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Sicily (theme)

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Theme of Sicily
Σικελία, θέμα Σικελίας
Themeof theByzantine Empire
687/695–902

The Byzantine Empire and itsthemesc. 717
CapitalSyracuse,thenRhegion
Historical eraMiddle Ages
• Established
687/695
902
• Remnant renamed as theTheme of Calabria
Mid-10th century
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Sicily (Roman province)
Muslim Sicily
Theme of Calabria
Today part ofItaly
Malta[1]

Sicily(Greek:θέμα Σικελίας,Thema Sikelias) was aByzantineprovince (theme) existing from the late 7th to the 10th century, encompassing the islands ofSicilyandMalta,and the region ofCalabriain theItalian mainland.Following theMuslim conquest of Sicily,from 902 the theme was limited to Calabria, but retained its original name until the middle of the 10th century.

History[edit]

Ever since its reconquest from theOstrogothsbyBelisariusin 535–536, Sicily had formed a distinctprovinceunder apraetor,while the army was placed under adux.[2][3]Astrategos(military governor) is attested on the island inArabsources between 687 and 695, and it is at that time that the island was probably made into a theme.[4]

The theme was based inSyracuse,traditionally the chief city of Sicily. It comprised not only the island, which was divided into districts calledtourmai,but also the mainland duchy ofCalabria(Greek:δουκᾶτον Καλαυρίας,doukaton Kalavrias), which extended roughly up to the riverCrati.[4][5][6]Thestrategosof Sicily exercised some authority—varying according to the prevailing local political faction—over the autonomous duchies ofNaples,GaetaandAmalfi.[7]

TheMuslim conquestof the island began in 826. Following thefall of Syracusein 878 and the conquest ofTaorminain 902, thestrategosmoved toRhegion,the capital of Calabria. During the first half of the 10th century, the Byzantines launched a number of failed expeditions to regain the island and maintained a few isolated strongholds nearMessinauntil 965, whenRometta,the last Byzantine outpost,fell.The post of "strategosof Sicily "was thus retained as the official title until the mid-10th century, when the"strategosof Calabria "begins to appear in the lists.[2][8][9]

List ofstrategoi[edit]

Holders of the office known only from seals who can not be precisely dated are not included. Uncertain or conjectural entries are denoted in italics.

