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Carbonated water

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"Seltzer" redirects here. For other uses, seeSeltzer (disambiguation).

Sparkling water showing itscarbonation,which may be either natural or artificially introduced
External audio
audio icon"Fizzy Water",DistillationsPodcast Episode 217,Science History Institute

Carbonated water(also known assoda water,bubbly water,sparkling water,fizzy water,club soda,water with gas,in many places asmineral water,or especially in the United States asseltzerorseltzer water) iswatercontaining dissolvedcarbon dioxidegas, either artificially injected under pressure or occurring due to natural geological processes.Carbonationcauses small bubbles to form, giving thewateraneffervescentquality. Common forms include sparkling naturalmineral water,club soda,and commercially produced sparkling water.[1]

Club soda and sparkling mineral water and some other sparkling waters contain added or dissolvedmineralssuch aspotassium bicarbonate,sodium bicarbonate,sodium citrate,orpotassium sulfate.These occur naturally in some mineral waters but are also commonly added artificially to manufactured waters to mimic a natural flavor profile and offset the acidity of introducing carbon dioxide gas giving one a fizzy sensation. Various carbonated waters are sold in bottles and cans, with some also produced on demand by commercial carbonation systems in bars and restaurants, or made at home using a carbon dioxide cartridge.[2]

It is thought that the first person toaeratewater with carbon dioxide wasWilliam Brownriggin the 1740s.[3][4]Joseph Priestleyinvented carbonated water, independently and by accident, in 1767 when he discovered a method of infusing water with carbon dioxide after having suspended a bowl of water above a beer vat at a brewery inLeeds,Yorkshire.[5]He wrote of the "peculiar satisfaction" he found in drinking it, and in 1772 he published a paper entitledImpregnating Water with Fixed Air.[6][7]Priestley's apparatus, almost identical to that used byHenry Cavendishfive years earlier, which featured a bladder between the generator and the absorption tank to regulate the flow ofcarbon dioxide,was soon joined by a wide range of others. However, it was not until 1781 thatcarbonated waterbegan being produced on a large scale with the establishment of companies specialized in producing artificial mineral water.[5]The first factory was built byThomas HenryofManchester,England.[5]Henry replaced the bladder in Priestley's system with large bellows.[5]

While Priestley's discovery ultimately led to the creation of thesoft drinkindustry—which began in 1783 whenJohann Jacob SchweppefoundedSchweppesto sell bottled soda water[8]—he did not benefit financially from his invention.[5]Priestley received scientific recognition when the Council of theRoyal Society"were moved to reward its discoverer with theCopley Medal"at the anniversary meeting of the Royal Society on 30 November 1773.[5][9]

Composition[edit]

Natural and manufactured carbonated waters may contain a small amount ofsodium chloride,sodium citrate,sodium bicarbonate,potassium bicarbonate,potassium citrate,potassium sulfate,ordisodium phosphate,depending on the product. These occur naturally inmineral watersbut are added artificially to commercially produced waters to mimic a natural flavor profile and offset the acidity of introducing carbon dioxide gas (which creates low 5-6 pHcarbonic acidsolution when dissolved in water).[10][failed verification]

Artesian wellsin such places asMihalkovoin the BulgarianRhodope Mountains,MedžitlijainNorth Macedonia,and most notably inSeltersin the GermanTaunusmountains, produce naturallyeffervescentmineral waters.[11]

Health effects[edit]

By itself, carbonated water appears to have little to no impact on health.[12]

Carbonated water, such as club soda or sparkling water, is defined in US law as a food ofminimal nutritional value,even if minerals,vitamins,orartificial sweetenershave been added to it.[13]

Carbonated water does not appear to have an effect ongastroesophageal reflux disease.[14]There is tentative evidence that carbonated water may help withconstipationamong people who have had astroke.[15]

Acid erosion[edit]

While carbonated water is somewhat acidic, this acidity can be partially neutralized bysaliva.[16]A study found that sparklingmineral wateris slightly more erosive to teeth than non-carbonated water but is about 1% as corrosive as soft drinks are. A 2017 study by the American Dental Association showed that it would take over 100 years of daily sparkling water consumption to cause damage tohuman teeth⁠‍—‍a claim that could not apply if there is added sugar or artificial flavorings, which often includecitric acidand other fruit acids, predicted to have an impact on human teeth.[17]

Chemistry and physical properties[edit]

Bonds in carbonic acid are more easily broken at high temperatures resulting in the generation of water and gaseous carbon dioxide. Thus sparkling water at lower temperatures (far right) holds more carbonation than at high (far left).[18]

Carbon dioxidegas dissolved in water creates a small amount ofcarbonic acid(H2CO3):

