Six-Day War
| Six-Day War | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of theArab–Israeli conflict | |||||||||
 A map of military movements during the conflict. Israel proper is shown in royal blue and territories occupied by Israel are shown in various shades of green | |||||||||
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
 Israel |
 Egypt Syria Jordan Iraq[1]Minor involvement:  Lebanon[2] | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
|
Levi EshkolMoshe DayanYitzhak RabinDavid ElazarUzi NarkissYeshayahu GavishIsrael TalMordechai HodShlomo ErellAharon YarivEzer WeizmanRehavam Ze'evi |
Gamal Abdel NasserAbdel Hakim AmerMohamed FawziAbdul Munim RiadMohamed MahmoudNureddin al-AtassiHafez al-AssadAhmed SuidaniHussein of JordanZaid ibn ShakerAsad GhanmaAbdul Rahman Arif | ||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
|
Israel: 264,000 total[6] 250[7]–300 combat aircraft[8] 800 tanks[9] |
Egypt: 160,000 total[10] 100,000 deployed[10] 420 aircraft[11][12] 900–950 tanks[10] Syria: 75,000 troops[13] Jordan: 55,000 total[14] 45,000 deployed[15] 270 tanks[15] Iraq: 100 tanks[15] Lebanon: 2 combat aircraft[2] Total: 465,000 total[16] 800 aircraft[16] 2504 tanks[9] | ||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
|
Israel: 776–983 killed[17][18] 4,517 wounded 15 captured[17] 400 tanks destroyed[19] 46 aircraft destroyed |
Egypt: Hundreds of tanks destroyed 452+ aircraft destroyed[citation needed] | ||||||||
|
15UN peacekeeperskilled (14 Indian, 1 Brazilian)[29] 20 Israeli civilians killed and 1000+ Israeli civilians injured inJerusalem[30] 34US Navy,Marine,andNSApersonnel killed[31][32] 17 Soviet Marines killed (allegedly)[33] 413,000 Palestinians displaced[34] | |||||||||
TheSix-Day War,[a]also known as theJune War,1967 Arab–Israeli WarorThird Arab–Israeli War,was fought betweenIsraeland a coalition ofArab states,primarilyEgypt,Syria,andJordanfrom 5 to 10June 1967.
Military hostilities broke out amid poor relations between Israel and its Arab neighbours, who had been observing the1949 Armistice Agreementssigned at the end of theFirst Arab–Israeli War.Earlier, in 1956, regional tensions over theStraits of Tiran(giving access toEilat,a port on the southeast tip of Israel) escalated in what became known as theSuez Crisis,when Israel invaded Egypt over theEgyptian closure of maritime passageways to Israeli shipping,ultimately resulting in the re-opening of the Straits of Tiran to Israel as well as the deployment of theUnited Nations Emergency Force(UNEF) along theEgypt–Israel border.[35]In the months prior to the outbreak of the Six-Day War in June 1967,tensions again became dangerously heightened:Israel reiterated its post-1956 position that another Egyptian closure of the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping would be a definitecasus belli.In May 1967, Egyptian presidentGamal Abdel Nasserannounced that the Straits of Tiran would again be closed to Israeli vessels. He subsequently mobilized the Egyptian military into defensive lines along the border with Israel[36]and ordered the immediate withdrawal of all UNEF personnel.[37][29]
On 5 June 1967, as the UNEF was in the process of leaving the zone, Israel launched a series ofpreemptiveairstrikes against Egyptian airfields and other facilities, launching its war effort.[29]Egyptian forces were caught by surprise, and nearly all of Egypt's military aerial assets were destroyed, giving Israelair supremacy.Simultaneously, the Israeli military launched a ground offensive into Egypt'sSinai Peninsulaas well as theEgyptian-occupied Gaza Strip.After some initial resistance, Nasser ordered an evacuation of the Sinai Peninsula; by the sixth day of the conflict,Israel had occupied the entire Sinai Peninsula.[38]Jordan, which had entered into a defense pact with Egypt just a week before the war began, did not take on an all-out offensive role against Israel. However, the Jordanians did launch attacks against Israeli forces to slow Israel's advance.[39]On the fifth day, Syria joined the war by shelling Israeli positions in the north.[40]
Egypt and Jordan agreed to a ceasefire on 8 June, and Syria on 9 June, and it was signed with Israel on 11 June. The Six-Day War resulted in more than 15,000 Arab fatalities, while Israel suffered fewer than 1,000. Alongside the combatant casualties were the deaths of 20 Israeli civilians killed in Arab forces air strikes on Jerusalem, 15UN peacekeeperskilled by Israeli strikes in the Sinai at the outset of the war, and 34 US personnel killed in theUSSLibertyincidentin which Israeli air forces struck aUnited States Navytechnical research ship.
At the time of the cessation of hostilities, Israel had occupied theGolan Heightsfrom Syria, theWest BankincludingEast Jerusalemfrom Jordan, and theSinai Peninsulaand theGaza Stripfrom Egypt. The displacement of civilian populations as a result of the Six-Day War would have long-term consequences, as around 280,000 to 325,000Palestiniansand 100,000 Syriansfled or were expelledfrom the West Bank[41]and the Golan Heights, respectively.[42]Nasser resigned in shame following Israel's victory, but was later reinstated following a series of protests across Egypt. In the aftermath of the conflict,Egypt closed the Suez Canal until 1975.[43]
Background
After the 1956Suez Crisis,Egypt agreed to the stationing of aUnited Nations Emergency Force(UNEF) in the Sinai to ensure all parties would comply with the1949 Armistice Agreements.[45][46][47]In the following years there were numerous minor border clashes between Israel and its Arab neighbours, particularly Syria. In early November 1966, Syria signed amutual defence agreementwith Egypt.[48]Soon after this, in response toPalestine Liberation Organisation(PLO) guerilla activity,[49][50]including a mine attack that left three dead,[51]the Israeli Defence Force (IDF)attacked the villageofas-Samuin the Jordanian-ruled West Bank.[52]Jordanian units that engaged the Israelis were quickly beaten back.[53]KingHussein of Jordancriticized Egyptian PresidentGamal Abdel Nasserfor failing to come to Jordan's aid, and "hiding behind UNEF skirts".[54][55][56][57]
In May 1967, Nasser received false reports from theSoviet Unionthat Israel was massing on the Syrian border.[58]Nasser began massing his troops in two defensive lines[36]in the Sinai Peninsula on Israel's border (16 May), expelled the UNEF force from Gaza and Sinai (19 May) and took over UNEF positions atSharm el-Sheikh,overlooking theStraits of Tiran.[59][60]Israel repeated declarations it had made in 1957 that any closure of the Straits would be considered an act of war, or justification for war,[61][62]but Nasser closed the Straits to Israeli shipping on 22–23 May.[63][64][65]After the war, U.S. PresidentLyndon Johnsoncommented:[66]
If a single act of folly was more responsible for this explosion than any other, it was the arbitrary and dangerous announced decision that the Straits of Tiran would be closed. The right of innocent, maritime passage must be preserved for all nations.
