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Not to be confused withKingdom of Sikkim.

Sikh Empire
Sarkār-i-Khālsa
Khālasā Rāj
1799–1849
Motto:ਅਕਾਲ ਸਹਾਇ
Akāl Sahāi
"With God's Grace"
Anthem:ਦੇਗ ਤੇਗ ਫ਼ਤਿਹ
Dēg Tēg Fateh
"Victory to Charity and Arms"
The Sikh Empire at its greatest extent c. 1839, under Ranjit Singh
The Sikh Empire at its greatest extentc. 1839,underRanjit Singh
StatusEmpire
Capital
Common languages
Religion
GovernmentFederal monarchy
Maharaja
• 1801–1839
Ranjit Singh(first)
• 1843–1849
Duleep Singh(last)
Regent
• 1840–1841
Chand Kaur
• 1843–1846
Jind Kaur
Vizier
• 1799–1818
Khushal Singh Jamadar(first)
• 1846
Gulab Singh(last)
Historical eraEarly modern period
• Capture of Lahore byRanjit Singh
7 July 1799
29 March 1849
Area
1839[5]520,000 km2(200,000 sq mi)
Population
• 1800s
12,000,000[6]
CurrencyNanak ShahiSikke
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Kangra State
Durrani Empire
Sikh Confederacy
Sial dynasty
Maqpon dynasty
Namgyal dynasty
Punjab Province (British India)
Jammu and Kashmir(princely state)
Today part of
Part ofa serieson the
History ofIndia
Timeline
Prehistoric
Ancient
Classical
Early medieval
Late medieval
Early modern
Modern
Related articles

TheSikh Empirewas a regional power based in thePunjab regionof theIndian subcontinent.[7]It existed from 1799, whenMaharajaRanjit SinghcapturedLahore,to 1849, when it was defeated and conquered by theBritish East India Companyin theSecond Anglo-Sikh War.It was forged on the foundations of theKhalsafrom a collection of autonomousmisls.[1][8]At its peak in the 19th century, the empire extended fromGilgitandTibetin the north to thedeserts of Sindhin the south and from theKhyber Passin the west to theSutlejin the east as far asOudh.[9][10]It was divided into four provinces:Lahore,which became the Sikh capital;Multan;Peshawar;andKashmirfrom 1799 to 1849. Religiously diverse, with an estimated population of 4.5 million in 1831 (making it the19th most populous country at the time),[11]it was the last major region of the Indian subcontinent tobe annexedby theBritish Empire.

The formation of the empire began with the capture of Lahore from its Durrani ruler,Zaman Shah Durrani.Ranjit Singh was proclaimed as Maharaja of the Punjab on 12 April 1801 (to coincide withVaisakhi), creating a unified political state. Sahib Singh Bedi, a descendant ofGuru Nanak,conducted the coronation.[12]The formation of the empire was followed by the progressive expulsion ofAfghansfrom Punjab by capitalizing off Afghan decline in theAfghan-Sikh Wars,and the unification of the separate Sikh misls. Ranjit Singh rose to power in a very short period, from a leader of a singlemislto finally becoming the Maharaja of Punjab. He began to modernise his army, using the latest training as well as weapons andartillery.After the death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the empire was weakened by the British East India Company stoking internal divisions and political mismanagement. Finally, in 1849, the state was dissolved after the defeat in the Second Anglo-Sikh War.

Terminology

The empire is also referred to as theLahore State,such as in contemporary British maps.[13][14][15]The termLahore Darbarrefers to theSikh courtat Lahore of the empire's ruling government.[note 2][16]However, the term "Lahore Darbar" only gained currency around the time of Ranjit Singh's death, with it not being found in British sources until then.[16]The empire's own Persian chronicles refers to its ruling government as theSarkar Khalsaji.[16]

History

Background

The foundation of the Sikh Empire can be traced to as early as 1707, the year ofAurangzeb's death and the start of the downfall of theMughal Empire.With the Mughals significantly weakened, the Sikh army, known as theDal Khalsa,a rearrangement of the Khalsa inaugurated byGuru Gobind Singh,led expeditions against them and theAfghansin the west. This led to a growth of the army which split into different confederacies or semi-independentmisls.Each of these component armies controlled different areas and cities. However, in the period from 1762 to 1799, Sikh commanders of themislsappeared to be coming into their own as independent.

