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Shah Jahan

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Not to be confused withJahan Shah.
For other people named Shah Jahan, seeShah Jahan (disambiguation).

Shah Jahan I
The Lord of the Auspicious Conjunction[1]
Padishah
Ghazi
Al-Sultan Al-Azam
Sehenshah-e-Hind(King of kings of India)
Portrait byBichitr,c. 1630
5thMughal Emperor
Reign19 January 1628 –31 July 1658[2]
Coronation14 February 1628[3]
PredecessorJahangir I
Shahriyar(de facto)
SuccessorAurangzeb
BornKhurram[4]
(1592-01-05)5 January 1592
Lahore,Lahore Subah,Mughal Empire
(present-dayPunjab,Pakistan)
Died22 January 1666(1666-01-22)(aged 74)
Muthamman Burj,Agra,Mughal Empire
(present-dayUttar Pradesh,India)
Burial
Taj Mahal,Agra,Uttar Pradesh,India
Wives
  • ​
    (m.1610)​
    ​
    ​
    (m.1612; died 1631)​
  • ​
    (m.1617)​
  • Kunwari Leelavati Deiji
Issue
among others...
Names
Mirza Shahab-ud-Din Muhammad Khurram Shah Jahan[5]
Regnal name
Shah Jahan[6]
Posthumous name
Firduas Ashiyani (lit. 'One who nest in Paradise')
HouseHouse of Babur
DynastyTimurid dynasty
FatherJahangir I
MotherJagat Gosain
ReligionSunni Islam(Hanafi)
Imperial SealShah Jahan I's signature

Mirza Shahab-ud-Din Muhammad Khurram(5 January 1592 – 22 January 1666), also known asShah Jahan I(Persian pronunciation:[ʃɑːhd͡ʒa.ˈhɑːn];lit. 'King of the World'), was the fifthMughal emperor,reigning from 1628 until 1658. During his reign, the Mughals reached the peak of their architectural and cultural achievements.

The third son ofJahangir(r. 1605–1627), Shah Jahan participated in the military campaigns against theSisodiaRajputsofMewarand the rebelLodinobles of theDeccan.After Jahangir's death in October 1627, Shah Jahan defeated his youngest brotherShahryar Mirzaand crowned himself emperor in theAgra Fort.In addition to Shahryar, Shah Jahan executed most of his rival claimants to the throne. He commissioned many monuments, including theRed Fort,Shah Jahan Mosqueand theTaj Mahal,where his favorite consortMumtaz Mahalis entombed. In foreign affairs, Shah Jahan presided over the aggressive campaigns against theDeccan sultanates,the conflicts with thePortuguese,and thewars with the Safavids.He also suppressed several local rebellions and dealt with the devastatingDeccan famine of 1630–32.

In September 1657, Shah Jahan was ailing and appointed his eldest sonDara Shikohas his successor. This nomination led to a succession crisis among his three sons, from which Shah Jahan's third sonAurangzeb(r. 1658–1707) emerged victorious and became the sixth emperor, executing all of his surviving brothers, including Crown Prince Dara Shikoh. After Shah Jahan recovered from his illness in July 1658, Aurangzeb imprisoned him in Agra Fort from July 1658 until his death in January 1666.[7]He was laid to rest next to his wife in the Taj Mahal. His reign is known for doing away with the liberal policies initiated by his grandfatherAkbar.During Shah Jahan's time, Islamic revivalist movements like theNaqshbandibegan to shape Mughal policies.[8]

Early life[edit]

Birth and background[edit]

He was born on 5 January 1592 in Lahore, present-day Pakistan, as the ninth child and third son of Prince Salim (later known as 'Jahangir' upon his accession) by his wife,Jagat Gosain.[9][10]The name Khurram (Persian:خرم,lit. 'joyous') was chosen for the young prince by his grandfather, EmperorAkbar,with whom the young prince shared a close relationship.[10]Jahangir stated that Akbar was very fond of Khurram and had often told him "There is no comparison between him and your other sons. I consider him my true son."[11]

When Khurram was born, Akbar considering him to be auspicious insisted the prince be raised in his household rather than Salim's and was thus entrusted to the care ofRuqaiya Sultan Begum.Ruqaiya assumed the primary responsibility for raising Khurram[12]and is noted to have raised Khurram affectionately. Jahangir noted in his memoirs that Ruqaiya had loved his son, Khurram, "a thousand times more than if he had been her own [son]."[13]

However, after the death of his grandfather Akbar in 1605, he returned to the care of his mother, Jagat Gosain whom he cared for and loved immensely. Although separated from her at birth, he had become devoted to her and had her addressed asHazratin court chronicles.[14][15]On the death of Jagat Gosain inAkbarabadon 8 April 1619, he is recorded to be inconsolable by Jahangir and mourned for 21 days. For these three weeks of the mourning period, he attended no public meetings and subsisted on simple vegetarian meals. His consortMumtaz Mahalpersonally supervised the distribution of food to the poor during this period. She led the recitation of the Quran every morning and gave her husband many lessons on the substance of life and death and begged him not to grieve.[16]

Education[edit]

As a child, Khurram received a broad education befitting his status as a Mughal prince, which includedmartial trainingand exposure to a wide variety of cultural arts, such aspoetryandmusic,most of which was inculcated, according to court chroniclers, by Jahangir. According to his chronicler Qazvini, prince Khurram was only familiar with a fewTurkiwords and showed little interest in the study of the language as a child.[17]Khurram was attracted toHindiliterature since his childhood, and his Hindi letters were mentioned in his father's biography,Tuzuk-e-Jahangiri.[18]In 1605, as Akbar lay on his deathbed, Khurram, who at this point of time was 13,[citation needed]remained by his bedside and refused to move even after his mother tried to retrieve him. Given the politically uncertain times immediately preceding Akbar's death, Khurram was in a fair amount of physical danger from political opponents of his father.[19]He was at last ordered to return to his quarters by the senior women of his grandfather's household, namelySalima Sultan Begumand his grandmotherMariam-uz-ZamaniasAkbar's health deteriorated.[20]