H
2O(l) +CO
2(g) ⇌H
2CO
3(aq)

with the concentration of carbonic acid being about 0.17% that ofCO2.[19] Theacidgives carbonated water a slightly tart flavor. ItspHlevel of between 5 and 6[10][failed verification]is approximately in betweenapple juiceandorange juicein acidity, but much less acidic than the acid in the stomach. A normal, healthy human body maintains pH equilibrium viaacid–base homeostasisand will not be materially adversely affected by consumption of plain carbonated water.[20]Carbon dioxide in the blood is expelled through the lungs.Alkalinesalts,such assodium bicarbonate,potassium bicarbonate,orpotassium citrate,will increase pH.

The amount of a gas that can be dissolved in water is described byHenry's Law.The coefficient depends on the temperature.[19]In the carbonization process, water is chilled, optimally to just above freezing, to maximize the amount of carbon dioxide that can be dissolved in it. Higher gas pressure and lower temperature cause more gas to dissolve in the liquid. When the temperature is raised or the pressure is reduced (as happens when a container of carbonated water is opened), carbon dioxideeffervesces,thereby escaping from the solution.

The density of carbonated water is slightly greater than that of pure water. The volume of a quantity of carbonated water can be calculated by taking the volume of the water and adding 0.8 cubic centimetres for each gram ofCO2.[21][22]

History[edit]

Joseph Priestleypioneered a method of carbonation in the 18th century.

Manyalcoholic drinks,such asbeer,champagne,cider,andspritzer,were naturally carbonated through the fermentation process for centuries. In 1662Christopher Merretcreated 'sparkling wine'.[23]William Brownriggwas apparently the first to produce artificial carbonated water, in the early 1740s, by using carbon dioxide taken from mines.[24]In 1750 the FrenchmanGabriel François Venelalso produced artificial carbonated water, though he misunderstood the nature of the gas that caused the carbonation.[25]In 1764, Irish chemist Dr. Macbride infused water with carbon dioxide as part of a series of experiments on fermentation and putrefaction.[26][27]In 1766Henry Cavendishdevised an aerating apparatus that would inspireJoseph Priestleyto carry out his own experiments with regard to carbonated waters.[28]Cavendish was also aware of Brownrigg's observations at this time and published a paper on his own experiments on a nearby source of mineral water at the beginning of January in the next year.[29]

Engraving of assorted scientific equipment, such as a pneumatic trough. A dead mouse rests under one glass canister.
Equipment used by Priestley in his experiments on gases and the carbonation of water

In 1767 Priestley discovered a method of infusing water with carbon dioxide by pouring water back and forth above a beer vat at a local brewery inLeeds,England.[30][31][32]The air blanketing the fermenting beer—called 'fixed air'—was known to kill mice suspended in it. Priestley found water thus treated had a pleasant taste, and he offered it to friends as a cool, refreshing drink. In 1772, Priestley published a paper titledImpregnating Water with Fixed Airin which he describes dripping "oil of vitriol" (sulfuric acid) ontochalkto produce carbon dioxide gas, and encouraging the gas to dissolve into an agitated bowl of water.[6]Priestley referred to his invention of this treated water as being his "happiest" discovery.[31]

"Within a decade, inventors in Britain and in Europe had taken Priestley's basic idea—get some" fixed air, "mix it with water, shake—and created contraptions that could make carbonated water more quickly, in greater quantities. One of those inventors was named Johann Jacob Schweppe, who sold bottled soda water and whose business is still around today."

—The Great Soda-Water Shake Up,The Atlantic,October 2014.[33]

Priestley's apparatus, which was very similar to that invented by Henry Cavendish five years earlier, featured a bladder between the generator and the absorption tank to regulate the flow of carbon dioxide, and was soon joined by a wide range of others, but it was not until 1781 that carbonated water began being produced on a large scale with the establishment of companies specialized in producing artificial mineral water.[5]The first factory was built byThomas HenryofManchester,England.[5]Henry replaced the bladder in Priestley's system with large bellows.[5]J. J. Schweppedeveloped a process to manufacture bottled carbonated mineral water based on the discovery of Priestley, founding theSchweppesCompany in Geneva in 1783. Schweppes regarded Priestley as "the father of our industry".[34]In 1792 he moved to London to develop the business there. In 1799 Augustine Thwaites founded Thwaites' Soda Water in Dublin. ALondon Globearticle claims that this company was the first to patent and sell "Soda Water" under that name. The article says that in the hot summer of 1777 in London "aerated waters" (that is, carbonated) were selling well but there was as yet no mention of "soda water", though the first effervescent drinks were probably made using "soda powders"containingbicarbonate of sodaandtartaric acid.[35]The name soda water arose from the fact that soda (sodium carbonateorbicarbonate) was often added to adjust the taste and pH.[citation needed]

Modern carbonated water is made by injecting pressurizedcarbon dioxideinto water.[36]The pressure increases thesolubilityand allows more carbon dioxide todissolvethan would be possible understandard atmospheric pressure.When the bottle is opened, the pressure is released, allowing gas to exit the solution, forming the characteristic bubbles.