Name Tenure Appointed by Notes Refs
Salventius c. 687–695 Justinian II(?) Only known through two seals dating to the late 7th century, which give his titles aspatrikiosandstrategos,without geographic qualification. His Latin name points to a Western origin, possibly from the senatorial aristocracy ofRome;as the only Western theme at the time was Sicily, he is held to have beenstrategosthere, probably appointed by Justinian II during his first reign. [10]
Theophylact c. 700 Tiberios III Four seals attest to the existence of akoubikoularios,parakoimomenos,andstrategosof Sicily with that name. The dating, as well as the attribution of the seals to the same person, are uncertain, but some scholars (e.g.,Vitalien LaurentandNicolas Oikonomides) identify him with thenamesakeExarch of Ravenna,who was appointed in October 701 and came from Sicily. This attribution would also make him the first knownparakoimomenos. [11][12]
Theodore c. 710–713 Justinian II First attested in October 710, whenPope Constantinehealed him from an illness. Following the murder of ExarchJohn III Rizocopusin 711, he was sent to Italy to restore order. He killed or captured the rebels, many of whom were exiled toConstantinople,including ArchbishopFelix of Ravenna.He probably remained in charge of the Exarchate until the arrival of a new exarch,Scholasticus,in 713. [13][14]
Sergios 717–718 Leo III the Isaurian ThepatrikiosSergios wasstrategosof Sicily in 717, when false news reached the island that Constantinoplehad fallento theUmayyads.He then proclaimed one of his aides,Basil Onomagoulos,as emperor. Emperor Leo III quickly sent a newstrategosto the island to suppress the inadvertent revolt. Sergius managed to flee to theLombards,but later secured a pardon and returned to Byzantine territory. Some scholars have proposed an identification with the namesakestrategosof 731. [15][16]
Paul 718–723 (?) Leo III the Isaurian Originally the personalchartoulariosof the emperor, he was sent to suppress the revolt of Sergios andBasil Onomagoulos.He is commonly identified as the Paul who became Exarch of Ravenna in 723, and may have remained in office in Sicily until then, but neither is certain. The Exarch Paul was killed during a rebellion in Ravenna in 726/27. [17][18]
Sergios c. 730–735 Leo III the Isaurian Sometimes identified with thestrategosof 717. He was involved in promoting Leo'siconoclastpolicies with the Pope, as well as implementing his administrative and fiscal reforms, in Sicily and Calabria. He was possibly the Byzantine commander in a naval defeat at the hands of the Umayyads underUbayd Allah ibn al-Habhab al-Mawsiliin 734/35, and may have been the author of a truce concluded in 728. [19][20]
Antiochos c. 760–763(?) Constantine V He wasstrategosof Sicily, and the chief imperial commander (monostrategos) in Italy, probably inc. 760–763,perhaps as late as 766. He also occupied the post oflogothetes tou dromou,unusually in tandem with the post ofstrategos.He was implicated in a conspiracy of nineteen of the highest state officials, headed by the brothersStrategiosandConstantine Podopagouros,against Constantine V. After the plot's discovery, the conspirators were publicly paraded and humiliated at theHippodrome of Constantinopleon 25 August 766, following which Antiochos and most of the other conspirators wereblindedand exiled. [21][22]
Elpidios c. 778–780(?)
781–782 		Leo IV the Khazar
Irene of Athens 		Appointed asstrategosof Sicily in February 781 by Empress-regent Irene of Athens. He is noted to have held the office previously, most likely in the late 770s, so that Irene's appointment may simply have been a reconfirmation. He was soon accused of participating in the abortive conspiracy of the previous October to depose Irene and raise Leo IV's brotherNikephorosto the throne. Irene sent an emissary to Sicily, but the locals refused to hand him over, so that the Empress had to dispatch an expedition against him in 782. Elpidios fled to theAghlabids,who crowned him Byzantine emperor (basileus). [23][24]
Theodore 782–788 Irene of Athens Aeunuch,he was sent by Empress Irene to depose Elpidios. He remained in Sicily as the localstrategosand was active in the affairs of Italy. He participated, under the command of theprotospathariosandsakellariosJohn, in the expedition in support of the formerKing of the LombardsAdelchis,who intended to recover his realm fromCharlemagne.The expedition was defeated by the Franks, and Theodore was executed "in cruel fashion". [25][26]
Niketas Monomachos c. 797 Irene of Athens Born inPaphlagonia,he was castrated as a child. He is attested asstrategosof Sicily in 797, when he accompaniedTheoktistosin an embassy to Charlemagne. He remained in office until 798/9, when his successor is named. After 811 he became a monk and abbot, and a defender of the veneration oficonsduring the second period of iconoclasm. He died in 836 and is venerated as a saint. [27][28]
Michael Ganglianos c. 798/9 Irene of Athens Mentioned in Frankish sources as a former governor ofPhrygia(likelystrategosof theAnatolic Theme), who led an embassy to the court of Charlemagne along with the presbyter Theophilos in 798. He is equated by some scholars, notablyPaul Speck,with the "Michahel Siciliae praefectus"mentioned in theAnnales regni Francorumas an envoy to Charlemagne in 799, as well as with the owner of a seal mentioning "Michael,patrikios,praipositos,andstrategosof Sicily ". If so, the title ofpraipositosindicates that he was a eunuch. [29][30]
Constantine c. 804/5 Nikephoros I Constantine is only known from a letter byPope Leo IIIfrom 813, as having concluded a ten-year truce with the Arabs (probably theAghlabids) in spring 804, which was broken by the latter. He was probably sent to the island soon after the overthrow of Irene in October 802, to replace the governor appointed by her, hence in 803. A number of seals mentioning Constantine,patrikiosandstrategosof Sicily, are attributed to him, including one found onCyprus,perhaps linked with the short-lived recovery of the island under Nikephoros I in 805–806. [31][32]