On 30 May, Jordan and Egypt signed a defence pact. The following day, at Jordan's invitation, the Iraqi army began deploying troops and armoured units in Jordan.[67]They were later reinforced by an Egyptian contingent. On 1 June, Israel formed aNational Unity Governmentby widening its cabinet, and on 4 June the decision was made to go to war. The next morning, Israel launchedOperation Focus,a large-scale, surprise air strike that launched the Six-Day War.
Military preparation
Before the war, Israeli pilots and ground crews had trained extensively in rapid refitting of aircraft returning fromsorties,enabling a single aircraft to sortie up to four times a day, as opposed to the norm in Arab air forces of one or two sorties per day. This enabled theIsraeli Air Force(IAF) to send several attack waves against Egyptian airfields on the first day of the war, overwhelming the Egyptian Air Force and allowed it to knock out other Arab air forces on the same day. This has contributed to the Arab belief that the IAF was helped by foreign air forces (seeControversies relating to the Six-Day War). Pilots were extensively schooled about their targets, were forced to memorise every single detail, and rehearsed the operation multiple times on dummy runways in total secrecy.
The Egyptians had constructed fortified defences in the Sinai. These designs were based on the assumption that an attack would come along the few roads leading through the desert, rather than through the difficult desert terrain. The Israelis chose not to risk attacking the Egyptian defences head-on, and instead surprised them from an unexpected direction.
James Reston, writing inThe New York Timeson 23 May 1967, noted, "In; discipline, training, morale, equipment and general competence his [Nasser's] army and the other Arab forces, without the direct assistance of the Soviet Union, are no match for the Israelis.... Even with50000troops and the best of his generals and air force in Yemen, he has not been able to work his way in that small and primitive country, and even his effort to help the Congo rebels was a flop. "[68]
On the eve of the war, Israel believed it could win a war in 3–4 days. The United States estimated Israel would need 7–10 days to win, with British estimates supporting the U.S. view.[69][70]
Armies and weapons
Armies
The Israeli army had a total strength, including reservists, of264000,though this number could not be sustained during a long conflict, as the reservists were vital to civilian life.[6]
Against Jordan's forces on theWest Bank,Israel deployed about40000troops and 200 tanks (eight brigades).[71]Israeli Central Command forces consisted of five brigades. The first two were permanently stationed nearJerusalemand were theJerusalem Brigadeand the mechanizedHarel Brigade.Mordechai Gur's55th Paratroopers Brigadewas summoned from the Sinai front. The 10th Armored Brigade was stationed north of the West Bank. The Israeli Northern Command comprised a division of three brigades led by Major GeneralElad Peledwhich was stationed in theJezreel Valleyto the north of the West Bank.
On the eve of the war, Egypt massed approximately100000of its160000troops in the Sinai, including all seven of its divisions (four infantry, two armoured and one mechanized), four independent infantry brigades and four independent armoured brigades. Over a third of these soldiers were veterans of Egypt's continuing intervention into theNorth Yemen Civil Warand another third were reservists. These forces had 950 tanks, 1100 APCs, and more than 1000 artillery pieces.[10]
Syria's army had a total strength of75000and was deployed along the border with Israel.[13]ProfessorDavid W. Leschwrote that "One would be hard-pressed to find a military less prepared for war with a clearly superior foe" since Syria's army had been decimated in the months and years prior through coups and attempted coups that had resulted in a series of purges, fracturings and uprisings within the armed forces.[72]
TheJordanian Armed Forcesincluded 11 brigades, totalling55000troops.[14]Nine brigades (45000troops, 270 tanks, 200 artillery pieces) were deployed in theWest Bank,including the elite armoured 40th, and two in theJordan Valley.They possessed sizable numbers ofM113APCs and were equipped with some 300 modern Western tanks, 250 of which were U.S.M48 Pattons.They also had 12 battalions of artillery, six batteries of 81 mm and 120 mm mortars,[15]aparatrooperbattalion trained in the new U.S.-built school and a new battalion ofmechanized infantry.TheJordanian Armywas a long-term-service, professional army, relatively well-equipped and well-trained. Israeli post-war briefings said that the Jordanian staff acted professionally, but was always left "half a step" behind by the Israeli moves. The smallRoyal Jordanian Air Forceconsisted of only 24 British-madeHawker Hunterfighters, sixtransport aircraftand two helicopters. According to the Israelis, the Hawker Hunter was essentially on par with the French-builtDassault Mirage III– the IAF's best plane.[73]
One hundred Iraqi tanks and an infantry division were readied near the Jordanian border. Two squadrons of Iraqi fighter-aircraft, Hawker Hunters andMiG 21s,were rebased adjacent to the Jordanian border.[15]
In the weeks leading up to the Six-Day War, Saudi Arabia mobilized forces for deployment to the Jordanian front. A Saudi infantry battalion entered Jordan on 6 June 1967, followed by another on the 8th. Both were based in Jordan's southernmost city,Ma'an.By 17 June, the Saudi contingent in Jordan had grown to include a single infantry brigade, a tank company, two artillery batteries, a heavy mortar company, and a maintenance and support unit. By the end of July 1967, a second tank company and a third artillery battery had been added. These forces remained in Jordan until the end of 1977, when they were recalled for re-equipment and retraining in the Karak region near the Dead Sea.[74][75][76]
The Arab air forces were reinforced by aircraft from Libya, Algeria, Morocco, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia to make up for the massive losses suffered on the first day of the war. They were also aided by volunteer pilots from thePakistan Air Forceacting in an independent capacity. PAF pilots likeSaiful Azamshot down several Israeli planes.[77][78]
Weapons
With the exception of Jordan, the Arabs relied principally on Soviet weaponry. Jordan's army was equipped with American weaponry, and its air force was composed of British aircraft.