Mughal rule of Punjab

Sikhismbegan during the conquest ofNorth IndiabyBabur,the founder of theMughal Empire.His grandson,Akbar,supported religious freedom and after visiting thelangarofGuru Amar Dasgot a favourable impression of Sikhism. As a result of his visit, he donated land to the langar and the Mughals did not have any conflict withSikh gurusuntil his death in 1605.[17]

His successorJahangir,saw the Sikhs as a political threat. He orderedGuru Arjan,who had been arrested for supporting the rebelliousKhusrau Mirza,[18]to change the passage about Islam in theAdi Granth.When the Guru refused, Jahangir ordered him to be put to death by torture.[19]Guru Arjan'smartyrdomled to the sixth Guru,Guru Hargobind,declaring Sikhsovereigntyin the creation of theAkal Takhtand the establishment of a fort to defendAmritsar.[20]

Jahangir attempted to assert authority over the Sikhs by jailing Guru Hargobind atGwalior Fort,but released him after a number of years when he no longer felt threatened. The Sikh community did not have any further issues with the Mughal Empire until the death of Jahangir in 1627. The succeeding son of Jahangir,Shah Jahan,took offence at Guru Hargobind's "sovereignty" and after a series of assaults on Amritsar forced the Sikhs to retreat to theSivalik Hills.[20]

The next guru,Guru Har Rai,maintained the guruship in these hills by defeating local attempts to seize Sikh land and playing a neutral role in the power struggle between two of the sons of Shah Jahan,AurangzebandDara Shikoh,for control of the Mughal Empire. The ninth Guru,Guru Tegh Bahadur,moved the Sikh community toAnandpurand travelled extensively to visit and preach in defiance of Aurangzeb, who attempted to installRam Raias new guru. Guru Tegh Bahadur aidedKashmiri Panditsin avoiding conversion toIslamand was arrested by Aurangzeb. When offered a choice between conversion to Islam and death, he chose to die rather than compromise his principles and was executed.[21]

Formation of the Khalsa

Guru Gobind Singhassumed the guruship in 1675 and to avoid battles with Sivalik Hill rajas moved the guruship toPaunta.There he built a large fort to protect the city and garrisoned an army to protect it. The growing power of the Sikh community alarmed theSivalik Hill rajas,who attempted to attack the city, butGuru Gobind Singh's forces routed them at theBattle of Bhangani.He moved on to Anandpur and established theKhalsa,a collective army of baptised Sikhs, on 30 March 1699.[22]

The establishment of the Khalsa united the Sikh community against various Mughal-backed claimants to the guruship.[23]In 1701, a combined army of the Sivalik Hill rajas and the Mughals underWazir Khanattacked Anandpur. The Khalsa retreated but regrouped to defeat the Mughals at theBattle of Muktsar.In 1707,Guru Gobind Singhaccepted an invitation by Aurangzeb's successorBahadur Shah Ito meet him. The meeting took place atAgraon 23 July 1707.[22]

Banda Singh Bahadur

In August 1708, Guru Gobind Singh visitedNanded.There he met a Bairāgī recluse, Madho Das, who converted to Sikhism, rechristened asBanda Singh Bahadur.[22][24]A short time before his death, Guru Gobind Singh ordered him to reconquer Punjab region and gave him a letter that commanded all Sikhs to join him. After two years of gaining supporters, Banda Singh Bahadur initiated an agrarian uprising by breaking up the large estates ofZamindar familiesand distributing the land to the poorpeasantswho farmed the land.[25]

Banda Singh Bahadur started his rebellion with the defeat of Mughal armies atSamanaandSadhauraand the rebellion culminated in the defeat ofSirhind.During the rebellion, Banda Singh Bahadur made a point of destroying the cities in which Mughals had been cruel to the supporters of Guru Gobind Singh. He executed Wazir Khan in revenge for the deaths of Guru Gobind Singh's sons and Pir Budhu Shah after the Sikh victory atSirhind.[26]

He ruled the territory between theSutlej riverand theYamuna river,established a capital in theHimalayasatLohgarhand struckcoinagein the names ofGuru Nanakand Guru Gobind Singh.[25]In 1716, his army was defeated by the Mughals after he attempted to defend his fort atGurdas Nangal.He was captured along with 700 of his men and sent toDelhi,where they were all tortured and executed after refusing to convert toIslam.[27]

Dal Khalsa period

Main article:Dal Khalsa (Sikh Army)
Sikh Confederacy
Main article:Misl

The period from 1716 to 1799 was a highly turbulent time politically and militarily in the Punjab region. This was caused by the overall decline of the Mughal empire[28]that left a power vacuum in the region that was eventually filled by the Sikhs of theDal Khalsa,meaning "Khalsaarmy "or"Khalsaparty ". In the late 18th century, after defeating several invasions by the Afghan rulers of theDurrani Empireand their allies,[29]remnants of the Mughals and theiradministrators,the Mughal-allied Hindu hill-rajas of theSivalik Hills,[30][31]and hostile local Muslims siding with other Muslim forces.[29]The Sikhs of theDal Khalsaeventually formed their own independent Sikh administrative regions,Misls,derived from a Perso-Arabic term meaning 'similar', headed byMisldars.These Misls were united in large part by Maharaja Ranjit Singh.