Theognostos c. 812 Michael I Rhangabe Mentioned as one of the envoys sent in 811/2 by Michael I toAachento negotiate peace and arrange a marriage between his sonTheophylactand a Frankish princess. Given the frequency with which thestrategoiof Sicily were eomployed in such embassies, he may be the owner of an unpublished seal mentioning "Theognostos,patrikiosandstrategosof Sicily ", which on stylistic grounds is to be dated in the early 9th century. [33][34]
Gregory 813–821 Leo V the Armenian Mentioned in two letters by Pope Leo III in August and November 813. He led a fleet to Sicily to help repel an Arab attack, but soon concluded a truce with the Arabs ofIfriqiya.He restored imperial control over theDuchy of Naples,installing his own nomineesTheoctistusandTheodoreas dukes. After the murder of Leo V in December 820, he did not recognize his successor,Michael II the Amorian,and was assassinated by local aristocrats underEuphemius. [35][36]
Constantine Soudas 826 Michael II the Amorian Appointed by Michael II in 826, Constantine appointed Euphemius as his fleet commander, but was overthrown and executed by the latter, when orders came from Constantinople for his arrest. Facing resistance in the island, Euphemius turned to the Aghlabids for aid. The affair marked the beginning of theMuslim conquest of Sicily. [37]
Palata or Balata 826–827 Michael II the Amorian Known only from Arabic sources, his actual name is unknown;Palatamay be the corrupted form of a title (perhapskouropalates). Initially a partisan of Euphemios, he turned against him and evicted him from Syracuse; alternatively he may have been a general sent from Constantinople. When Euphemios returned with Aghlabid troops, Palata, who was thede factogovernor of Sicily, was defeated and withdrew toCalabria,where he died. [38]
Photeinos c. 826/7(?) Michael II the Amorian Asstrategosof the Anatolic Theme, he led an expedition to recover Crete from theSaracensbut was defeated. He was then appointed to command in Sicily. No details about his activities there are known. [39]
Constantine Kontomytes 859 Michael III ThepatrikiosConstantine Kontomytes was a formerstrategosof theThracesian Themeand relative by marriage to the EmpressTheodoraandPatriarchPhotios.In 859, Emperor Michael III sent him to Sicily at the head of 300 ships. The Byzantines were defeated by the Arabs under Abbas ibn Fad and forced back onto their ships. [40]
Eupraxios c. 880 Basil I the Macedonian Mentioned only in the chronicle ofSymeon the Logotheteas governor of Sicily in 880, in connection with the dispatch of reinforcements underProkopiosto southern Italy. [41]
Barsakios c. 881 Basil I the Macedonian Of Armenian origin, the imperialprotospathariosandstrategosBarsakios was defeated by the Aghlabid commanderal-Hasan ibn al-AbbasnearTaorminain spring 881 and recalled to Constantinople. Probably identical with thepatrikiosof the same name who in 894/5 becamestrategosofLongibardiain southern Italy. [42]
Polites c. 884/5 Basil I the Macedonian Name known only from Arabic sources. Either himself the governor, or, according toIbn al-Athir,the envoy of the governor, who negotiated a three-month truce and the ransoming of 300 Muslim prisoners, in exchange for Byzantine captives from Syracuse. [43]
Constantine Karamallos c. 902 Leo VI the Wise ThepatrikiosConstantine Karamallos is attested as the commander ofTaorminaduring itssiegeby the Aghlabids in 902. He escaped its fall with the fleet, and went to Constantinople, where he was tried and condemned to death for negligence. He was pardoned and allowed to retire as a monk. Based on an inscription fromCastel Mola,a fort near Taormina, mentioning a "Constantine,patrikiosandstrategosof Sicily ", which stylistically belongs to the same period, he is identified as astrategos. [44]
Eustathios c. 914 Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos An imperial chamberlain (hence a eunuch), who negotiated a peace treaty withAhmad ibn Qurhub,in exchange for an annual tribute of 22,000 gold coins. His seal carries his titles as "primikerios,imperialprotospatharios,andstrategosof Sicily "; in reality he was probably the firststrategosof Calabria. [45]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^"Malta".Enciclopedia Italiana(in Italian).Retrieved23 November2023.
  2. ^abODB,"Sicily" (A. Kazhdan), pp. 1891–1892.
  3. ^Nesbitt & Oikonomides 1994,p. 22.
  4. ^abOikonomides 1972,p. 351.
  5. ^Nesbitt & Oikonomides 1994,pp. 19, 22.
  6. ^Pertusi 1952,p. 179.
  7. ^Brown 2008,pp. 457–459.
  8. ^Oikonomides 1972,pp. 351, 356.
  9. ^Pertusi 1952,pp. 178–180.
  10. ^Prigent & Nichanian 2003,pp. 98–99.
  11. ^Prigent & Nichanian 2003,pp. 99–101.
  12. ^PmbZ,Theophylaktos (#8270); Theophylaktos (#8291).
  13. ^Prigent & Nichanian 2003,pp. 101–103.
  14. ^PmbZ,Theodoros (#7521).
  15. ^Prigent & Nichanian 2003,pp. 103–105.
  16. ^PmbZ,Sergios (#6594).
  17. ^Prigent & Nichanian 2003,pp. 105–106.
  18. ^PmbZ,Paulos (#5815).
  19. ^Prigent & Nichanian 2003,p. 107.
  20. ^PmbZ,Sergios (#6596).
  21. ^Prigent & Nichanian 2003,pp. 107–114.
  22. ^PmbZ,Antiochos (#513); Antiochos (#518).
  23. ^Prigent & Nichanian 2003,pp. 114–117.
  24. ^PmbZ,Elpidios (#1515/corr.).
  25. ^Prigent & Nichanian 2003,pp. 117–122.
  26. ^PmbZ,Theodoros (#7578).
  27. ^Prigent & Nichanian 2003,pp. 122–125.
  28. ^PmbZ,Niketas (#5424).
  29. ^Prigent & Nichanian 2003,pp. 126–128.
  30. ^PmbZ,Michael Ganglianos (#5045); Michael (#5046).
  31. ^Prigent & Nichanian 2003,pp. 128–129.
  32. ^PmbZ,Konstantinos (#3917).
  33. ^Prigent & Nichanian 2003,pp. 129–131.
  34. ^PmbZ,Theognostos (#8011).
  35. ^Prigent & Nichanian 2003,p. 131.
  36. ^PmbZ,Gregorios (#2466).
  37. ^PmbZ,Konstantinos (#3928/corr.); Euphemios (#1701/corr.).
  38. ^PmbZ,Balāṭa (#738); Euphemios (#1701/corr.).
  39. ^PmbZ,Photeinos (#6241)).
  40. ^PmbZ,Konstantinos Kontomytes (#3929/corr.).
  41. ^PmbZ,Eupraxios (#21805).
  42. ^PmbZ,Barsakios (#20819).
  43. ^PmbZ,Polites (#26710).
  44. ^PmbZ,Konstantinos Karamallos (#23816).
  45. ^PmbZ,Eustathios (#21845).

Sources[edit]

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