weight ratio for kayak construction. Inflatable kayaks may be made from cheaperpolyvinyl chloride(PVC) with a nylon outer skin to resist abrasion, or more expensive single-skin designs made from hypalon which is very tough and easy to dry after use.

Bow, stern, and deck

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There are many design approaches for the bow, stern, and deck of kayaks. Some kayaks haveupturned bows,which are meant to provide better performance when paddling into waves, as well as better wave-shedding ability. Other kayaks achieve this through increasedbuoyancyin the bow. Kayaks with unobstructed stern decks may ease certain types ofself-rescue.Waterproof bulkheads in modern kayaks provide flotation in the event of capsize.

Sea kayak decks typically include one or more hatches for easy access to the interior storage space inside. Kayak decks usually include attachment points fordeck linesof various kinds, which are aids in self-rescue and attachment points for above-deck equipment or luggage.

Cockpits can be of several designs. They can be large or small. A largekeyholecockpit can give the advantages of both, and combine firm contact between paddler and boat, while offering relatively easier access.

Equipment

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Sea kayaking is a popular way to exploreKealakekua Bay,Hawaii.

Sea kayaks have a wide range of hull designs, which greatly expands their range of performance. Designs can accommodate a wide range of physical fitness, or usage. Boats come in many lengths, whereby shorter boats are generally more maneuverable, and longer boats generally travel straighter and faster. Width of beam can affect a boat's stability, speed, and ability to bring to an edge. The amount of rocker (the curve from bow to stern) can greatly affect the ability of a boat to turn.

Many have steering gear or tracking aids in the form ofruddersorskegs.In most cases, rudders are attached at the stern and operated by lines (wire or synthetics such asSpectra) from foot pedals in the cockpit. Rudders are typically retractable for beach landings. Skegs are typically retractable straight blades that drop from a well in the stern of the boat. Both devices assist in paddling when a strong wind or waves are coming from a direction other than directly in front.[9]Some skegs may be more effective at counteringpitch,rollandyaw.[10][11][12][13][14]

Paddles

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Sea-kayakpaddles,and the associated paddling styles, fall into three basic classifications:

European
[citation needed]
Two roughly spoon-shaped blades at either end of a cylindrical shaft. This paddle style was developed for fast acceleration and sudden manoeuvring inwhitewater kayaking,and then back-ported to sea-kayaking. European-style[citation needed]paddles can be made of aluminium, plastic, or even wood; but the best are usually formed of more expensive materials like carbon-fibre for lightness. Often the two blades arefeathered,or set at an angle relative to each other (both for ergonomic efficiency, and so that as one blade moves backwards through the water, the opposite blade moving forward through the air presents its edge, rather than its face). This makes it less efficient with the wind on the side or behind.
A European[citation needed]style kayak paddle, (a) top view, (b) axial view, (first angle projection)
Greenland
Relatively narrow blades which are rounded and full near the loom and blade roots, and becoming oval near the blade tips. Some paddles feature a "shoulder", or abrupt transition between the loom and blade roots. Greenland paddle blades are usually not feathered. Short Greenland paddles (generally one arm-span in length), called storm paddles, are used with a sliding stroke, during which the hands are shifted along the blades for each stroke. Storm paddles are often used as spares and in very windy locations, as there is very little outboard blade to catch the wind.
A Greenland style kayak paddle
Wing
The blade of the paddle is shaped with a profile like a wing. When used with a particular stroke, the blade produces lift as it moves through the water, enabling the kayaker to produce more forward motion than with any other kind of paddle. The paddling technique is different from the European style paddle though the same motion is how the Greenland paddle works with its narrow blade. It is most often used in racing, but also sees some limited use in recreational paddling such as touring.
A set of wing paddles

Dimensions

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True sea kayaks, not to be mistaken for wider, more stable recreational kayaks, are available in many designs. The length of a solo sea kayak can range anywhere from 4.3 to 6.1 m (14 to 20 ft) long, and tandem kayaks can range from 5.5 to 7.3 m (18 to 24 ft) long. Sea kayaks can range in width (beam) from 22 to 24 inches wide.[15]Wider touring kayaks of 60 to 75 cm (24 to 30 in)[citation needed]) are better for bigger paddlers, or small/average sized paddlers looking for more initial stability and maneuverability. Narrower beams of 50 to 65 cm (20 to 26 in)[citation needed]are good for small-medium-sized paddlers who want more speed and less maneuverability. And lastly, kayak depth (or the height from the hull to the highest area of the deck) can range from 28 to 40 cm (11 to 16 in)[citation needed]high.