Egypt had by far the largest and the most modern of all the Arab air forces, consisting of about 420 combat aircraft,[11][12]all of them Soviet-built and with a large number of top-of-the-lineMiG-21s.Of particular concern to the Israelis were the 30Tu-16 "Badger"medium bombers,capable of inflicting heavy damage on Israeli military and civilian centres.[79]
Israeli weapons were mainly of Western origin. Its air force was composed principally of French aircraft, while its armoured units were mostly of British and American design and manufacture. Some light infantry weapons, including the ubiquitousUzi,were of Israeli origin.
Fighting fronts
Initial attack
The first and most critical move of the conflict was a surprise Israeli attack on theEgyptian Air Force.Initially, both Egypt and Israel announced that they had been attacked by the other country.[82]
On 5 June at 7:45 Israeli time, withcivil defence sirenssounding all over Israel, the IAF launched Operation Focus (Moked). All but 12 of its nearly 200 operational jets[83]launched a mass attack against Egypt'sairfields.[84]The Egyptian defensive infrastructure was extremely poor, and no airfields were yet equipped withhardened aircraft shelterscapable of protecting Egypt's warplanes. Most of the Israeli warplanes headed out over theMediterranean Sea,flying low to avoid radar detection, before turning toward Egypt. Others flew over theRed Sea.[85]
Meanwhile, the Egyptians hindered their own defence by effectively shutting down their entire air defence system: they were worried that rebel Egyptian forces would shoot down the plane carrying Field MarshalAbdel Hakim Amerand Lt-Gen. Sidqi Mahmoud, who were en route from al Maza to Bir Tamada in theSinaito meet the commanders of the troops stationed there. In any event, it did not make a great deal of difference as the Israeli pilots came in below Egyptianradarcover and well below the lowest point at which itsSA-2surface-to-air missile batteries could bring down an aircraft.[86]
Although the powerful Jordanian radar facility atAjloundetected waves of aircraft approaching Egypt and reported the code word for "war" up the Egyptian command chain, Egyptian command and communications problems prevented the warning from reaching the targeted airfields.[85]The Israelis employed a mixed-attack strategy: bombing andstrafingruns against planes parked on the ground, and bombing to disable runways with specialtarmac-shredding penetration bombsdeveloped jointly with France, leaving surviving aircraft unable to take off.[7]
The runway at theArishairfield was spared, as the Israelis expected to turn it into a military airport for their transports after the war. Surviving aircraft were taken out by later attack waves. The operation was more successful than expected, catching the Egyptians by surprise and destroying virtually all of the Egyptian Air Force on the ground, with few Israeli losses. Only four unarmed Egyptian training flights were in the air when the strike began.[7]A total of 338 Egyptian aircraft were destroyed and 100 pilots were killed,[87]although the number of aircraft lost by the Egyptians is disputed.[88]
Among the Egyptian planes lost were all 30Tu-16bombers, 27 out of 40Il-28bombers, 12Su-7fighter-bombers, over 90MiG-21s,20MiG-19s,25MiG-17fighters, and around 32 assorted transport planes and helicopters. In addition, Egyptian radars and SAM missiles were also attacked and destroyed. The Israelis lost 19 planes, including two destroyed in air-to-air combat and 13 downed by anti-aircraft artillery.[89]One Israeli plane, which was damaged and unable to break radio silence, was shot down by IsraeliHawk missilesafter it strayed over theNegev Nuclear Research Center.[90]Another was destroyed by an exploding Egyptian bomber.[91]
The attack guaranteed Israeliair supremacyfor the rest of the war. Attacks on other Arab air forces by Israel took place later in the day as hostilities broke out on other fronts.
The large numbers of Arab aircraft claimed destroyed by Israel on that day were at first regarded as "greatly exaggerated" by the Western press. However, the fact that the Egyptian Air Force, along with other Arab air forces attacked by Israel, made practically no appearance for the remaining days of the conflict proved that the numbers were most likely authentic. Throughout the war, Israeli aircraft continued strafing Arab airfield runways to prevent their return to usability. Meanwhile, Egyptian state-run radio had reported an Egyptian victory, falsely claiming that 70 Israeli planes had been downed on the first day of fighting.[92]
Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula
The Egyptian forces consisted of sevendivisions:fourarmoured,twoinfantry,and onemechanized infantry.Overall, Egypt had around100000troops and 900–950tanksin the Sinai, backed by 1100APCsand 1000artillerypieces.[10]This arrangement was thought to be based on the Soviet doctrine, where mobile armour units atstrategic depthprovide a dynamic defense while infantry units engage in defensive battles.
Israeli forces concentrated on the border with Egypt included six armouredbrigades,one infantry brigade, one mechanized infantry brigade, threeparatrooperbrigades, giving a total of around70000men and 700 tanks, who were organized in three armoured divisions. They had massed on the border the night before the war, camouflaging themselves and observing radio silence before being ordered to advance.[citation needed]
The Israeli plan was to surprise the Egyptian forces in both timing (the attack exactly coinciding with the IAF strike on Egyptian airfields), and in location (attacking via northern and central Sinai routes, as opposed to the Egyptian expectations of a repeat of the 1956 war, when the IDF attacked via the central and southern routes) and method (using a combined-force flanking approach, rather than direct tank assaults).[citation needed]
Northern (El Arish) Israeli division
On 5 June, at 7:50 am, the northernmost Israeli division, consisting of three brigades and commanded by Major GeneralIsrael Tal,one of Israel's most prominent armour commanders, crossed the border at two points, oppositeNahal Ozand south ofKhan Yunis.They advanced swiftly, holding fire to prolong the element of surprise. Tal's forces assaulted the "Rafah Gap", an 11-kilometre (7 mi) stretch containing the shortest of three main routes through the Sinai towardsEl Qantaraand theSuez Canal.The Egyptians had four divisions in the area, backed by minefields, pillboxes, underground bunkers, hidden gun emplacements and trenches. The terrain on either side of the route was impassable. The Israeli plan was to hit the Egyptians at selected key points with concentrated armour.[90]
Tal's advance was led by the7th Armored Brigadeunder ColonelShmuel Gonen.The Israeli plan called for the 7th Brigade to outflank Khan Yunis from the north and the 60th Armored Brigade under Colonel Menachem Aviram would advance from the south. The two brigades would link up and surround Khan Yunis, while the paratroopers would takeRafah.Gonen entrusted the breakthrough to a single battalion of his brigade.[93]
Initially, the advance was met with light resistance, as Egyptian intelligence had concluded that it was a diversion for the main attack. However, as Gonen's lead battalion advanced, it suddenly came under intense fire and took heavy losses. A second battalion was brought up, but was also pinned down. Meanwhile, the 60th Brigade became bogged down in the sand, while the paratroopers had trouble navigating through the dunes. The Israelis continued to press their attack, and despite heavy losses, cleared the Egyptian positions and reached theKhan Yunisrailway junction in a little over four hours.[93]