Intra-Misl Wars

After the reign ofJassa Singh Ramgarhia,the Sikh Misls became divided and fought each other. A sort of 'Cold War' broke out with theBhangi,Nakkai,DalelwalaandRamghariaMisls versesSukerchakia,Ahluwalia,Karor SinghiaandKaniyeha.TheShaheedan,NishaniaandSinghpuriaalso allied but did not engage in warfare with the others and continued the Dal Khalsa.

ThePhulkian Mislwas excommunicated from the confederacy.Rani Sada Kaurof the Kanhaiya Misl rose in the vacuum and destroyed the power of the Bhangis. She later gave her throne to Maharaja Ranjit Singh.

Empire

The expanding Sikh Empire in 1809. TheCis-Sutlej statesare visible south of theSutlej River

The formal start of the Sikh Empire began with the unification of the Misls by 1801, creating a unified political state. All the Misl leaders, who were affiliated with the army, were the nobility with usually long and prestigious family backgrounds in Sikh history.[1]

The main geographical footprint of the empire was from thePunjab regiontoKhyber Passin the west, to Kashmir in the north,Sindhin the south, andTibetin the east.[32]

In 1799,Ranjit Singhmoved the capital toLahorefromGujranwala,where it had been established in 1763 by his grandfather,Charat Singh.[33]

Ranjit Singh annexed theSial State,a local Muslim-ruled chieftaincy, after invadingJhangin 1807.[34]The basis for this annexation was that the local ruler of Jhang, Ahmad Khan Sial, was conspiring withNawab Muzaffar Khanof Multan and had signed a secret treaty with the latter.[34]

Ranjit Singhholding court in 1838

Hari Singh NalwawasCommander-in-Chiefof theSikh Khalsa Armyfrom 1825 to 1837.[35]He is known for his role in the conquests ofKasur,Sialkot,Multan,Kashmir,AttockandPeshawar.Nalwa led the Sikh army in freeingShah Shujafrom Kashmir and secured theKoh-i-Nordiamond for Maharaja Ranjit Singh. He served as governor of Kashmir andHazaraand established aminton behalf of the Sikh empire to facilitate revenue collection. His frontier policy of holding theKhyber Passwas later used by theBritish Raj.Nalwa was responsible for expanding the frontier of Sikh empire to theIndus River.At the time of his death, the western boundary of the Sikh Empire was the Khyber Pass.

TheNamgyal dynasty of Ladakhpaid regular annual tribute to the Sikh Empire starting 1819 until 1834.[36]The tribute was paid to the local Sikh governors of Kashmir.[36]The Namgyal kingdom would later be conquered by theDogras,under the leadership of Zorawar Singh.[37]

The domain of theMaqpon kingdomof Baltistan, based in Skardu, under the rule of Ahmad Shah Maqpon, was conquered in 1839–40 and its local ruler was deposed.[37][38][39][40]The Dogras at this time were under the suzerainty of the Sikh Empire.[37]

During theSino-Sikh Warof 1841, the forces of the empire invaded theTibetan Plateau,which was then under the control of theQing dynasty.[41]However, this control was short-lived and the military of the empire was forced to retreat to Ladakh due to a counterattack by the Chinese and Tibetans.[41]

Cis-Sutlej states

Main article:Cis-Sutlej states

TheCis-Sutlej stateswere a group of Sikh[42]states in the Punjab region lying between theSutlej Riverto the north, theHimalayasto the east, theYamuna RiverandDelhidistrict to the south, andSirsa Districtto the west. These states fell under thesuzeraintyof theMaratha Empireafter 1785 before theSecond Anglo-Maratha Warof 1803–1805, after which the Marathas lost control of the territory to theBritish East India Company.The Cis-Sutlej states includedKalsia,Kaithal,Patiala State,Nabha State,Jind State,Thanesar,Maler Kotla,Ludhiana,Kapurthala State,Ambala,FerozpurandFaridkot State,among others.[43]The Sikh Empire ofRanjit Singhoccupied Faridkot State in 1807.[44]However, control was restored to Gulab Singh of Faridkot in 1809 due to the signing of a treaty between the Lahore Darbar and the British East India Company.[44]