Khusrau rebellion[edit]

In 1605, his father succeeded to the throne, after crushing a rebellion byPrince Khusrau– Khurram remained distant from court politics and intrigues in the immediate aftermath of that event.[citation needed]Khurram left Ruqaiya's care and returned to his mother's care.[21]As the third son, Khurram did not challenge the two major power blocs of the time, his father's and his half-brother's; thus, he enjoyed the benefits of imperial protection and luxury while being allowed to continue with his education and training. This relatively quiet and stable period of his life allowed Khurram to build his own support base in the Mughal court, which would be useful later on in his life.[22]

Jahangir assigned Khurram to guard the palace and treasury while he went to pursue Khusrau. He was later ordered to bringMariam-uz-Zamani,his grandmother and Jahangir's harem to him.[23]

During Khusrau's second rebellion, Khurram's informants informed him about Fatehullah, Nuruddin and Muhammad Sharif gathered around 500 men at Khusrau's instigation and lay await for the Emperor. Khurram relayed this information to Jahangir who praised him.[24]

Jahangir had Khurram weighed against gold, silver and other wealth at his mansion at Orta.[25]

Nur Jahan[edit]

Due to the long period of tensions between his father and his half-brother,Khusrau Mirza,Khurram began to drift closer to his father, and over time, started to be considered the de facto heir-apparent by court chroniclers. This status was given official sanction when Jahangir granted thesarkarofHissar-e-Feroza,which had traditionally been the fief of the heir-apparent, to Khurram in 1608.[26]After her marriage to Jahangir in the year 1611,Nur Jahangradually became an active participant in all decisions made by Jahangir and gained extreme powers in administration, so much so that it was obvious to everyone both inside and outside that most of his decisions were actually hers. Slowly, while Jahangir became more indulgent in wine and opium, she was considered to be the actual power behind the throne. Her near and dear relatives acquired important positions in the Mughal court, termed the Nur Jahan junta by historians. Khurram was in constant conflict with his stepmother, Nur Jahan who favoured her son-in-lawShahryar Mirzafor the succession to the Mughal throne over him. In the last years of Jahangir's life, Nur Jahan was in full power, and the emperor had left all the burden of governance on her. She tried to weaken Khurram's position in the Mughal court by sending him on campaigns far in Deccan while ensuring several favours were being bestowed on her son-in-law. Khurram after sensing the danger posed to his status as heir-apparent rebelled against his father in 1622 but did not succeed and eventually lost the favour of his father. Several years before Jahangir's death in 1627, coins began to be struck containing Nur Jahan's name along with Jahangir's name; In fact, there were two prerogatives of sovereignty for the legitimacy of a Muslim monarchy (reading theKhutbahand the other being the right tomint coins). After the death of Jahangir in 1627, a struggle developed between Khurram and his half-brother,Shahryar Mirzafor the succession to the Mughal throne. Khurram won the battle of succession and became the fifth Mughal Emperor. Nur Jahan was subsequently deprived of her imperial stature, authority, privileges, honors and economic grants and was put under house arrest on the orders of Khurram and led a quiet and comfortable life till her death.

Ancestry[edit]

Marriages[edit]

In 1607, Khurram became engaged to Arjumand Banu Begum (1593–1631), who is also known asMumtaz Mahal(Persianlit. ' The Exalted One of the Palace'). They were about 14 and 15 when they were engaged, and five years later, got married. The young girl belonged to an illustriousPersiannoble family that includedAbu'l-Hasan Asaf Khan,who had been serving Mughal emperors since the reign ofAkbar.The family's patriarch wasMirza Ghiyas Beg,who was also known by his title I'timād-ud-Daulah or "Pillar of the State". He had beenJahangir'sfinance minister and his son,Asaf Khan– Arjumand Banu's father – played an important role in the Mughal court, eventually serving as Chief Minister. Her aunt Mehr-un-Nissa later became the EmpressNur Jahan,chief consort of Emperor Jahangir.[27]

The prince would have to wait five years before he was married in 1612 (1021 AH), on a date selected by the court astrologers as most conducive to ensuring a happy marriage. This was an unusually long engagement for the time. However, Shah Jahan first married aPersianPrincess (name not known) entitledKandahari Begum,the daughter of a great-grandson of the greatShah Ismail IofPersia,with whom he had a daughter, his first child.[28]

Shah Jahan, accompanied by his three sons:Dara Shikoh,Shah ShujaandAurangzeb,and their maternal grandfatherAsaf Khan IV

In 1612, aged 20, Khurram married Mumtaz Mahal, on a date chosen by court astrologers. The marriage was a happy one and Khurram remained devoted to her. They had fourteen children, out of whom seven survived into adulthood.