Modern sources of CO2are from industrial processes, such as burning of fossil fuels like coal and methane at power plants, orsteam reformingof methane forhydrogen production.

Etymology[edit]

Belfast Evening Post,Belfast,Ireland, August 7, 1786

In the United States, plain carbonated water was generally known either assoda water,due to the sodium salts it contained, orseltzer water,deriving from the German townSeltersrenowned for itsmineral springs.[37]

Sodium salts were added to plain water both as flavoring (to mimic famedmineral waters,such as naturally effervescentSelters,Vichy waterandSaratoga water) and acidity regulators (to offset the acidic 5-6 pHcarbonic acidcreated when carbon dioxide is dissolved in water).[10]

In the 1950s the termclub sodabegan to be popularized.[38]

Generally,seltzer waterhas no added sodium salts, whileclub sodastill retains some sodium salts.[38]

Products for carbonating water[edit]

Home[edit]

Soda siphons[edit]

Main article:Soda siphon
A soda siphonc. 1922

The soda siphon, or seltzer bottle—a glass or metal pressure vessel with a release valve and spout for dispensing pressurized soda water—was a common sight inbarsand in early- to mid-20th-century homes where it became a symbol of middle-class affluence.

The gas pressure in a siphon drives soda water up through a tube inside the siphon when a valve lever at the top is depressed. Commercial soda siphons came pre-charged with water and gas and were returned to the retailer for exchange when empty. A deposit scheme ensured they were not otherwise thrown away.

Home soda siphons can carbonate flatwater through the use of a small disposable steel bulb containing carbon dioxide. The bulb is pressed into the valve assembly at the top of the siphon, the gas injected, then the bulb withdrawn.

Gasogene[edit]

Main article:Gasogene
Late Victorian seltzogene made by British Syphon

The gasogene (or gazogene, or seltzogene) is a lateVictoriandevice for producing carbonated water. It consists of two linked glass globes: the lower contained water or other drink to be made sparkling, the upper a mixture oftartaric acidandsodium bicarbonatethat reacts to producecarbon dioxide.The produced gas pushes the liquid in the lower container up a tube and out of the device. The globes are surrounded by awickeror wire protective mesh, as they have a tendency to explode.[39]

Codd-neck bottles[edit]

TheCodd-neck bottleis designed to contain a marble which seals in the carbonation.

In 1872,soft drink makerHiram CoddofCamberwell,London, designed and patented theCodd-neck bottle,designed specifically forcarbonateddrinks. TheCodd-neck bottleencloses amarbleand arubberwasher/gasketin the neck. The bottles were filled upside down, and pressure of thegasin the bottle forced the marble against the washer, sealing in the carbonation. The bottle was pinched into a special shape to provide a chamber into which the marble was pushed to open the bottle. This prevented the marble from blocking the neck as the drink was poured.

Soon after its introduction, the bottle became extremely popular with the soft drink andbrewingindustries mainly in the UK and the rest of Europe, Asia, and Australasia, though somealcoholdrinkers disdained the use of the bottle.R. White's,the biggest soft drinks company in London and south-east England when the bottle was introduced, was among the companies that sold their drinks in Codd's glass bottles.[40]Oneetymologyof the termcodswalloporiginates from beer sold in Codd bottles, though this is generally dismissed as afolk etymology.[41]

The bottles were produced for many decades, but gradually declined in usage. Since children smashed the bottles to retrieve the marbles, vintage bottles are relatively rare and have becomecollector items,particularly in the UK. Due to the risk of explosion and injuries from fragmented glass pieces, use of this type of bottle is discouraged in most countries, since other methods of sealing pressurized bottles can more easily incorporate release of unsafe pressures. The Codd-neck design is still used for the Japanese soft drinkRamune,and in the Indian drink calledBanta.

Soda makers[edit]

A typical all-in-one soda maker for home use found in supermarkets. A refillable carbon dioxide canister and a high-pressure bottle are often included.

Soda makers or soda carbonators are appliances that carbonate water with multiple-use carbon dioxide canisters. A variety of systems are produced by manufacturers and hobbyists.[42][43]The commercial units may be sold with concentrated syrup for making flavored soft drinks.