Gonen's brigade then advanced nine miles to Rafah in twin columns. Rafah itself was circumvented, and the Israelis attackedSheikh Zuweid,13 kilometres (8 mi) to the southwest, which was defended by two brigades. Though inferior in numbers and equipment, the Egyptians were deeply entrenched and camouflaged. The Israelis were pinned down by fierce Egyptian resistance and called in air and artillery support to enable their lead elements to advance. Many Egyptians abandoned their positions after their commander and several of his staff were killed.[93]
The Israelis broke through with tank-led assaults. However, Aviram's forces misjudged the Egyptians' flank and were pinned between strongholds before they were extracted after several hours. By nightfall, the Israelis had finished mopping up resistance. Israeli forces had taken significant losses, with Colonel Gonen later telling reporters that "we left many of our dead soldiers in Rafah and many burnt-out tanks." The Egyptians suffered some 2000 casualties and lost 40 tanks.[93]
Advance on Arish
On 5 June, with the road open, Israeli forces continued advancing towardsArish.Already by late afternoon, elements of the 79th Armored Battalion had charged through the 11-kilometre (7 mi)-long Jiradi defile, a narrow pass defended by well-emplaced troops of the Egyptian 112th Infantry Brigade. In fierce fighting, which saw the pass change hands several times, the Israelis charged through the position. The Egyptians suffered heavy casualties and tank losses, while Israeli losses stood at 66 dead, 93 wounded and 28 tanks. Emerging at the western end, Israeli forces advanced to the outskirts of Arish.[94]As it reached the outskirts of Arish, Tal's division also consolidated its hold on Rafah and Khan Yunis.
The following day, 6 June, the Israeli forces on the outskirts of Arish were reinforced by the 7th Brigade, which fought its way through the Jiradi pass. After receiving supplies via an airdrop, the Israelis entered the city and captured the airport at 7:50 am. The Israelis entered the city at 8:00 am. Company commanderYossi Peledrecounted that "Al-Arish was totally quiet, desolate. Suddenly, the city turned into a madhouse. Shots came at us from every alley, every corner, every window and house." An IDF record stated that "clearing the city was hard fighting. The Egyptians fired from the rooftops, from balconies and windows. They dropped grenades into our half-tracks and blocked the streets with trucks. Our men threw the grenades back and crushed the trucks with their tanks."[95][96]Gonen sent additional units to Arish, and the city was eventually taken.
Brigadier-GeneralAvraham Yoffe's assignment was to penetrate Sinai south of Tal's forces and north of Sharon's. Yoffe's attack allowed Tal to complete the capture of the Jiradi defile, Khan Yunis. All of them were taken after fierce fighting. Gonen subsequently dispatched a force of tanks, infantry and engineers under Colonel Yisrael Granit to continue down the Mediterranean coast towards theSuez Canal,while a second force led by Gonen himself turned south and captured Bir Lahfan and Jabal Libni.[citation needed]
Mid-front (Abu-Ageila) Israeli division
Further south, on 6 June, the Israeli 38th Armored Division under Major-GeneralAriel SharonassaultedUm-Katef,a heavily fortified area defended by the Egyptian2nd Infantry Divisionunder Major-General Sa'adi Naguib (though Naguib was actually absent[97]) of Soviet World War II armour, which included 90T-34-85tanks, 22SU-100tank destroyers, and about16000men. The Israelis had about14000men and 150 post-World War II tanks including theAMX-13,Centurions,andM50 Super Shermans(modifiedM-4 Shermantanks).[citation needed]
Two armoured brigades in the meantime, under Avraham Yoffe, slipped across the border through sandy wastes that Egypt had left undefended because they were considered impassable. Simultaneously, Sharon's tanks from the west were to engage Egyptian forces on Um-Katef ridge and block any reinforcements. Israeli infantry would clear the three trenches, while heliborne paratroopers would land behind Egyptian lines and silence their artillery. An armoured thrust would be made at al-Qusmaya to unnerve and isolate its garrison.[citation needed]
As Sharon's division advanced into the Sinai, Egyptian forces staged successful delaying actions at Tarat Umm, Umm Tarfa, and Hill 181. An Israeli jet was downed by anti-aircraft fire, and Sharon's forces came under heavy shelling as they advanced from the north and west. The Israeli advance, which had to cope with extensive minefields, took a large number of casualties. A column of Israeli tanks managed to penetrate the northern flank ofAbu Ageila,and by dusk, all units were in position. The Israelis then brought up ninety 105 mm and 155 mm artillery cannon for a preparatory barrage, while civilian buses brought reserve infantrymen under ColonelYekutiel Adamand helicopters arrived to ferry the paratroopers. These movements were unobserved by the Egyptians, who were preoccupied with Israeli probes against their perimeter.[98]
As night fell, the Israeli assault troops lit flashlights, each battalion a different colour, to preventfriendly fireincidents. At 10:00 pm, Israeli artillery began a barrage on Um-Katef, firing some 6000 shells in less than twenty minutes, the most concentrated artillery barrage in Israel's history.[99][100]Israeli tanks assaulted the northernmost Egyptian defences and were largely successful, though an entire armoured brigade was stalled by mines, and had only one mine-clearance tank. Israeli infantrymen assaulted the triple line of trenches in the east. To the west, paratroopers commanded by ColonelDanny Mattlanded behind Egyptian lines, though half the helicopters got lost and never found the battlefield, while others were unable to land due to mortar fire.[101][102]
Those that successfully landed on target destroyed Egyptian artillery and ammunition dumps and separated gun crews from their batteries, sowing enough confusion to significantly reduce Egyptian artillery fire. Egyptian reinforcements from Jabal Libni advanced towards Um-Katef to counterattack but failed to reach their objective, being subjected to heavy air attacks and encountering Israeli lodgements on the roads. Egyptian commanders then called in artillery attacks on their own positions. The Israelis accomplished and sometimes exceeded their overall plan, and had largely succeeded by the following day. The Egyptians suffered about 2000 casualties, while the Israelis lost 42 dead and 140 wounded.[101][102][103]
Yoffe's attack allowed Sharon to complete the capture of the Um-Katef, after fierce fighting. The main thrust at Um-Katef was stalled due to mines and craters. After IDF engineers had cleared a path by 4:00 pm, Israeli and Egyptian tanks engaged in fierce combat, often at ranges as close as ten yards. The battle ended in an Israeli victory, with 40 Egyptian and 19 Israeli tanks destroyed. Meanwhile, Israeli infantry finished clearing out the Egyptian trenches, with Israeli casualties standing at 14 dead and 41 wounded and Egyptian casualties at 300 dead and 100 taken prisoner.[104]
Other Israeli forces