Though there was genuine love between the two, Arjumand Banu Begum was a politically astute woman and served as a crucial advisor and confidante to her husband.[29]Later on, as empress, Mumtaz Mahal wielded immense power, such as being consulted by her husband in state matters, attending the council (shuraordiwan), and being responsible for theimperial seal,which allowed her to review official documents in their final draft. Shah Jahan also gave her the right to issue her own orders (hukums) and make appointments to him.[citation needed]

TheTaj Mahal,the burial place of Shah Jahan and his wifeMumtaz Mahal

Mumtaz Mahal died at the young age of 38 (7 June 1631), upon giving birth to PrincessGauhar Ara Begumin the city ofBurhanpur,Deccanof apostpartum haemorrhage,which caused considerable blood-loss after painful labor of thirty hours.[30]Contemporary historians note that Princess Jahanara, aged 17, was so distressed by her mother's pain that she started distributing gems to the poor, hoping for divine intervention, and Shah Jahan was noted as being "paralysed by grief" and weeping fits.[31]Her body was temporarily buried in a walled pleasure garden known as Zainabad, originally constructed by Shah Jahan's unclePrince Daniyalalong theTapti River.Her death had a profound impact on Shah Jahan's personality and inspired the construction of the marvelousTaj Mahal,where she was later reburied.[32]

Khurram had taken other wives, among whom were Kandahari Begum (m. 28 October 1610) and anotherPersianPrincessIzz un-Nisa Begum(m. 2 September 1617), the daughters of Prince Muzaffar Husain Mirza Safawi and Shahnawaz Khan, son ofAbdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana,respectively. But according to court chroniclers, these marriages were more out of political consideration, and they enjoyed only the status of being royal wives.[citation needed]

Khurram is also recorded to have married his maternal half-cousin, aRathoreRajputPrincess Kunwari Leelavati Deiji, daughter of Kunwar Sakat/Sagat or Shakti Singh son of Mota RajaUdai Singhand half brother of RajaSur Singh of Marwar.The marriage took place atJodhpurwhen Khurram was in rebellion against his father, emperor Jahangir.[33]

Relationship with Jahanara[edit]

After Shah Jahan fell ill in 1658, his daughterJahanara Begumhad a significant influence in the Mughal administration.[34][35]As a result, several accusations of an incestual relationship between Shah Jahan and Jahanara were propagated.[36]Such accusations have been dismissed by modern historians as gossip, as no witness of an incident has been mentioned.[37]

HistorianK. S. Lalalso dismisses such claims as rumors propagated by courtiers andmullahs.He citesAurangzeb'sconfining of Jahanara in theAgra Fortwith the Royal prisoner and the talk of the low people magnifying a rumor.[38]

Several contemporary travelers have mentioned such accessions.Francois Bernier,aFrenchphysician, mentions rumors of an incestuous relationship being propagated in the Mughal Court.[39]However, Bernier did not mention witnessing such a relationship.[40]Niccolao Manucci,aVenetiantraveler, dismisses such accusations by Bernier as gossip and"The talk of the Low People".[36][41]

Early military campaigns[edit]

Shirt of the Personal Armour of Shah Jahan c.1632-1633

Prince Khurram showed extraordinary military talent. The first occasion for Khurram to test his military prowess was during theMughalcampaign against theRajputstate ofMewar,which had been a hostile force to the Mughals sinceAkbar'sreign.[42]

After a year of a harshwar of attrition,RanaAmar Singh Isurrendered conditionally to the Mughal forces and became avassal stateof the Mughal Empire as a result ofMughal expedition of Mewar.[43]In 1615, Khurram presented Kunwar Karan Singh, Amar Singh's heir to Jahangir. Khurram was sent to pay homage to his mother and stepmothers and was later awarded by Jahangir.[44]The same year, his mansab was increased from 12000/6000 to 15000/7000, to equal that his brother Parvez's and was further increased to 20000/10000 in 1616.[45][46]

The Submission ofRana Amar Singhof Mewar to Prince Khurram, Tuzk-e-Jahangiri.

In 1616, on Khurram's departure to Deccan, Jahangir awarded him the titleShah Sultan Khurram.[47]

In 1617, Khurram was directed to deal with theLodisin theDeccanto secure the Empire's southern borders and to restore imperial control over the region. On his return 1617 after successes in these campaigns, Khurram performed koronush beforeJahangirwho called him to jharoka and rose from his seat to embrace him. Jahangir also granting him the title ofShah Jahan(Persian: "King of the World" )[48]and raised his military rank to 30000/20000 and allowed him a special throne in hisDurbar,an unprecedented honor for a prince.[49]Edward S. Holden writes, "He was flattered by some, envied by others, loved by none."[50]

In 1618, Shah Jahan was given the first copy ofJahangirnamaby his father who considered him "the first of all my sons in everything."[51]

Rebel prince[edit]

Shah Jahan on horseback (during his youth).

Inheritance in theMughal Empirewas not determined through primogeniture, but by princely sons competing to achieve military successes and consolidating their power at court. This often led to rebellions and wars of succession. As a result, a complex political climate surrounded the Mughal court in Shah Jahan's formative years. In 1611 his father marriedNur Jahan,the widowed daughter of a Persian noble. She rapidly became an important member ofJahangir'scourt and, together with her brotherAsaf Khan,wielded considerable influence. Arjumand was Asaf Khan's daughter and her marriage to Khurram consolidated Nur Jahan and Asaf Khan's positions in court.

Court intrigues, however, including Nur Jahan's decision to have her daughter from her first marriage wed Prince Khurram's youngest brotherShahzada Shahryarand her support for his claim to the throne led to much internal division. Prince Khurram resented the influence Nur Jahan held over his father and was angered at having to play second fiddle to her favourite Shahryar, his half-brother and her son-in-law. When the Persians besiegedKandahar,Nur Jahan was at the helm of the affairs. She ordered Prince Khurram to march for Kandahar, but he refused. As a result of Prince Khurram's refusal to obey Nur Jahan's orders, Kandahar was lost to the Persians after a forty-five-day siege.[52]Prince Khurram feared that in his absence Nur Jahan would attempt to poison his father against him and convince Jahangir to name Shahryar the heir in his place. This fear brought Prince Khurram to rebel against his father rather than fight against thePersians.