While these Sikh states had been set up by theDal Khalsa,they did not become part of the Sikh Empire. There was a mutual ban on warfare following thetreaty of Amritsarin 1809 (in which the empire forfeited the claim to the Cis-Sutlej States, and the British were not to interfere north of the Sutlej or in the empire's existing territory south of the Sutlej),[45]following attempts by Ranjit Singh to wrest control of these states from the British between 1806 and 1809[46][47]

The Sikh crossing of the Sutlej, following British militarization of the border with Punjab (from 2,500 men and six guns in 1838 to 17,612 men and 66 guns in 1844, and 40,523 men and 94 guns in 1845), and plans on using the newly conquered territory of Sindh as a springboard to advance on the Sikh-held region of Multan,[48]eventually resulted in conflict with the British.

Decline

Two late 19th century drawings of Sikh troops in action against British forces during the Anglo-Sikh Wars
TheSamadhi of Ranjit Singhis located inLahore,Pakistan, adjacent to the iconicBadshahi Mosque

After Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, the empire was severely weakened by internal divisions and political mismanagement. This opportunity was used by theBritish East India Companyto launch theFirst Anglo-Sikh War.

TheBattle of Ferozeshahin 1845 marked many turning points, the British encountered thePunjab Army,opening with a gun-duel in which the Sikhs "had the better of the British artillery". As the British made advances, Europeans in their army were specially targeted, as the Sikhs believed if the army "became demoralized, the backbone of the enemy's position would be broken".[49]The fighting continued throughout the night. The British position "grew graver as the night wore on", and "suffered terrible casualties with every single member of the Governor General's staff either killed or wounded".[50]Nevertheless, the British army took and held Ferozeshah. British General SirJames Hope Grantrecorded: "Truly the night was one of gloom and forbidding and perhaps never in the annals of warfare has a British Army on such a large scale been nearer to a defeat which would have involved annihilation."[50]

The reasons for the withdrawal of the Sikhs from Ferozeshah are contentious. Some believe that it was treachery of the non-Sikh high command of their own army which led to them marching away from a British force in a precarious and battered state. Others believe that a tactical withdrawal was the best policy.[citation needed]

The Sikh empire was finally dissolved at the end of theSecond Anglo-Sikh Warin 1849 into separateprincely statesand the Britishprovince of Punjab.Eventually, a Lieutenant Governorship was formed in Lahore as a direct representative of theBritish Crown.

Administration and state

Government

Detail from ‘Darbar(royal court) of MaharajaRanjit Singh’,gouache,ca.1850

The empire's ruling court based out of Lahore is termed theLahore DarbarorKhalsa Darbar.[16][15]Faqir Saifuddin of theFakir Khana Museumprefers to use the termPunjab Darbarrather than "Khalsa Darbar", owing to the large role Muslims played in Ranjit Singh's court.[51]The ruling court was diverse and under the ultimate command of the rulingmaharaja,whom was the "drum of the Khalsa".[16]In-theory, the Sikh court was based on the Khalsa ideals propounded by Guru Gobind Singh yet the court was secular in-practice.[16]As an example of this secularism, members of the court came from various religious background, including Sikhs, Hindus, Muslims, and Christians.[16]Furthermore, the members also came from various ethnic, regional, and caste backgrounds, such as Dogras, Rajputs, Brahmins, Jats, and Europeans.[16]Whilst Ranjit Singh himself preferred to dress modestly, the Sikh court was filled with elaborately garbed and decorated members.[16]Only three individuals were permitted to be seated on chairs within the durbar, them namely being heir-apparent Kharak Singh,kanwarSher Singh, and Raja Hira Singh.[16]Three sides of the hall of the durbar were covered with golden-pillars, with shawl carpets that were embroidered with golden and silver, and inset with precious stones, decorating the floor.[16]The maharaja was seated on agolden throne,with Ranjit Singh preferring to sit cross-legged on it.[16]The member of the court allowed to be seated behind the maharaja was Raja Dhian Singh.[16]The rest of the members of the court were seated as per their rank and status.[16]The colours of the Sikh court were yellow and green.[16]Thus, most of its members donned yellow-coloured dressings made from Kashmiri silk or woollens.[16]However, there existed no strict categorization scheme of the rankings of the constituent members of the Lahore Darbar, thus the rankings of its members was determined by the level of trust the maharaja held in them.[16]The court also granted awards upon its members, with most of these essentially beingbestowed titlesin the form of honourifics, however some members were grantedjagirs(estate grant).[16]Laziness was heavily looked-down upon with the court, with the ruling maharaja often sending out the court's members on military or diplomatic missions.[16]