This design is typical of modern sea kayaks and has a low rear deck for easy rolling, a white water cockpit, compartments that allow the kayaker to reach into them while at sea, and a sloping rear bulkhead that enables the kayak to be emptied by lifting the bow.

Safety

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Sea kayaking atTrunk BayonSt. John

A sea kayak's primary safety device is its paddler. Although some kayakers consider a well-practised self-righting move such as anEskimo rollto be essential in order to safe open-water kayaking, it is the technique of bracing that every well-trained, experienced kayaker practises in order to maintain an upright position in their kayak. Practice in bracing is often neglected by inexperienced kayakers once they have learned the Eskimo roll. However, the reality is that having to roll really means having to recover from a failed brace. Being in the capsized position in some environments due to missing a brace can put the paddler in danger of colliding with obstacles under the water. Staying upright in surf zones, rocky surf zones (informally known as rock gardens), and rivers is most important and is only accomplished through well-practised and successful bracing.

While there are a number of techniques for unassisted righting and re-entry of a kayak after acapsizeandturtling,most paddlers consider it safest to paddle with one or more others, as assistance is useful if attempting to recover via rolling solo fails. Even if the assistance fails to successfully right the kayaker, it is much easier to climb back into a boat in the open sea if one has another boat and paddler to help and the swamped boat has been emptied of water first. Nonetheless, experienced paddlers do attempt open-water crossings unaccompanied, and many major long-distance kayak expeditions have been carried out solo.

The use of apaddle floatself-rescue device, generally consisting of foam or in the form of an inflatable bag, and attached to the end of a paddle when needed, allows the paddle to be used as an outrigger while climbing back into the cockpit. If an inflatable paddle float is chosen, it should be a dual-chambered model on account of the safety advantage (in the event of failure of one chamber) that is conferred by the redundancy. The kayaker is advised to train with only one chamber inflated. In many areas (Canada, for instance), a paddle float is a safety item required by the coast guard. Re-entry using a paddle float is a fairly reliable rescue technique that, if well practised, allows one to paddle with confidence when one is not equipped with a flawlessly honed rolling skill.

There is a strong culture of self-sufficiency amongst sea kayakers and extensive safety equipment such as compass, towing lines, manual pumps, repair kits including wet application repair tape, flares,paddle leash,spare paddles, and survival gear are routinely carried; along with supplies of food and a flask of hot beverage for non-emergency use. GPS, charts, lights, radios and cell phones, andradar reflectorsare also sometimes carried.

Forms of sea kayaking

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Kayak Sailing on theColumbia River

Kayak sailing

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Developed by kayak enthusiasts, Kayak sails can supplement or effectively eliminate the need for paddling. Using a sail can increase offshore range and allow longer expeditions. Use of a sail for touring has established a strong following with recreational sea kayakers, expedition paddlers, and adventure racers.

Sea Kayaking atWilsons PromontoryinVictoria, Australia

Expedition trips

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Weekend trips with overnight camping are popular among recreational kayakers and many combine kayaking with wildlife watching. Modern sea kayaks are designed to carry large amounts of equipment and unsupported expeditions of two weeks or more are conducted in environments ranging from the tropics to the Arctic. Expedition kayaks are designed to handle best when loaded, so it may be necessary to ballast them on shorter trips.

Surf kayaking

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Further information:Surf kayaking
Further information:Surf skis

Closely related to surf boards and requiring a mix ofsurfingand kayaking skills, a wide range of sea kayaks are specifically designed for the sport ofsurf kayaking.