In 1622, Prince Khurram raised an army and marched against his father and Nur Jahan.[52]He was defeated atBilochpurin March 1623. Later he took refuge inUdaipurMewarwith MaharanaKaran Singh II.He was first lodged in Delwada Ki Haveli and subsequently shifted toJagmandir Palaceon his request. Prince Khurram exchanged his turban with the Maharana and that turban is still preserved in Pratap Museum, Udaipur (R V Somani 1976). It is believed that the mosaic work of Jagmandir inspired him to use mosaic work in theTaj MahalofAgra.In November 1623, he found safe asylum inBengal Subahafter he was driven from Agra and theDeccan.He advanced throughMidnapurandBurdwan.At Akbarnagar, he defeated and killed the then Subahdar of Bengal,Ibrahim Khan Fath-i-Jang,on 20 April 1624.[53]He enteredDhakaand "all the elephants, horses, and 4,000,000 rupees in specie belonging to the Government were delivered to him". After a short stay he then moved toPatna.[54]His rebellion did not succeed in the end and he was forced to submit unconditionally after he was defeated nearAllahabad.Although the prince was forgiven for his errors in 1626, tensions between Nur Jahan and her stepson continued to grow beneath the surface.

Upon the death of Jahangir in 1627, the wazir Asaf Khan, who had long been a quiet partisan of Prince Khurram, acted with unexpected forcefulness and determination to forestall his sister's plans to place Prince Shahryar on the throne. He put Nur Jahan in close confinement. He obtained control of Prince Khurram's three sons who were under her charge. Asaf Khan also managed palace intrigues to ensure Prince Khurram's succession to the throne.[55]Prince Khurram succeeded to the Mughal throne as Abu ud-Muzaffar Shihab ud-Din Mohammad Sahib ud-Quiran ud-Thani Shah Jahan Padshah Ghazi (Urdu: شهاب الدین محمد خرم), or Shah Jahan.[56]

His regnal name is divided into various parts.Shihab ud-Din,meaning "Star of the Faith",Sahib al-Quiran ud-Thani,meaning "Second Lord of the Happy Conjunction of Jupiter and Venus".Shah Jahan,meaning "King of the World", alluding to his pride in his Timurid roots and his ambitions. More epithets showed his secular and religious duties. He was also titledHazrat Shahenshah( "His Imperial Majesty" ),Hazrat-i-Khilafat-Panahi( "His Majesty the Refuge of the Caliphate" ),Hazrat Zill-i-Ilahi( "His Majesty the Shadow of God" ).[57]

His first act as ruler was to execute his chief rivals and imprison his stepmother Nur Jahan. Upon Shah Jahan's orders, several executions took place on 23 January 1628. Those put to death included his brother Shahryar; his nephewsDawarand Garshasp, sons of Shah Jahan's previously executed brotherPrince Khusrau;and his cousins Tahmuras andHoshang,sons of the late PrinceDaniyal Mirza.[58][59] This allowed Shah Jahan to rule his empire without contention.

Reign[edit]

Shah Jahan at hisDurbar,from theWindsor Padshahnama,c. 1657
Shah Jahan the Great Mogul
Throne ofMughal EmperorShah Jahan of India,Red Fort,Delhi

Evidence from the reign of Shah Jahan states that in 1648 the army consisted of 911,400 infantry,musketeers,andartillerymen, and 185,000Sowarscommanded by princes and nobles.

His cultural and political initial steps have been described as a type of theTimurid Renaissance,in which he built historical and political bonds with his Timurid heritage mainly via his numerous unsuccessful military campaigns on his ancestral region ofBalkh.In various forms, Shah Jahan appropriated his Timurid background and grafted it onto his imperial legacy.[60]

During his reign theMarwari horsewas introduced, becoming Shah Jahan's favorite, and various Mughalcannonswere mass-produced in theJaigarh Fort.Under his rule, the empire became a huge military machine and the nobles and their contingents multiplied almost fourfold, as did the demands for more revenue from their citizens. But due to his measures in the financial and commercial fields, it was a period of general stability – the administration was centralized and court affairs systematized.

The Mughal Empire continued to expand moderately during his reign as his sons commanded large armies on different fronts. India at the time was a rich center of the arts, crafts and architecture, and some of the best of the architects, artisans, craftsmen, painters and writers of the world resided in Shah Jahan's empire. According to economistAngus Maddison,Mughal-era India's share of global gross domestic product (GDP) grew from 22.7% in 1600 to 24.4% in 1700, surpassing China to become the world's largest.[61][62]E. Dewick and Murray Titus, quotingBadshahnama,write that 76 temples inBenareswere demolished on Shah Jahan's orders.[63]

Famine of 1630[edit]

Main article:Deccan famine of 1630–32

A famine broke out in 1630–32 in Deccan, Gujarat and Khandesh as a result of three main crop failures.[64]Two million died of starvation, grocers sold dogs' flesh and mixed powdered bones with flour. It is reported that parents ate their own children. Some villages were completely destroyed, their streets filled with human corpses. In response to the devastation, Shah Jahan set uplangar(free kitchens) for the victims of the famine.[65]

Successful military campaigns against Deccan Sultanates[edit]

In 1632, Shah Jahan captured the fortress atDaulatabad, Maharashtraand imprisoned Husein Shah of theNizam Shahi KingdomofAhmednagar.Golconda submitted in 1635 and then Bijapur in 1636. Shah Jahan appointed Aurangzeb as Viceroy of the Deccan, consisting of Khandesh, Berar, Telangana, and Daulatabad. During his viceroyalty, Aurangzeb conquered Baglana, then Golconda in 1656, and then Bijapur in 1657.[66]

Sikh rebellion led by Guru Hargobind[edit]

A rebellion of the Sikhs led byGuru Hargobindtook place and, in response, Shah Jahan ordered their destruction. Guru Hargobind defeated the Mughal's army in theBattle of Amritsar,Battle of Kartarpur,Battle of Rohilla,and theBattle of Lahira.