Further south, on 5 June, the8th Armored Brigadeunder ColonelAlbert Mandler,initially positioned as a ruse to draw off Egyptian forces from the real invasion routes, attacked the fortified bunkers at Kuntilla, a strategically valuable position whose capture would enable Mandler to block reinforcements from reaching Um-Katef and to join Sharon's upcoming attack onNakhl.The defending Egyptian battalion outnumbered and outgunned, fiercely resisted the attack, hitting a number of Israeli tanks. Most of the defenders were killed, and only three Egyptian tanks, one of them damaged, survived. By nightfall, Mandler's forces had taken Kuntilla.[95]
With the exceptions of Rafah and Khan Yunis, Israeli forces had initially avoided entering theGaza Strip.Israeli Defense MinisterMoshe Dayanhad expressly forbidden entry into the area. After Palestinian positions in Gaza opened fire on the Negev settlements ofNirimandKissufim,IDF Chief of StaffYitzhak Rabinoverrode Dayan's instructions and ordered the 11th Mechanized Brigade under Colonel Yehuda Reshef to enter the Strip. The force was immediately met with heavy artillery fire and fierce resistance from Palestinian forces and remnants of the Egyptian forces from Rafah.[citation needed]
By sunset, the Israelis had taken the strategically vital Ali Muntar ridge, overlookingGaza City,but were beaten back from the city itself. Some 70 Israelis were killed, along with Israeli journalist Ben Oyserman and American journalistPaul Schutzer.Twelve members ofUNEFwere also killed. On the war's second day, 6 June, the Israelis were bolstered by the35th Paratroopers Brigadeunder ColonelRafael Eitanand took Gaza City along with the entire Strip. The fighting was fierce and accounted for nearly half of all Israeli casualties on the southern front. However, Gaza rapidly fell to the Israelis.[citation needed]
Meanwhile, on 6 June, two Israeli reserve brigades under Yoffe, each equipped with 100 tanks, penetrated the Sinai south of Tal's division and north of Sharon's, capturing the road junctions ofAbu Ageila,Bir Lahfan, and Arish, taking all of them before midnight. Two Egyptian armoured brigades counterattacked, and a fierce battle took place until the following morning. The Egyptians were beaten back by fierce resistance coupled with airstrikes, sustaining heavy tank losses. They fled west towards Jabal Libni.[105]
The Egyptian Army
During the ground fighting, remnants of theEgyptian Air Forceattacked Israeli ground forces but took losses from the Israeli Air Force and from Israeli anti-aircraft units. Throughout the last four days, Egyptian aircraft flew 150 sorties against Israeli units in the Sinai.[citation needed]
Many of the Egyptian units remained intact and could have tried to prevent the Israelis from reaching theSuez Canal,or engaged in combat in the attempt to reach the canal. However, when the Egyptian Field MarshalAbdel Hakim Amerheard about the fall ofAbu-Ageila,he panicked and ordered all units in the Sinai to retreat. This order effectively meant the defeat of Egypt.[citation needed]
Meanwhile, PresidentNasser,having learned of the results of the Israeli air strikes, decided together with Field MarshalAmerto order a general retreat from the Sinai within 24 hours. No detailed instructions were given concerning the manner and sequence of withdrawal.[106]
Next fighting days
 | This sectionneeds additional citations forverification.(June 2017) |
As Egyptian columns retreated, Israeli aircraft and artillery attacked them. Israeli jets usednapalmbombs during their sorties. The attacks destroyed hundreds of vehicles and caused heavy casualties. At Jabal Libni, retreating Egyptian soldiers were fired upon by their own artillery. At Bir Gafgafa, the Egyptians fiercely resisted advancing Israeli forces, knocking out three tanks and eight half-tracks, and killing 20 soldiers. Due to the Egyptians' retreat, the Israeli High Command decided not to pursue the Egyptian units but rather to bypass and destroy them in the mountainous passes of West Sinai.[citation needed]
Therefore, in the following two days (6 and 7 June), all three Israeli divisions (Sharon and Tal were reinforced by an armoured brigade each) rushed westwards and reached the passes. Sharon's division first went southward then westward, viaAn-Nakhl,toMitla Passwith air support. It was joined there by parts of Yoffe's division, while its other units blocked theGidi Pass.These passes became killing grounds for the Egyptians, who ran right into waiting Israeli positions and suffered heavy losses in both soldiers and vehicles. According to Egyptian diplomatMahmoud Riad,10000men were killed in one day alone, and many others died from thirst. Tal's units stopped at various points to the length of the Suez Canal.[citation needed]
Israel's blocking action was partially successful. Only the Gidi pass was captured before the Egyptians approached it, but at other places, Egyptian units managed to pass through and cross the canal to safety. Due to the haste of the Egyptian retreat, soldiers often abandoned weapons, military equipment, and hundreds of vehicles. Many Egyptian soldiers were cut off from their units had to walk about 200 kilometres (120 mi) on foot before reaching the Suez Canal with limited supplies of food and water and were exposed to intense heat. Thousands of soldiers died as a result. Many Egyptian soldiers chose instead to surrender to the Israelis. However, the Israelis eventually exceeded their capabilities to provide for prisoners. As a result, they began directing soldiers towards the Suez Canal and only imprisoned high-ranking officers, who were expected to be exchanged for captured Israeli pilots.[citation needed]
According to some accounts, during the Egyptian retreat from the Sinai, a unit ofSoviet Marinesbased on a Soviet warship inPort Saidat the time came ashore and attempted to cross the Suez Canal eastward. The Soviet force was reportedly decimated by an Israeli air attack and lost 17 dead and 34 wounded. Among the wounded was the commander, Lt. Col. Victor Shevchenko.[33]
During the offensive, theIsraeli Navylanded sixcombat diversfrom theShayetet 13naval commando unit to infiltrateAlexandriaharbour. The divers sank an Egyptianminesweeperbefore being taken prisoner. Shayetet 13 commandos also infiltratedPort Saidharbour, but found no ships there. A planned commando raid against theSyrian Navynever materialized. Both Egyptian and Israeli warships made movements at sea to intimidate the other side throughout the war but did not engage each other. However, Israeli warships and aircraft did hunt for Egyptian submarines throughout the war.[citation needed]
On 7 June, Israel began its attack onSharm el-Sheikh.TheIsraeli Navystarted the operation with a probe of Egyptian naval defences. An aerial reconnaissance flight found that the area was less defended than originally thought. At about 4:30 am, three Israelimissile boatsopened fire on Egyptian shore batteries, while paratroopers and commandos boarded helicopters andNord Noratlastransport planes for an assault on Al-Tur, as Chief of Staff Rabin was convinced it was too risky to land them directly in Sharm el-Sheikh.[107]However, the city had been largely abandoned the day before, and reports from air and naval forces finally convinced Rabin to divert the aircraft to Sharm el-Sheikh. There, the Israelis engaged in a pitched battle with the Egyptians and took the city, killing 20 Egyptian soldiers and taking eight more prisoners. At 12:15 pm, Defense Minister Dayan announced that the Straits of Tiran constituted an international waterway open to all ships without restriction.[107]
On 8 June, Israel completed the capture of the Sinai by sending infantry units toRas Sudaron the western coast of the peninsula.