Sea fishing

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Main article:Kayak fishing

The seakayakhas long been a means of transportation and a means of accessing fishing grounds and kayak fishing has gained popularity due to the availability of purpose built stable designs. This technological development also solves some ergonomic problems that are associated with sitting for long hours without being able to change positions and special kayaks for fishing are accessorized for this sport, including specially-designed hatches, built-in rod holders, catch bags and equipment mounts.

Many of the techniques used in kayak fishing are the same as those used on other fishing boats. The difference is in the set-up, how each piece of equipment is fitted to the kayak, and how each activity is carried out on such a small craft. Contemporary kayaks can be equipped with fishing aids such as rod holders, electronicfish-findersand live-bait containers. Kayakanglerstarget highly prized bottom feeders likehalibutandcodand alsopelagicslikeamberjacks,tuna,sailfish,wahoo,and evenmarlin.

Pioneering sea kayak expeditions

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Pre-1900
  • There is controversial evidence to suggest early trans-Atlantic kayak journeys from Labrador or Greenland to Scotland by Inuit paddlers. At the end of the 17th century there were at least three separate kayaks preserved in Scotland. One kayak, with associated equipment, is preserved in Aberdeen'sMarischal Museum.It was found, with dying occupant, on a nearby shore. Some suggest the occupants were escaped Inuit from European ships, Inuit storm-driven from Greenland, or from a European source. Many suggest Inuit and their kayaks to be the origin of the CelticFinn-men,orSelkie,legends.[16]
1920s
  • Franz Romercrossed the Atlantic Ocean solo in a kayak in 1928. His crossing from the Canary Islands and toward Puerto Rico took 58 days at sea but he was lost in a hurricane trying to get to New York[17][18]
Map ofOskar Speckjourney (1932-1939) from Germany to Australia
1930s
  • Oskar Speckpaddled from Germany to Australia between 1932 and 1939.
1950s
  • Hannes Lindemannsailed an Aerius II kayak from the Canary Islands to the Caribbean in 1956. Documented in the bookAlone at sea.[19]
1960s
1970s
1980s
  • Paul CaffynandNigel Denniswere the first sea kayakers to circumnavigate Britain in 1980, a distance of 3,500 km (2,200 mi) in 85 days
  • Nigel Fostersolo crossing of Hudson Strait from Baffin Island to Northern Labrador 1981
  • Paul Caffynwas the first person to circumnavigateAustraliain 1981/2 covering a distance of 15,160 km (9,420 mi) He describes it in his bookThe Dreamtime Voyage.
  • Laurie Ford solo across Bass Strait, (sail assisted) 1982.
  • David Taylor and James Moore were the first to circumnavigateThe Faroe Islands(midway between Shetland and Iceland) in 1985.
  • Brian Wilson rounded Scotland's main coastline including the inner and outer Hebrideas on a solo trip over 4 months in 1985, described in his book 'Blazing Paddles'.