Relations with the Safavid dynasty[edit]

Painting of Shah Jahan huntingAsiatic lionsatBurhanpur,present-dayMadhya Pradesh,from 1630

Shah Jahan and his sons captured the city ofKandaharin 1638 from theSafavids,prompting the retaliation of the Persians led by their rulerAbbas II of Persia,who recaptured it in 1649. The Mughal armies were unable to recapture it despite repeated sieges during theMughal–Safavid War.[67]Shah Jahan also expanded the Mughal Empire to the west beyond theKhyber PasstoGhaznaand Kandahar.

Military campaign in Central Asia[edit]

Shah Jahan launched an invasion of Central Asia in 1646–1647.[68]

Relations with the Ottoman Empire[edit]

Shah Jahan sent an embassy to theOttoman courtin 1637. Led by Mir Zarif, it reached SultanMurad IVthe following year, while he was encamped in Baghdad. Zarif presented him with fine gifts and a letter which encouraged an alliance against Safavid Persia. The Sultan sent a return embassy led by Arsalan Agha. Shah Jahan received the ambassador in June 1640.[citation needed]

While he was encamped inBaghdad,Murad IV is known to have met ambassadors of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, Mir Zarif and Mir Baraka, who presented 1000 pieces of finely embroidered cloth and even armor. Murad IV gave them the finest weapons,saddlesandKaftansand ordered his forces to accompany theMughalsto the port ofBasra,where they set sail toThattaand finallySurat.[69]They exchanged lavish presents, but Shah Jahan was displeased with Sultan Murad's return letter, the tone of which he found discourteous. Sultan Murad's successor, SultanIbrahim,sent Shah Jahan another letter encouraging him to wage war against the Persians, but there is no record of a reply.[69]

War with Portuguese[edit]

Shah Jahan gave orders in 1631 to Qasim Khan, the Mughal viceroy of Bengal, to drive out the Portuguese from their trading post atPort Hoogly.The post was heavily armed with cannons,battleships,fortified walls, and other instruments of war.[70]The Portuguese were accused of trafficking by high Mughal officials and due to commercial competition the Mughal-controlled port ofSaptagrambegan to slump. Shah Jahan was particularly outraged by the activities ofJesuitsin that region, notably when they were accused of abducting peasants. On 25 September 1632, the Mughal Army raised imperial banners and gained control over theBandelregion, and the garrison waspunished.[71]On 23 December 1635, Shah Jahan issued a farman ordering the Agra Church to be demolished. The Church was occupied by the Portuguese Jesuits. However the Emperor allowed the Jesuits to conduct their religious ceremonies in privacy. He also banned the Jesuits in preaching their religion and making converts from both Hindus and Muslims.[72][73]Though in the decree, he also granted 777 bighas of rent-free land to the Augustinian Fathers and the Christian community in Bandel, currently in West Bengal, shaping its Portuguese heritage for times to come.[74]

Ministers[edit]

Shah Jahan's treasurer was Sheikh Farid, who founded the city ofFaridabad.

Revolts against Shah Jahan[edit]

TheKolisofGujaratrebelled against the rule of Shah Jahan. In 1622, Shah Jahan sent Raja Vikramjit, the Governor of Gujarat, to subdue the Kolis ofAhmedabad.[75]Between 1632 and 1635, four viceroys were appointed in an effort to manage the Koli's activities. The Kolis ofKankrejinNorth Gujaratcommitted excesses and the Jam ofNawanagarrefused to pay tribute to Shah Jahan. Soon, Ázam Khán was appointed in an effort to subdue the Kolis and bring order to the province. Ázam Khán marched against Koli rebels. When Ázam Khán reachedSidhpur,the local merchants complained bitterly of the outrages of one Kánji, aChunvaliaKoli, who had been especially daring in plundering merchandise and committing highway robberies. Ázam Khán, anxious to start with a show of vigour before proceeding to Áhmedábád, marched against Kánji, who fled to the village of Bhádar nearKheralu,sixty miles north-east of Áhmedábád. Ázam Khán pursued him so hotly that Kánji surrendered, handed over his plunder and guaranteed that he would not only cease to commit robberies but also pay an annual tribute of Rupees 10,000. Ázam Khán then built two fortified posts in the Koli's territory, naming one Ázamábád after himself, and the other Khalílábád after his son. Additionally, he forced the surrender of the Jam of Nawanagar.[76]The next viceroy, Ísa Tarkhán, carried out financial reforms. In 1644, theMughalprinceAurangzebwas appointed as the viceroy, who then proceeded to become engaged in religious disputes, such as the destruction of aJaintemple inAhmedabad.Due to these disputes, he was replaced byShaista Khanwho failed to subdue Kolis. Subsequently, princeMurad Bakhshwas appointed as the viceroy in 1654. He restored order and defeated the Koli rebels.[77]

Illness and death[edit]

Shah Jahan and his eldest sonDara Shikoh.

When Shah Jahan became ill in 1658,Dara Shikoh(Mumtaz Mahal's eldest son) assumed the role of regent in his father's stead, which swiftly incurred the animosity of his brothers.[78]Upon learning of his assumption of the regency, his younger brothers,Shuja,Viceroy of Bengal, andMurad Baksh,Viceroy of Gujarat, declared their independence and marched upon Agra in order to claim their riches. Aurangzeb, the third son, gathered a well-trained army and became its chief commander. He faced Dara's army near Agra and defeated him during theBattle of Samugarh.[79]Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb declared him incompetent to rule and put him underhouse arrestin Agra Fort.