The business of the ruling government was carried out in Lahore, specifically the Musamman Burj located within theLahore Fort.[16]A public court was held from morning until noon in theDiwan-i-Aam( "hall of audience" ), with the court being attended by important members of the court, including princes, ministers, nobles, and civil and military officers.[16]Some matters discussed in the court include high-level civil and military appointments, reports from the provincialsatrapsandkardars.[16]When matters of the court were read-out, royal decrees made orally were transferred into writing for final approval.[16]Tributes andnazaranaswere also exchanged or bestowed within the court.[16]Supplicants to the court were dismissed withkhill'ats(robes) or monetary gifts.[16]When the maharaja was travelling, the court ceased to be static and was held at whatever location the ruler's retinue decided to hold-up at, often under a tree or whilst moving on horseback.[16]The ruler would dictate orders to provincial governors whilst inspecting their troops or even in the midst of battle.[16]

Noble members of the court, including relatives of the royal family, resided in palatialhavelistructures and donned expensive clothing and accessories (such as jewelry).[16]The Sikh princes, and also Raja Dhian Singh, were permitted to hold their own miniaturedurbars(courts).[16]

Foreign affairs

A letter sent from the King of France,Louis-Philippeto Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Ranjit Singh is addressed as “Rendjit Sing Bahador – Padichah du Pendjab”. 27 October 1835

Foreign visitors to the Sikh court were treated with respect and hospitality, with many contemporary accounts of foreign visitors to the court noting the good-treatment afforded to them by the state.[16]When a foreign visitor arrived, they would be greeted by a protocol officer, who would arrange for their temporary residence, which was based upon the status of the visitor.[16]The state government paid for the expenses regarding the visitor's entertainment.[16]There exists accounts of visitors being gifted by the state, with presents such as fruit, sweets, wines, and also money.[16]Full displays of the empire's regalia and military forces were displayed during important ceremonial functions, such as the marriages of important nobles or when receiving high-level foreign diplomatic dignatories.[16]

In order to keep tabs and updated on the happenings of surrounding regions, including remote parts of its territory and foreign countries, the Sikh court received reports from thewaqa'nawis(news-writers) located in the empire's provinces (subas).[16]The reports were dispatched to the Lahore Darbar at regular intervals.[16]Furtheremore, thevakils(agents) of foreign countries were associated with the Sikh court on a reciprocal basis.[16]The Sikh court had news-writers located in Afghanistan and also had its ownvakilemissaries in theCis-Sutlej Statesand also in territory under the British East India Company's rule.[16]Other vakil emissaries of the Sikh court were sent toRajputana,theMarathas,andNepalon complimentary missions.[16]

Western/European officers from various backgrounds, including Britishers, Frenchmen, Germans, Italians, Spaniards, Americans, and Russians, also rose to high levels within the Sikh court in many instances.[16]However, the Sikh court was wary of the Westerners within the court, and kept them therefore under strict regulation.[16]These foreign Western members of the court were persuaded by the state to integrate themselves by marrying a local woman, settling down within the empire, and adopt the cultural customs of the locals, such as growing out a beard or wearing a turban.[16]The Western members of the court were also banned from publiclyconsuming beeforsmoking.[16]

The Sikh Empire did enact a simple border policy where it did not allow uninvited foreigners into the state.[52]The purpose of this border policy was to dissuade potential foreign spies from entering the country.[52]An example of the policy in-action is the case of Captain Arnold Mathews, whom snuck into the Sikh Empire in circa 1808 to spy under the guise of being a tourist headed towards Kashmir but was intercepted and brought to Lahore.[52]

Holidays

Maharaja Ranjit Singh holding court outside near the Golden Temple in Amritsar with everyone dressed inBasant(yellow)

The Sikh court observed the festivals ofVaisakhi,Dussehra,Basant,Holi,andDiwali.[16]Vaisakhi was considered an especially auspicious celebration within the Sikh court, with it giving and distributing gifts of money, gold, silver, cows, horses, elephants, gold-bangles, and food to Brahmins and the poor.[16]During Basant celebrations, the military troops of the empire were paraded donning yellow uniforms, with members of the Sikh court and nobiles also wearing yellow clothing on the day.[16]During Basant, the officials bore gifts for the sovereign ruler, with the ruler in-turn bestowing robe-of-honours to the officials based on their rank and status.[16]During celebrations of Dussehra, the Sikh court assembled itself at Amritsar and thejagirdaritroops of the empire's military were paraded and inspected by the maharaja.[16]

Geography

The Indian subcontinent in 1805.