  • Earle Bloomfield, Larry Gray, Rob Casamento, and Graeme Joy northwards across Bass Strait (Note that the northward crossing is more difficult than the southward.) 1986.
  • Ed Gilletpaddled from California to Hawaii in 1987.
  • Howard Ricefirst solo aroundCape Hornin 1989.
  • Jim Breen, Gus Mathieson, Bill Turnbull and Peter Wilson completed the first Scottish major sea kayak expedition by completing the circumnavigation of the Vesteralen and Lofoten Islands in Arctic Norway in 1980 including the dual crossing of the Maelstrom (Moskenstraumen) the largest whirlpool area in the world. The Scottish Maritime Museum in Irvine retains a kayak and range of equipment used.
1990s
  • AdventurerChris Duffcircumnavigated bothIrelandin 1996 andNew Zealand'sSouth Islandin 2000.
  • Trys Morrisand Bob Timms have attempted to paddle from UK to Australia 1999 and 2000, abandoning the expedition in Athens, Greece due to lack of funds and visas for Arabian countries.
  • In his bookCold Oceans(1999), Jon Turk describes his attempt to solo circumnavigateCape Horn.[22]
2000s
  • Jon Turk and his team was the first to cross theBering Straitas they paddled from Japan to Alaska in 2000.[23]
  • Peter Braycrossed from Canada to Ireland in 2001.
  • Trys Morris,Gemma RawlingsandJustine Curgenvensuccessfully circumnavigatedTasmaniain 2004. This journey is featured inThis Is The Sea 2.
  • Fiona Whiteheadcircumnavigated Great Britain and Ireland in 2004 in 93 paddling days, 140 days in total.
  • In May 2004, Mark Western completed the first solo circumnavigation of Taiwan, total 34 days.
  • Harry Whelan,Barry ShawandPhil Cleggare considered to have been the fastest around Britain in 2005, completing the circumnavigation in 80 days
  • In November 2005 the first kayak circumnavigation ofSouth Georgiain the Southern Atlantic was completed by The Adventure Philosophy team of Graham Charles, Marcus Waters and Mark Jones in 18 days, a distance of 600 km.[24]
  • Eric Stillerand Tony Brown unsuccessfully attempted circumnavigation ofAustralia.The trip ended in failure roughly a third of the way through. Described in the bookKeep Australia on your left(2002).
  • Solo Kayak Circumnavigation of Iceland - Rotem Ron in the year (2006)Circumnavigation of Iceland.[25]
  • Andrew McAuley,an Australian solo kayaker, was lost at sea in February 2007 only 56 km (30 nmi) short of his destination ofMilford Sound,New Zealand, during his attempt to cross from Australia to New Zealand.[26]
  • Justin Jones and James Castrission made the firstcrossingfrom Australia to New Zealand, arriving on 13 January 2008, a journey that took 61 days. This is the longest two-man kayak expedition ever undertaken.[27]
  • In 2009 there are 3 separate expeditions attempting to circumnavigate theFalkland Islands:two British teams[28]Tom ParrickandFiona Whitehead[29]andMarcus Demuth,a solo American.[30]
  • In July 2009, Patrick Winterton and Mick Berwick completed the first unsupported kayak crossing from Scotland to the Faroe Islands.[31]
  • Freya Hoffmeistermade the "Race Around Australia"and successfully circumnavigated Australia at 2009.
2010s