Jahanara Begum Sahib,Mumtaz Mahal's eldest surviving daughter, voluntarily shared his 8-year confinement and nursed him in his dotage. In January 1666, Shah Jahan fell ill. Confined to bed, he became progressively weaker until, on 22 January, he commended the ladies of the imperial court, particularly his consort of later years Akbarabadi Mahal, to the care of Jahanara. After reciting theKal'ma(Laa ilaaha ill allah) and verses from theQuran,Shah Jahan died, aged 74.

The Passing of Shah Jahan

Shah Jahan's chaplainSayyid Muhammad Qanaujiand Kazi Qurban of Agra came to the fort, moved his body to a nearby hall, washed it, enshrouded it, and put it in a coffin of sandalwood.[29]

Princess Jahanara had planned a state funeral which was to include a procession with Shah Jahan's body carried by eminent nobles followed by the notable citizens of Agra and officials scattering coins for the poor and needy. Aurangzeb refused to accommodate such ostentation. The body was taken to the Taj Mahal and was interred there next to the body of his beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal.[80]

The actual tombs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan in the lower level of Taj Mahal

Contributions to architecture[edit]

Imperial Seals of Shah Jahan

Shah Jahan left behind a grand legacy of structures constructed during his reign. He was one of the greatest patrons ofMughal architecture.[81]His reign ushered in the golden age ofMughal architecture.[82]His most famous building was the Taj Mahal, which he built out of love for his wife, the empressMumtaz Mahal.His relationship with Mumtaz Mahal has been heavily adapted into Indian art, literature and cinema. Shah Jahan personally owned the royal treasury, and several precious stones such as theKohinoor.

Its structure was drawn with great care and architects from all over the world were called for this purpose. The building took twenty years to complete and was constructed from white marble underlaid with brick. Upon his death, his son Aurangzeb had him interred in it next to Mumtaz Mahal. Among his other constructions are theRed Fortalso called theDelhi FortorLal QilainUrdu,large sections of Agra Fort, theJama Masjid,theWazir Khan Mosque,theMoti Masjid,theShalimar Gardens,sections of theLahore Fort,theMahabat Khan MosqueinPeshawar,theMini Qutub Minar[83]inHastsal,the Jahangir mausoleum – his father's tomb, the construction of which was overseen by his stepmother Nur Jahan and theShahjahan Mosque.He also had the Peacock Throne,Takht e Taus,made to celebrate his rule. Shah Jahan also placed profound verses of the Quran on his masterpieces of architecture.[84]

TheShah Jahan Mosquein Thatta, Sindh province of Pakistan (100 km / 60 miles from Karachi) was built during the reign of Shah Jahan in 1647. The mosque is built with red bricks with blue coloured glaze tiles probably imported from another Sindh's town ofHala.The mosque has overall 93 domes and it is the world's largest mosque having such a number of domes. It has been built keeping acoustics in mind. A person speaking inside one end of the dome can be heard at the other end when the speech exceeds 100decibels.It has been on the tentative UNESCO World Heritage list since 1993.[85]

Coins[edit]

Shah Jahan continued striking coins in three metals i.e. gold (mohur), silver (rupee) and copper (dam). His pre-accession coins bear the name Khurram.

  • Gold Mohur from Akbarabad (Agra)
    Gold Mohur from Akbarabad (Agra)
  • Silver rupee coin of Shah Jahan, from Patna.
    Silver rupee coin of Shah Jahan, fromPatna.
  • Copper Dam from Daryakot mint
    Copper Dam from Daryakot mint
  • Silver Rupee from Multan
    Silver Rupee from Multan
Styles of
Shah Jahan
Reference styleShahanshah
Spoken styleHis Imperial Majesty
Alternative styleAlam Pana

Issue[edit]

Children of Shah Jahan
Name Portrait Lifespan Notes
Parhez Banu Begum 21 August 1611 –
1675 		Shah Jahan's first child born to his first wife,Kandahari Begum.Parhez Banu was her mother's only child and died unmarried.
Hur-ul-Nisa Begum 30 March 1613 –
5 June 1616 		The first of fourteen children born to Shah Jahan's second wife,Mumtaz Mahal.She died ofsmallpoxat the age of 3.[87]
Jahanara Begum
Padshah Begum 		23 March 1614 –
16 September 1681 		Shah Jahan's favourite and most influential daughter. Jahanara became the First Lady (Padshah Begum) of the Mughal Empire after her mother's death, despite the fact that her father had three other consorts. She died unmarried.
Dara Shikoh
Padshahzada-i-Buzurg Martaba, Jalal ul-Kadir, Sultan Muhammad Dara Shikoh, Shah-i-Buland Iqbal 		20 March 1615 –
30 August 1659 		The eldest son andheir-apparent.He was favoured as a successor by his father, Shah Jahan, and his elder sister, Princess Jahanara Begum, but was defeated and later killed by his younger brother, Prince Muhiuddin (later the EmperorAurangzeb), in a bitter struggle for the imperial throne. He married and had issue.
Shah Shuja 23 June 1616 –
7 February 1661 		He survived in the war of succession. He married and had issue.
Roshanara Begum
Padshah Begum 		3 September 1617 –
11 September 1671 		She was the most influential of Shah Jahan's daughters after Jahanara Begum and sided with Aurangzeb during the war of succession. She died unmarried.
Aurangzeb
Mughal emperor 		3 November 1618 –
3 March 1707 		Succeeded his father as the sixth Mughal emperor after emerging victorious in the war of succession that took place after Shah Jahan's illness in 1657.
Jahan Afroz 25 June 1619 –
March 1621 		The only child of Shah Jahan's third wife,Izz-un-Nissa(titled Akbarabadi Mahal). Jahan Afroz died at the age of one year and nine months.[88]
Izad Bakhsh 18 December 1619 –
February/March 1621[89] 		Died in infancy.
Surayya Banu Begum 10 June 1621 –
28 April 1628[89] 		Died ofsmallpoxat the age of 7.[87]
Unnamed son 1622 Died soon after birth.[89]
Murad Bakhsh 8 October 1624 –
14 December 1661 		He was killed in 1661 as per Aurangzeb's orders.[87]He married and had issue.
Lutf Allah 4 November 1626 –
13 May 1628[89] 		Died at the age of one and a half years.[87]
Daulat Afza 8 May 1628 –
13 May 1629[90] 		Died in infancy.
Husnara Begum 23 April 1629 –
1630[89] 		Died in infancy.
Gauhara Begum 17 June 1631 –
1706 		Mumtaz Mahal died while giving birth to her on 17 June 1631 inBurhanpur.She died unmarried.