The Sikh Empire spanned a total of over 200,000 sq mi (520,000 km2) at its zenith.[53][54][55]Another more conservative estimate puts its total surface area during its zenith at 100,436 sq mi (260,124 km sq).[56]

The following modern-day political divisions made up the historical Sikh Empire:

JamrudDistrict (Khyber Agency,Pakistan) was the westernmost limit of the Sikh Empire. The westward expansion was stopped in theBattle of Jamrud,in which the Afghans managed to kill the prominent Sikh generalHari Singh Nalwain an offensive, though the Sikhs successfully held their position at their Jamrud fort. Ranjit Singh sent his General Sirdar Bahadur Gulab Singh Powind thereafter as reinforcement and he crushed the Pashtun rebellion harshly.[66]In 1838, Ranjit Singh with his troops marched into Kabul to take part in the victory parade along with the British after restoring Shah Shoja to the Afghan throne at Kabul.[67]

Administrative divisions

Map of the Multan Province of the Sikh Empire, Herbert B. Edwardes, 1848–49

The empire was divided into various provinces (known asSubas), them namely being:[56]

No. Name Estimated population (1838) Major population centre
1. LahoreSuba 1,900,000 Lahore
2. MultanSuba 750,000 Multan
3. PeshawarSuba 550,000 Peshawar
4. DerajatSuba 600,000 Dera Ghazi Khan,Dera Ismail Khan
5. JammuandHill StatesSuba 1,100,000 Srinagar

Religious policy

Maharaja Ranjit Singh seeking the sanctuary of Guru Nanak, ca.1830

The Sikh Empire allowed men from religions other than their own to rise to commanding positions of authority.[68]

The Fakir brothers were trusted personal advisors and assistants as well as close friends to Ranjit Singh,[69]particularlyFakir Azizuddin,who would serve in the positions of foreign minister of the empire and translator for the maharaja, and played important roles in such important events as the negotiations with the British, during which he convinced Ranjit Singh to maintain diplomatic ties with the British and not to go to war with them in 1808, as British troops were moved along the Sutlej in pursuance of the British policy of confining Ranjit Singh to the north of the river, and setting the Sutlej as the dividing boundary between the Sikh and British empires;[70]negotiating withDost Muhammad Khanduring his unsuccessful attempt to retakePeshawar,[70]and ensuring the succession of the throne during the Maharaja's last days in addition to caretaking after a stroke, as well as occasional military assignments throughout his career.[71]The Fakir brothers were introduced to the Maharaja when their father, Ghulam Muhiuddin, a physician, was summoned by him to treat an eye ailment soon after his capture of Lahore.[72]

The other Fakir brothers were Imamuddin, one of his principal administration officers, and Nuruddin, who served as home minister and personal physician, were also granted jagirs by the Maharaja.[73]

Every year, while at Amritsar, Ranjit Singh visited shrines of holy people of other faiths, including several Muslim saints, which did not offend even the most religious Sikhs of his administration.[74] As relayed by Fakir Nuruddin, orders were issued to treat people of all faith groups, occupations,[75]and social levels equally and in accordance with the doctrines of their faith, per theShastrasand theQuran,as well as local authorities like judges andpanches(local elder councils),[76]as well as banning forcible possession of others' land or of inhabited houses to be demolished.[77]There were special courts for Muslims which ruled in accordance to Muslim law in personal matters,[78]and common courts preceded over by judicial officers which administered justice under the customary law of the districts and socio-ethnic groups, and were open to all who wanted to be governed by customary religious law, whether Hindu, Sikh, or Muslim.[78]

One of Ranjit Singh's first acts after the 1799 capture of Lahore was to revive the offices of the hereditary Qazis and Muftis which had been prevalent in Mughal times.[78]Kazi Nizamuddin was appointed to decide marital issues among Muslims, while Muftis Mohammad Shahpuri and Sadulla Chishti were entrusted with powers to draw up title-deeds relating to transfers of immovable property.[78]The old mohalladari[definition needed]system was reintroduced with eachmahallah,or neighborhood subdivision, placed under the charge of one of its members. The office of Kotwal, or prefect of police, was conferred upon a Muslim, Imam Bakhsh.[78]

Generals were also drawn from a variety of communities, along with prominent Sikh generals likeHari Singh Nalwa,Fateh Singh Dullewalia, Nihal Singh Atariwala,Chattar Singh Attariwalla,and Fateh Singh Kalianwala; Hindu generals includedMisr Diwan ChandandDewan Mokham Chand Nayyar,his son, and his grandson; and Muslim generals includedIlahi Bakhshand Mian Ghaus Khan; one general,Balbhadra Kunwar,was a Nepalese Gurkha, and European generals includedJean-Francois Allard,Jean-Baptiste Ventura,andPaolo Avitabile.[79]other notable generals of theSikh Khalsa ArmywereVeer Singh Dhillon[citation needed],Sham Singh Attariwala,Mahan Singh Mirpuri,andZorawar Singh Kahluria,among others.