See also

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References

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  1. ^Tim Shuff (2020-10-21)."The History of Sea Kayaking: Popularizing the Sport".Paddling Magazine.Archivedfrom the original on 2021-02-12.Retrieved10 February2021.
  2. ^Hutchinson, Derek. C. (1994).The Complete Book of Sea Kayaking.A&C Black. pp. 177–181.ISBN0-7136-6675-7.
  3. ^"Traditional Arctic Kayak Symposium (TAKS) San Simeon California".Archivedfrom the original on 2009-08-31.Retrieved2008-04-23.
  4. ^Made in Anglesey, paddled in the Arctic: the Inuits' plastic kayak rules the wavesArchived2022-01-16 at theWayback MachineTimesOnlineDecember 2006
  5. ^Milton, Jason (17 June 2021)."Sit on top kayak".Beginner Surf Gear.Archivedfrom the original on 18 August 2021.Retrieved18 August2021.
  6. ^Jensen, Marty (2020-03-11)."What Makes a Kayak a Sea Kayak? - AMC Boston Paddlers".Archivedfrom the original on 2021-04-18.Retrieved2022-01-16.
  7. ^Legg, Linda (1998).Touring in your sea kayak(1st ed.). Birmingham, AL: Menasha Ridge Press.ISBN0-89732-263-0.OCLC39301182.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-01-16.Retrieved2022-01-16.
  8. ^Dowd, John (2015).Sea kayaking: the classic manual for touring, from day trips to major expeditions.[Place of publication not identified].ISBN978-1-77164-144-9.OCLC905559166.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-01-16.Retrieved2022-01-16.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  9. ^Hutchinson, Derek. C. (1994).The Complete Book of Sea Kayaking.A&C Black. pp. 3–4.ISBN0-7136-6675-7.
  10. ^Watson, Tom (February 12, 2014)."Rudders & Skegs: Maneuvering Aids".paddling.net.Archivedfrom the original on February 23, 2014.RetrievedFebruary 12,2014.
  11. ^"Rudders vs Skegs".Sea Kayaker Magazine.May 28, 2008.Archivedfrom the original on February 22, 2014.RetrievedFebruary 15,2014.
  12. ^"Fi xing up your boat: Installing a retractable skeg".Chesapeake Lightcraft.Archivedfrom the original on February 21, 2014.RetrievedFebruary 15,2014.
  13. ^gnarlydog (16 February 2009)."Retrofitting your ruddered kayak with a skegg".gnarlydognews.Archivedfrom the original on 6 March 2014.RetrievedFebruary 15,2014.
  14. ^"How does a kayak skeg work".Atlantic Kayak Tours. 2013.Archivedfrom the original on May 15, 2014.RetrievedFebruary 15,2014.
  15. ^"What Size Kayak Is Right For You?".Paddling Magazine.2021-12-20.Retrieved2022-09-18.
  16. ^MacRitchie, Scot,The Aberdeen Kayak and its Congeners,Royal Scottish Geographical Society Magazine, Feb 12, 1912,http://ads.ahds.ac.uk/catalogue/adsdata/PSAS_2002/pdf/vol_046/46_213_241.pdfArchived2007-06-12 at theWayback Machine
  17. ^Mahaffey, Dexter (April 2003)."The 10 All-time Greatest Sea Kayaking Expeditions".Paddler Magazine.Archived fromthe originalon 2009-05-18.
  18. ^Popular Mechanics.Hearst Magazines. October 1931.Archivedfrom the original on 2022-01-16.Retrieved2020-11-07.
  19. ^Lindermann, Hannes (1998).Alone at Sea A Doctor's Survival Experiments During Two Atlantic Crossings in a Dugout Canoe and a Folding Kayak.Germany: Pollner Verlag.ISBN3-925660-27-5.
  20. ^SimonWillis.net: Hamish's Kayaking Kilms Showing at Edinburgh Mtn Film FestArchived2016-03-04 at theWayback Machine.Simon-willis.blogspot.co.uk (2011-10-07). Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
  21. ^Paddler Magazine Online: The 10 All-time Greatest Sea Kayaking ExpeditionsArchived2009-05-18 at theWayback Machine
  22. ^Turk, Jon (1999).Cold Oceans.Turtleback.ISBN0613292103.
  23. ^Turk, Jon (4 July 2006).In the wake of the Jomon.McGraw-Hill Education.ISBN007147465X.
  24. ^"November 2, 2005: South Georgia Expedition Update | Outside Online".Archivedfrom the original on November 26, 2005.RetrievedFebruary 20,2006.
  25. ^טרה סנטה קיאקים ימייםArchived2010-10-12 at theWayback Machine.Seakayak.co.il. Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
  26. ^"Search for kayaker called off".The Sydney Morning Herald.12 February 2007.Archivedfrom the original on 25 July 2014.Retrieved18 September2014.
  27. ^"Home:: Crossing the Ditch - Trans-Tasman Kayak Expedition:: James Castrission & Justin Jones".Archivedfrom the original on 2021-12-19.Retrieved2022-01-16.
  28. ^Chris Millington is fundraising for Help for HeroesArchived2009-08-31 at theWayback Machine.Justgiving. Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
  29. ^Sea Kayak Falkland '09Archived2019-08-03 at theWayback Machine.Seakayakfalkland.blogspot. Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
  30. ^"Expeditionkayak Worldwide Kayak Expeditions, Sean Morley's Kayak Expeditions Website, Publish your Kayak Expedition here, Kayalking in California, Sea Kayaking, Surf Kayaking, Paddlesports, California Paddlesports - Expeditionkayak".Archivedfrom the original on 2014-12-21.Retrieved2014-12-21.
  31. ^Flatman, Elizabeth."Kayakers complete first successful crossing to Faroes in aid of RNLI".RNLI.Archivedfrom the original on 16 January 2022.Retrieved11 May2012.
  32. ^Transatlantic kayak expeditionArchived2021-12-02 at theWayback Machine.Aleksanderdoba.pl. Retrieved on 2013-07-12.
  33. ^canoekayakmag (August 9, 2004)."Obituary: Verlen Kruger Remembered".Canoe & Kayak.Archivedfrom the original on July 17, 2015.RetrievedJune 25,2014.
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