Inscriptions[edit]

Shah Jahan inscription from a well at Makrana, Rajasthan[91]

The inscription from Makrana, Nagaur District, dating back to 1651 AD, mentions Mirza Ali Baig, who was likely a local governor under Shah Jahan's rule.[92]It describes a notice he posted on a step-well, prohibiting low-caste individuals from using the well alongside higher-caste people.[93]


See also[edit]


References[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^"Lords of the Auspicious Conjunction: The Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires and the Islamic Ecumene".Shah Jahan.LSE International Studies. Cambridge University Press. 18 June 2020. pp. 167–213.doi:10.1017/9781108867948.007.ISBN978-1-108-49121-1.
  2. ^Shujauddin, Mohammad; Shujauddik, Razia (1967).The Life and Times of Noor Jahan.Lahore: Caravan Book House. p. 121.OCLC638031657.
  3. ^Necipoğlu, Gülru,ed. (1994).Muqarnas: an annual on Islamic art and architecture.Vol. 11. Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill. p. 143.ISBN978-90-04-10070-1.
  4. ^Fenech, Louis E. (2014). "The Evolution of the Sikh Community". InSingh, Pashaura;Fenech, Louis E. (eds.).The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies.Oxford University Press. p. 46.ISBN978-0-19-969930-8.Jahangir's son, ponkua, better known as the emperor Shah Jahan the Architect
  5. ^Singh, Pashaura;Fenech, Louis E., eds. (2014). "Index".The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies.Oxford University Press. p. 649.ISBN978-0-19-969930-8.Shah Jahan, Emperor Shahabuddin Muhammad Khurram
  6. ^Flood, Finbarr Barry;Necipoglu, Gulru(2017).A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture.John Wiley & Sons. p. 897.ISBN978-1-119-06857-0.
  7. ^Illustrated dictionary of the Muslim world.Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish Reference. 2011. p.136.ISBN978-0-7614-7929-1.
  8. ^Richards 1993,Shah Jahan,pp.121–122.
  9. ^"Shah Jahan".Encyclopædia Britannica.17 October 2023.
  10. ^abFindly 1993,p. 125
  11. ^Jahangir(1999).The Jahangirnama: Memoirs of Jahangir, Emperor of India.Translated by Thackston, W. M. Oxford University Press. p. 30.ISBN0-19-512718-8.
  12. ^Eraly 2000,p. 299
  13. ^Jahangir(1999).The Jahangirnama: Memoirs of Jahangir, Emperor of India.Translated by Thackston, W. M. Oxford University Press. p. 46.ISBN0-19-512718-8.
  14. ^Kamboh, Muhammad Saleh.Amal I Salih.During her stay at Fatehpur, the mother of Shah Jahan, Hazrat Bilqis Makani, a resident of Agra became ill. The treatment did not work. Finally, on 4th Jamadi-ul-Awal, she died and according to her will, she was buried at Dehra Bagh, near Noor Manzil.
  15. ^Perston, Diana; Perston, Micheal.A Teardrop on the Cheek of Time: The Story of the Taj Mahal.Although removed from his mother at birth, Shah Jahan had become devoted to her.
  16. ^Lal, Muni (1986).Shah Jahan.Vikas Publishing House. p. 52.
  17. ^Banarsi Prasad Saksena (1932).History Of Shahjahan Of Dihli 1932.Indian Press Limited.
  18. ^Saiyada Asad Alī (2000).Influence of Islam on Hindi Literature.Idarah-i-Adabiyat-Delli. p. 48.
  19. ^Prasad 1930,p. 189 "During his grandfather's last illness, he [Khurram] refused to leave the bedside surrounded by his enemies. Neither the advice of his father nor the entreaties of his mother could prevail on him to prefer the safety of his life to his last duty to the father."
  20. ^Nicoll 2009,p. 49
  21. ^Faruqui, Munis D. (2012).The Princes of the Mughal Empire, 1504–1719.Cambridge University Press. p. 71.ISBN978-1-107-02217-1.
  22. ^Nicoll 2009,p. 56
  23. ^Emperor, Jahangir (1999).The Jahangirnama.Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp.61.ISBN9780195127188.
  24. ^Emperor, Jahangir (1999).The Jahangirnama.Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp.84.ISBN9780195127188.
  25. ^Emperor, Jahangir (1999).The Jahangirnama.Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp.81.ISBN9780195127188.
  26. ^Prasad 1930,p. 190 "Khusrau conspired, rebelled, and lost the favour of his father... Of all the sons of Jahangir, Khurram was marked out to be the heir-apparent and successor... In 1608 the assignment of the sarkar of Hissar Firoz to him proclaimed to the world that he was intended for the throne."
  27. ^Nicoll 2009,p. 66
  28. ^Eraly 2000,p. 300
  29. ^abEraly 2000,p. 379
  30. ^Kumar, Anant (January–June 2014)."Monument of Love or Symbol of Maternal Death: The Story Behind the Taj Mahal".Case Reports in Women's Health.1:4–7.doi:10.1016/j.crwh.2014.07.001.Retrieved21 December2015.
  31. ^Nicoll 2009,p. 177
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  33. ^The Mertiyo Rathors of Merta, Rajasthan.Vol. II. p. 45.