Several tactical elements made the swift Israeli advance possible:
- The surprise attack that quickly gave theIsraeli Air Forcecomplete air superiority over theEgyptian Air Force.
- The determined implementation of an innovative battle plan.
- The lack of coordination among Egyptian troops.
These factors would prove to be decisive elements on Israel's other fronts as well.[citation needed]
West Bank
Egyptian control of Jordanian forces
King Hussein had given control of his army to Egypt on 1 June, on which date Egyptian General Riad arrived inAmmanto take control of the Jordanian military.[b]
Egyptian Field Marshal Amer used theconfusionof the first hours of the conflict to send a cable to Amman that he was victorious; he claimed as evidence a radar sighting of a squadron of Israeli aircraft returning from bombing raids in Egypt, which he said was an Egyptian aircraft en route to attack Israel.[109]In this cable, sent shortly before 9:00 am, Riad was ordered to attack.[c]
Initial attack
One of the Jordanian brigades stationed in theWest Bankwas sent to theHebronarea in order to link with the Egyptians.
The IDF's strategic plan was to remain on the defensive along the Jordanian front, to enable focus in the expected campaign against Egypt.
Intermittent machine-gun exchanges began taking place in Jerusalem at 9:30 am, and the fighting gradually escalated as the Jordanians introduced mortar and recoilless rifle fire. Under the orders from General Narkis, the Israelis responded only with small-arms fire, firing in a flat trajectory to avoid hitting civilians, holy sites or the Old City. At 10:00 am on 5 June, theJordanian Armybegan shelling Israel. Two batteries of 155 mmLong Tomcannons opened fire on the suburbs ofTel AvivandRamat David Airbase.The commanders of these batteries were instructed to lay a two-hour barrage against military and civilian settlements in central Israel. Some shells hit the outskirts ofTel Aviv.[111]
By 10:30 am, Eshkol had sent a message viaOdd BulltoKing Husseinpromising not to initiate any action against Jordan if it stayed out of the war.[112]King Hussein replied that it was too late, "the die was cast".[113]At 11:15 am, Jordanian howitzers began a 6000-shell barrage at Israeli Jerusalem. The Jordanians initially targetedkibbutzRamat Rachelin the south andMount Scopusin the north, then ranged into the city centre and outlying neighbourhoods. Military installations, the Prime Minister's Residence, and theKnessetcompound were also targeted. Jordanian forces shelled theBeit HaNassiand theBiblical Zoo,killing fifteen civilians.[114][115]Israelicivilian casualtiestotalled 20 dead and over 1000 wounded. Some 900 buildings were damaged, includingHadassah Ein Kerem Hospital,which had itsChagall-made windows destroyed.[116]
At 11:50 am, sixteen Jordanian Hawker Hunters attackedNetanya,Kfar SirkinandKfar Saba,killing one civilian, wounding seven and destroying a transport plane. Three Iraqi Hawker Hunters strafed civilian settlements in the Jezreel Valley, and an IraqiTupolev Tu-16attackedAfula,and was shot down near the Megiddo airfield. The attack caused minimal material damage, hitting only a senior citizens' home and several chicken coops, but sixteen Israeli soldiers were killed, most of them when the Tupolev crashed.[116]
Israeli cabinet meets
When theIsraeli cabinetconvened to decide on a plan of action,Yigal AllonandMenahem Beginargued that this was an opportunity to take theOld City of Jerusalem,butEshkoldecided to defer any decision untilMoshe DayanandYitzhak Rabincould be consulted.[117]Uzi Narkissmade a number of proposals for military action, including the capture ofLatrun,but the cabinet turned him down. Dayan rejected multiple requests from Narkiss for permission to mount an infantry assault towards Mount Scopus. However, Dayan sanctioned a number of more limited retaliatory actions.[118]
Initial response
Shortly before 12:30 pm, theIsraeli Air Forceattacked Jordan's two airbases. The Hawker Hunters were refuelling at the time of the attack. The Israeli aircraft attacked in two waves, the first of which cratered the runways and knocked out the control towers, and the second wave destroyed all 21 of Jordan's Hawker Hunter fighters, along with six transport aircraft and two helicopters. One Israeli jet was shot down by ground fire.[118]
Israeli aircraft also attackedH-3,anIraqi Air Forcebase in western Iraq. During the attack, 12 MiG-21s, 2 MiG-17s, 5 Hunter F6s, and 3 Il-28 bombers were destroyed or shot down. A Pakistani pilot stationed at the base,Saiful Azam,who was posted with the Royal Jordanian Air Force as an advisor, shot down an Israeli fighter and a bomber during the raid. The Jordanian radar facility atAjlounwas destroyed in an Israeli airstrike. IsraeliFouga Magisterjets attacked the Jordanian 40th Brigade with rockets as it moved south from theDamia Bridge.Dozens of tanks were knocked out, and a convoy of 26 trucks carrying ammunition was destroyed. In Jerusalem, Israel responded to Jordanian shelling with a missile strike that devastated Jordanian positions. The Israelis used the L missile, asurface-to-surfacemissile developed jointly withFrancein secret.[118]
Jordanian battalion at Government House
A Jordanian battalion advanced up Government House ridge and dug in at the perimeter of Government House, the headquarters of the United Nations observers,[119][120][121]and opened fire on Ramat Rachel, the Allenby Barracks and the Jewish section ofAbu Torwith mortars and recoilless rifles. UN observers fiercely protested the incursion into the neutral zone, and several manhandled a Jordanian machine gun out of Government House after the crew had set it up in a second-floor window. After the Jordanians occupiedJabel Mukaber,an advance patrol was sent out and approached Ramat Rachel, where they came under fire from four civilians, including the wife of the director, who were armed with old Czech-made weapons.[122][123]
The immediate Israeli response was an offensive to retake Government House and its ridge. The Jerusalem Brigade's Reserve Battalion 161, under Lieutenant-Colonel Asher Dreizin, was given the task. Dreizin had two infantry companies and eight tanks under his command, several of which broke down or became stuck in the mud at Ramat Rachel, leaving three for the assault. The Jordanians mounted fierce resistance, knocking out two tanks.[124]