The appointment of key posts in public offices was based on merit and loyalty, regardless of the social group or religion of the appointees, both in and around the court, and in higher as well as lower posts. Key posts in the civil and military administration were held by members of communities from all over the empire and beyond, including Sikhs, Muslims, Khatris, Brahmins, Dogras, Rajputs, Pashtuns, Europeans, and Americans, among others,[80]and worked their way up the hierarchy to attain merit.Dhian Singh,the prime minister, was a Dogra, whose brothersGulab Singhand Suchet Singh served in the high-ranking administrative and military posts, respectively.[80]Brahmins like finance ministerRaja Dina Nath,Sahib Dyal, and others also served in financial capacities.[79]

Muslims in prominent positions included the Fakir brothers, Kazi Nizamuddin, and Mufti Muhammad Shah, among others. Among the top-ranking Muslim officers there were two ministers, one governor and several district officers; there were 41 high-ranking Muslim officers in the army, including two generals and several colonels,[79]and 92 Muslims were senior officers in the police, judiciary, legal department and supply and store departments.[79]In artillery, Muslims represented over 50% of the numbers while the cavalry had some 10% Muslims from among the troopers.[81]

Thus, the government was run by an elite corps drawn from many communities, giving the empire the character of a secular system of government, even when built on theocratic foundations.[82]

A ban on cow slaughter, which can be related to Hindu sentiments, was universally imposed in the empire.[83][84]Ranjit Singh also donated large amounts of gold for the plating of theKashi Vishwanath Temple's dome.[85][86]


The Sikhs attempted not to offend the prejudices of Muslims, noted Baron vonHügel,the Austrian botanist and explorer,[87]yet the Sikhs were described as harsh. In this regard, Masson's explanation is perhaps the most pertinent: "Though compared to the Afghans, the Sikhs were mild and exerted a protecting influence, yet no advantages could compensate to their Mohammedan subjects, the idea of subjection to infidels, and the prohibition to slaykine,and to repeat theazan,or 'summons to prayer'. "[88]

According toChitralekha ZutshiandWilliam Roe Polk,Sikh governors adopted policies that alienated the Muslim population such as the ban on cow slaughter and theazan(the Islamic call to prayer), the seizure of mosques as property of the state, and imposed ruinous taxes on Kashmiri Muslims causing a famine in 1832. In addition, begar (forced labour) was imposed by the Sikh administration to facilitate the supply of materials to the imperial army, a policy that was augmented by the successive Dogra rulers.[89][90][91]These policies led the Kashmiri Muslim population to emigrate en masse to more lenient neighboring regions, particularlyLadakh.[92]As a symbolic assertion of power, the Sikhs regularly desecrated Muslim places of worship, including closing of the Jamia Masjid in Srinagar and the conversion of the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore to an ammunition store and horse stable, but the empire still maintained Persian administrative institutions and court etiquette; the Sikh silver rupees were minted on the Mughal standard with Persian legends.[93][94]

Christian missionaries had been active in the Punjab even prior to the dissolution of the empire in 1849.[95]

Demography

Religions in Khalsa Empire (1800s)[6][96]: 2694 
Religions Percent
Islam
 
 69%
Hinduism
 
 24%
Sikhism
 
 6%
others
 
 1%

The population of the Sikh empire during the time ofRanjit Singh's rule was estimated to be around 12 million people.[6]There were 8.4 millionMuslims,2.88 millionHindusand 722,000Sikhs.[96]

The religious demography of the empire is estimated to have been just over 10%[97]to 12%[98]Sikh, 80% Muslim,[97]and just under 10% Hindu.[97]Surjit Hansgave different numbers by retrospectively projecting the 1881 census, putting Muslims at 51%, Hindus at 40% and Sikhs at around 8%, the remaining 1% being Europeans.[99]The population was 3.5 million in 1831, according toAmarinder Singh'sThe Last Sunset: The Rise and Fall of the Lahore Durbar.[100]Hans Herrli inThe Coins of the Sikhsestimated the total population of the empire to be around 5.35 million during 1838.[56]