  34. ^Koul, Ashish (January 2022)."Whom can a Muslim Woman Represent? Begum Jahanara Shah Nawaz and the politics of party building in late colonial India".Modern Asian Studies.56(1): 96–141.doi:10.1017/S0026749X20000578.ISSN0026-749X.S2CID233690931.
  35. ^Bano, Shadab (2013)."Piety and Pricess Jahanara's Role in the Public Domain".Proceedings of the Indian History Congress.74:245–250.ISSN2249-1937.JSTOR44158822.
  36. ^abBanerjee, Rita (7 July 2021),"Women in India: The" Sati "and the Harem",India in Early Modern English Travel Writings,Brill, pp. 173–208,ISBN978-90-04-44826-1,retrieved12 February2024
  37. ^Banerjee, Rita (7 July 2021),"Women in India: The" Sati "and the Harem",India in Early Modern English Travel Writings,Brill, pp. 173–208,ISBN978-90-04-44826-1,retrieved12 February2024
  38. ^Lal, Kishori Saran, ed. (1988),"The Charge of Incest",The Mughal Harem,Adithya Prakashan, pp. 93–94
  39. ^Constable, Archibald, ed. (1916),"Begum Saheb",Travels in Mogul India,Oxford University Press, p. 11
  40. ^Manzar, Nishat (31 March 2023),"Looking Through European Eyes: Mughal State and Religious Freedom as Gleaned from The European Travellers' Accounts of the Seventeenth Century",Islam in India,London: Routledge, pp. 121–132,doi:10.4324/9781003400202-9,ISBN978-1-003-40020-2,retrieved12 February2024
  41. ^Irvine, William, ed. (1907),"Begum Saheb",Storia Do Mogor Vol 1,Oxford University press, pp. 216–217
  42. ^Emperor, Jahangir (1999).The Jahangirnama.Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp.154.ISBN9780195127188.
  43. ^Prasad 1930,p. 239 "Constant skirmishes were thinning the Rajput ranks... [Amar Singh] offered to recognize Mughal supremacy... Jahangir gladly and unreservedly accepted the terms."
  44. ^Emperor, Jahangir (1999).The Jahangirnama.Freer Gallery of Art, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution and Oxford University Press. pp.116.ISBN9780195127188.
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  50. ^Holden, Edward S. (2004) [First published 1895].Mughal Emperors of Hindustan (1398–1707).New Delhi, India: Asian Educational Service. p. 257.ISBN978-81-206-1883-1.
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  85. ^Shah Jahan MosqueUNESCO World Heritage Centre Retrieved 10 February 2011
  86. ^Dani, A. H. (2003)."The Architecture of the Mughal Empire (North-Western Regions)"(PDF).In Adle, Chahryar;Habib, Irfan(eds.).History of Civilizations of Central Asia.Vol. V. UNESCO. p. 524.ISBN978-9231038761.
  87. ^abcdMoosvi, Shireen (2008).People, Taxation, and Trade in Mughal India.Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 115.ISBN978-0195693157.
  88. ^Jahangir(1999).The Jahangirnama: Memoirs of Jahangir, Emperor of India.Translated by Thackston, W. M. Oxford University Press. p. 362.ISBN0195127188.[March 1621 – March 1622] Shah-Shuja escaped the brink of death, and another son born of Shahnawaz Khan's daughter [Izz un-Nisa Begum] in Burhanpur died.
  89. ^abcdeSarker, Kobita (2007).Shah Jahan and his paradise on earth: the story of Shah Jahan's creations in Agra and Shahjahanabad in the golden days of the Mughals.Kolkata: K.P. Bagchi & Co. p. 40.ISBN978-8170743002.
  90. ^Begley, W. E.; Desai, Z.A., eds. (1989).Taj Mahal: The Illumined Tomb: An Anthology of Seventeenth-Century Mughal and European Documentary Sources.Cambridge, Massachusetts: Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture. p. 23.ISBN978-0-295-96944-2.
  91. ^Epigraphia Indica. Arabic and Persian supplement (in continuation of the series Epigraphia Indo-Moslemica).Public Resource. Archaeological Survey of India. 2011.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: others (link)
  92. ^Archaeology progress report of the A.S.I., Western Circle.Central Archeological Library. p. 40.Under management of Mirza Ali Baig. As the date A.H. 1061 is equivalent to A.D. 1650, the 25th year must refer to Shah Jahan's reign, Mirza Ali Baig must have been his local governor.
  93. ^A. Ghosh, (Director General of Archaeology in India) (22 December 1965).Indian Archaeology 1962-63, A Review.Government of India Press, Faridabad. p. 60.INSCRIPTIONS OF THE MUGHALS, DISTRICTS JAIPUR, NAGAUR AND TONK.—Of the inscriptions ofShah Jahan,the one from Makrana, District Nagaur, records a notice put up on a step-well in А.Н. 1061 (A.D. 1651) by Mirza Ali Baig prohibiting the low-caste people from drawing water from the well along with the people of higher caste.

Bibliography[edit]

External links[edit]

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Shah Jahan
Born:5 January 1592Died:22 January 1666
Regnal titles
Preceded by Mughal Emperor
1627–1658 		Succeeded by
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