The Israelis broke through the compound's western gate and began clearing the building with grenades, before GeneralOdd Bull,commander of the UN observers, compelled the Israelis to hold their fire, telling them that the Jordanians had already fled. The Israelis proceeded to take the Antenna Hill, directly behind Government House, and clear out a series of bunkers to the west and south. The fighting often conducted hand-to-hand, continued for nearly four hours before the surviving Jordanians fell back to trenches held by the Hittin Brigade, which were steadily overwhelmed. By 6:30 am, the Jordanians had retreated toBethlehem,having suffered about 100 casualties. All but ten of Dreizin's soldiers were casualties, and Dreizin himself was wounded three times.[124]
Israeli invasion
During the late afternoon of 5 June, the Israelis launched an offensive to encircle Jerusalem, which lasted into the following day. During the night, they were supported by intense tank, artillery and mortar fire to soften up Jordanian positions. Searchlights placed atop the Labor Federation building, then the tallest in Israeli Jerusalem, exposed and blinded the Jordanians. The Jerusalem Brigade moved south of Jerusalem, while the mechanizedHarel Brigadeand55th Paratroopers BrigadeunderMordechai Gurencircled it from the north.[125]
A combined force of tanks and paratroopers crossedno-man's landnear theMandelbaum Gate.Gur's 66th paratroop battalion approached the fortified Police Academy. The Israelis usedBangalore torpedoesto blast their way throughbarbed wireleading up to the position while exposed and under heavy fire. With the aid of two tanks borrowed from the Jerusalem Brigade, they captured the Police Academy. After receiving reinforcements, they moved up to attackAmmunition Hill.[125][126]
The Jordanian defenders, who were heavily dug-in, fiercely resisted the attack. All of the Israeli officers except for two company commanders were killed, and the fighting was mostly led by individual soldiers. The fighting was conducted atclose quartersin trenches and bunkers and was often hand-to-hand. The Israelis captured the position after four hours of heavy fighting. During the battle, 36 Israeli and 71 Jordanian soldiers were killed.[125][126]Even after the fighting on Ammunition Hill had ended, Israeli soldiers were forced to remain in the trenches due to Jordanian sniper fire fromGivat HaMivtaruntil theHarel Brigadeoverran that outpost in the afternoon.[127]
The 66th battalion subsequently drove east, and linked up with the Israeli enclave onMount Scopusand itsHebrew Universitycampus. Gur's other battalions, the 71st and 28th captured the other Jordanian positions around theAmerican Colony,despite being short on men and equipment and having come under a Jordanian mortar bombardment while waiting for the signal to advance.[125][126]
At the same time, the IDF's 4th Brigade attacked the fortress atLatrun,which the Jordanians had abandoned due to heavy Israeli tank fire. The mechanizedHarel BrigadeattackedHar Adar,but seven tanks were knocked out by mines, forcing the infantry to mount an assault without armoured cover. The Israeli soldiers advanced under heavy fire, jumping between rocks to avoid mines and the fighting was conducted at close quarters with knives and bayonets.[citation needed]
The Jordanians fell back after a battle that left two Israeli and eight Jordanian soldiers dead, and Israeli forces advanced throughBeit HorontowardsRamallah,taking four fortified villages along the way. By the evening, the brigade arrived in Ramallah. Meanwhile, the 163rd Infantry Battalion securedAbu Torfollowing a fierce battle, severing the Old City from Bethlehem and Hebron.[citation needed]
Meanwhile, 600 Egyptian commandos stationed in the West Bank moved to attack Israeli airfields. Led by Jordanian intelligence scouts, they crossed the border and began infiltrating through Israeli settlements towardsRamlaandHatzor.They were soon detected and sought shelter in nearby fields, which the Israelis set on fire. Some 450 commandos were killed, and the remainder escaped to Jordan.[128]
From the American Colony, theparatroopersmoved towards the Old City. Their plan was to approach it via the lightly defended Salah al-Din Street. However, they made a wrong turn onto the heavily defended Nablus Road. The Israelis ran into fierce resistance. Their tanks fired at point-blank range down the street, while the paratroopers mounted repeated charges. Despite repelling repeated Israeli charges, the Jordanians gradually gave way to Israeli firepower and momentum. The Israelis suffered some 30 casualties – half the original force – while the Jordanians lost 45 dead and 142 wounded.[129]
Meanwhile, the Israeli 71st Battalion breached barbed wire and minefields and emerged near Wadi Joz, near the base of Mount Scopus, from where the Old City could be cut off from Jericho and East Jerusalem from Ramallah. Israeli artillery targeted the one remaining route from Jerusalem to the West Bank, and shellfire deterred the Jordanians from counterattacking from their positions at Augusta-Victoria. An Israeli detachment then captured theRockefeller Museumafter a brief skirmish.[129]
Afterwards, the Israelis broke through to the Jerusalem-Ramallah road. At Tel al-Ful, the Harel Brigade fought a running battle with up to thirty Jordanian tanks. The Jordanians stalled the advance and destroyed a number of half-tracks, but the Israelis launched air attacks and exploited the vulnerability of the external fuel tanks mounted on the Jordanian tanks. The Jordanians lost half their tanks, and retreated towardsJericho.Joining up with the 4th Brigade, the Israelis then descended throughShuafatand the site of what is nowFrench Hill,through Jordanian defences at Mivtar, emerging at Ammunition Hill.[130]
With Jordanian defences in Jerusalem crumbling, elements of the Jordanian 60th Brigade and an infantry battalion were sent from Jericho to reinforce Jerusalem. Its original orders were to repel the Israelis from the Latrun corridor, but due to the worsening situation in Jerusalem, the brigade was ordered to proceed to Jerusalem's Arab suburbs and attackMount Scopus.Parallel to the brigade were infantrymen from the Imam Ali Brigade, who were approachingIssawiya.The brigades were spotted by Israeli aircraft and decimated by rocket and cannon fire. Other Jordanian attempts to reinforce Jerusalem were beaten back, either by armoured ambushes or airstrikes.[citation needed]
Fearing damage to holy sites and the prospect of having to fight in built-up areas, Dayan ordered his troops not to enter the Old City.[117]He also feared that Israel would be subjected to a fierce international backlash and the outrage of Christians worldwide if it forced its way into the Old City. Privately, he toldDavid Ben-Gurionthat he was also concerned over the prospect of Israel capturing Jerusalem's holy sites, only to be forced to give them up under the threat of international sanctions.[citation needed]