An estimated 90% of the Sikh population at the time, and more than half of the total population, was concentrated in the upperBari,Jalandhar,and upperRachnaDoabs,and in the areas of their greatest concentration formed about one third of the population in the 1830s; half of the Sikh population of this core region was in the area covered by the later districts of Lahore and Amritsar.[98]

In 1839, a major pogrom, called theAllahdad,targeting thelocal JewsofMashhadinQajar Persiahad occurred.[101]A group ofPersian Jewishrefugees from Mashhad, escaping persecution back home in Qajar Persia, settled in the Sikh Empire around the year 1839.[101]Most of the Jewish families settled inRawalpindi(specifically in the Babu Mohallah neighbourhood) andPeshawar.[102][103][104][105][101]Most of these Jews would leave for India during thepartition of 1947.[106][101]

Economy

Nanakshahi coins of the Sikh Empire

Revenue

Revenue in Rupees, 1844[107]
Sr Particulars Revenue in Rupees
1 Land Revenue
1.a Tributary States 5,65,000
1.b Farms 1,79,85,000
1.c Eleemosynary 20,00,000
1.d Jaghirs 95,25,000
2 Customs 24,00,000
Total 3,24,75,000

Land revenue was the main source of income, accounting for about 70% of the state's income. Besides this, the other sources of income were customs, excises and monopolies.[108]



Timeline

List of rulers

S. No. Name Portrait Birth and death Reign Note
1 Maharaja Ranjit Singh 13 November 1780 (Gujranwala) 27 June 1839 (Lahore) 12 April 1801 27 June 1839 38 years, 76 days The first Sikh ruler Stroke
2 Maharaja Kharak Singh 22 February 1801 (Lahore) 5 November 1840 (Lahore) 27 June 1839 8 October 1839 103 days Son of Ranjit Singh Poisoning
3 Maharaja Nau Nihal Singh 11 February 1820 (Lahore) 6 November 1840 (Lahore) 8 October 1839 6 November 1840 1 year, 29 days Son of Kharak Singh Assassinated
Maharani Chand Kaur
(regent) 		1802 (Fatehgarh Churian) 11 June 1842 (Lahore) 6 November 1840 18 January 1841 73 days Wife of Kharak Singh Abdicated
4 Maharaja Sher Singh 4 December 1807 (Batala) 15 September 1843 (Lahore) 18 January 1841 15 September 1843 2 years, 240 days Son of Ranjit Singh Assassinated
5 Maharaja Duleep Singh 6 September 1838 (Lahore) 22 October 1893 (Paris) 15 September 1843 29 March 1849 5 years, 195 days Son of Ranjit Singh Exiled
Maharani Jind Kaur
(regent;nominal) 		1817 (Gujranwala) 1 August 1863 (Kensington) 15 September 1843 29 March 1849 5 years, 195 days Wife of Ranjit Singh Exiled

Viziers

Family tree

Preceded by Sikh Empire
1799–1849 		Succeeded by

See also

Notes

  1. ^Buddhism was mostly confined to Ladakh. Christianity and Judaism includesfirangisoldiers and officials.
  2. ^Alternatively spelt as 'Lahore Durbar'.

References

Citations

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Sources

Further reading

  • Grewal, J. S.(1998).The Sikhs of the Punjab.The New Cambridge History of India. Vol. II.3 (Revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 82–127.ISBN978-1316025338.Retrieved16 April2020.
  • Volume 2: Evolution of Sikh Confederacies (1708–1769),By Hari Ram Gupta. (Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. 1999,ISBN81-215-0540-2,383 pages, illustrated)
  • The Sikh Army (1799–1849) (Men-at-arms),By Ian Heath. (2005,ISBN1-84176-777-8)
  • The Heritage of the Sikhs By Harbans Singh.(1994,ISBN81-7304-064-8).
  • Sikh Domination of the Mughal Empire.(2000, 2nd ed.ISBN81-215-0213-6)
  • The Sikh Commonwealth or Rise and Fall of Sikh Misls.(2001, revised ed.ISBN81-215-0165-2)
  • Maharaja Ranjit Singh, Lord of the Five Rivers,By Jean-Marie Lafont. (Oxford University Press. 2002,ISBN0-19-566111-7)
  • History of Panjab,By L. M. Joshi and Fauja Singh[ISBN missing]
  • Maharaja Ranjit Singh and his Times,By Bhagat Singh. (Sehgal Publishers Service. 1990,ISBN81-85477-01-9)
  • Ranjit Singh – monarch mystique,By V. Nalwa. (Hari Singh Nalwa Foundation Trust. 2022,ISBN978-81-910526-1-9)
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