One major producer of soda carbonators isSodaStream.Their products were popular during the 1970s and 1980s in the United Kingdom, and are associated with nostalgia for that period and have experienced a comeback in the 2000s.[44][45]

Commercial[edit]

A modern barsoda gun

The process of dissolving carbon dioxide in water is calledcarbonation.Commercial soda water in siphons is made by chilling filtered plain water to 8 °C (46 °F) or below, optionally adding asodiumorpotassiumbased alkaline compound such assodium bicarbonateto neutralize the acid created when pressurizing the water with carbon dioxide (which creates high 8-10 pHcarbonic acid-bicarbonatebuffer solutionwhen dissolved in water).[46]The gas dissolves in the water, and a top-off fill of carbon dioxide is added to pressurize the siphon to approximately 120 pounds per square inch (830 kPa), some 30 to 40 psi (210–280 kPa) higher than is present in fermentingchampagnebottles.[citation needed]

In many modern restaurants and bars soda water is manufactured on-site using devices known as carbonators. Carbonators use mechanical pumps to pump water into a pressurized chamber where it is combined with carbon dioxide from pressurized tanks at approximately 100 psi (690 kPa). The pressurized carbonated water then flows either directly to taps or mi xing heads where flavoring is added before dispensing.

Uses[edit]

Carbonated beverages[edit]

Main article:Soft drink

Carbonated water is a key ingredient insoft drinks,beverages that typically consist of carbonated water, a sweetener, and a flavoring such ascola,ginger,orcitrus.

Plain carbonated water or sparklingmineral wateris often consumed as an alternative to soft drinks.Club sodais carbonated water to which compounds such assodium bicarbonateorpotassium sulfatehave been added.[47]Many manufacturers produce unsweetened sparkling water products that are lightly flavored by the addition of aromatic ingredients such asessential oils.[48][49]Carbonated water is often mixed with fruit juice to make sparkling alcoholic and non-alcoholicpunches.[50]

Alcoholic beverages[edit]

Main article:Hard seltzer

Carbonated water is adiluentmixed withalcoholic beverageswhere it is used to top-off the drink and provides a degree of 'fizz'.

Adding soda water to "short" drinks such as spirits dilutes them and makes them "long" (not to be confused withlong drinkssuch as those made withvermouth). Carbonated water also works well in short drinks made withwhiskey,brandy,andCampari.Soda water may be used to dilute drinks based on cordials such as orangesquash.Soda water is a necessary ingredient in many cocktails, such aswhiskey and sodaorCampari and soda.

Cooking[edit]

Carbonated water is increasingly popular in Western cooking as a substitute for plain water in deep-fryingbattersto provide a lighter texture to doughs similar totempura.Kevin Ryan, afood scientistat theUniversity of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign,says the effervescent bubbles when mixed with dough provide a light tempura-like texture, which gives the illusion of being lower calorie than regular frying batters. The lightness is caused by pockets of carbon dioxide gas being introduced into the batter (a process which natural rising usingyeastalso creates) and further expanding when cooked.[51]

Stain remover[edit]

Since the dissolved gas in carbonated water acts as a temporarysurfactant,it has been recommended as a household remedy for removing stains, particularly those of red wine.[52]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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  2. ^Jessica Krefting, MS, RD, LDN (September 1, 2018)."Seltzer or Sparkling Water: An Alternative to Flat Water".Journal of Renal Nutrition.28(5): E33–E35.doi:10.1053/j.jrn.2018.07.001.S2CID81383075.{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ^Beckett, J. V. (1977)."Dr William Brownrigg, F.R.S.: Physician, Chemist and Country Gentleman".Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London.31(2): 255–271.ISSN0035-9149.
  4. ^Homan, Peter Gerald (September 22, 2007)."Aerial Acid: A short history of artificial mineral waters"(PDF).
  5. ^abcdefghiSchils, René (2011).How James Watt Invented the Copier: Forgotten Inventions of Our Great Scientists.Springer Science & Business Media. p. 36.
  6. ^abJoseph Priestley."DIRECTIONS FOR IMPREGNATING WATER WITH FIXED AIR; In order to communicate to it the peculiar Spirit and Virtues of Pyrmont Water, And other Mineral WAters of a ſimilar Nature".Today in Science.Archivedfrom the original on July 29, 2019.
  7. ^"Our fizzy seas of soda water".The Telegraph. September 21, 2016.Archivedfrom the original on January 12, 2022.
  8. ^"Schweppes Holdings Limited".Royalwarrant.org.RetrievedOctober 13,2021.Schweppes was founded in 1783 [..] the world's first ever soft drink, Schweppes soda water, was born.
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External links[edit]

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