The West Bank
Israel was to gain almost total control of the West Bank by the evening of 7 June,[131]and began itsmilitary occupationof the West Bank on that day, issuing a military order, the "Proclamation Regarding Law and Administration (The West Bank Area) (No. 2)—1967", which established the military government in the West Bank and granted the commander of the area full legislative, executive, and judicial power.[132][5]Jordan had realised that it had no hope of defence as early as the morning of 6 June, just a day after the conflict had begun.[133]At Nasser's request, Egypt'sAbdul Munim Riadsent a situation update at midday on 6 June:[131]
The situation on the West Bank is rapidly deteriorating. A concentrated attack has been launched on all axes, together with heavy fire, day and night. Jordanian, Syrian and Iraqi air forces in position H3 have been virtually destroyed. Upon consultation with King Hussein I have been asked to convey to you the following choices:
- 1. A political decision to cease fighting to be imposed by a third party (the USA, the Soviet Union or the Security Council).
- 2. To vacate the West Bank tonight.
- 3. To go on fighting for one more day, resulting in the isolation and destruction of the entire Jordanian Army.
King Hussein has asked me to refer this matter to you for an immediate reply.
An Egyptian order for Jordanian forces to withdraw across the Jordan River was issued at 10 am on 6 June; however that afternoon King Hussein learned of the impendingUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 233and decided instead to hold out in the hope that a ceasefire would be implemented soon. It was already too late, as the counter-order caused confusion and in many cases, it was not possible to regain positions that had previously been left.[134]
On 7 June, Dayan ordered his troops not to enter the Old City but, upon hearing that the UN was about to declare a ceasefire, he changed his mind, and without cabinet clearance, decided to capture it.[117]Two paratroop battalions attacked Augusta-Victoria Hill, high ground overlooking the Old City from the east. One battalion attacked from Mount Scopus, and another attacked from the valley between it and the Old City. Another paratroop battalion, personally led by Gur, broke into the Old City and was joined by the other two battalions after their missions were complete. The paratroopers met little resistance. The fighting was conducted solely by the paratroopers; the Israelis did not use armour during the battle out of fear of severe damage to the Old City.
In the north, a battalion from Peled's division checked Jordanian defences in the Jordan Valley. A brigade from Peled's division captured the western part of the West Bank. One brigade attacked Jordanian artillery positions aroundJenin,which were shellingRamat David Airbase.The Jordanian 12th Armored Battalion, which outnumbered the Israelis, held off repeated attempts to capture Jenin. However, Israeli air attacks took their toll, and the JordanianM48 Pattons,with their external fuel tanks, proved vulnerable at short distances, even to the Israeli-modified Shermans. Twelve Jordanian tanks were destroyed, and only six remained operational.[128]
Just after dusk, Israeli reinforcements arrived. The Jordanians continued to fiercely resist, and the Israelis were unable to advance without artillery and air support. One Israeli jet attacked the Jordanian commander's tank, wounding him and killing his radio operator and intelligence officer. The surviving Jordanian forces then withdrew to Jenin, where they were reinforced by the 25th Infantry Brigade. The Jordanians were effectively surrounded in Jenin.[128]
Jordanian infantry and their three remaining tanks managed to hold off the Israelis until 4:00 am, when three battalions arrived to reinforce them in the afternoon. The Jordanian tanks charged and knocked out multiple Israeli vehicles, and the tide began to shift. After sunrise, Israeli jets and artillery conducted a two-hour bombardment against the Jordanians. The Jordanians lost 10 dead and 250 wounded, and had only seven tanks left, including two without gas, and sixteen APCs. The Israelis then fought their way into Jenin and captured the city after fierce fighting.[135]
After the Old City fell, the Jerusalem Brigade reinforced the paratroopers, and continued to the south, capturingJudeaandGush Etzion.Hebronwas taken without any resistance.[136]Fearful that Israeli soldiers would exact retribution for the1929 massacreof the city's Jewish community, Hebron's residents flew white sheets from their windows and rooftops.[137]The Harel Brigade proceeded eastward, descending to theJordan River.
On 7 June, Israeli forces seizedBethlehem,taking the city after a brief battle that left some 40 Jordanian soldiers dead, with the remainder fleeing. On the same day, one of Peled's brigades seizedNablus;then it joined one of Central Command's armoured brigades to fight the Jordanian forces; as the Jordanians held the advantage of superior equipment and were equal in numbers to the Israelis.
Again, the air superiority of the IAF proved paramount as it immobilized the Jordanians, leading to their defeat. One of Peled's brigades joined with its Central Command counterparts coming from Ramallah, and the remaining two blocked the Jordan river crossings together with the Central Command's 10th.Engineering Corpssappers blew up the Abdullah and Hussein bridges with captured Jordanian mortar shells, while elements of the Harel Brigade crossed the river and occupied positions along the east bank to cover them, but quickly pulled back due to American pressure. The Jordanians, anticipating an Israeli offensive deep into Jordan, assembled the remnants of their army and Iraqi units in Jordan to protect the western approaches toAmmanand the southern slopes of theGolan Heights.
As Israel continued its offensive on 7 June, taking no account of the UN ceasefire resolution, the Egyptian-Jordanian command ordered a full Jordanian withdrawal for the second time, in order to avoid an annihilation of the Jordanian army.[138]This was complete by nightfall on 7 June.[138]
After the Old City was captured, Dayan told his troops to "dig in" to hold it. When an armoured brigade commander entered the West Bank on his own initiative, and stated that he could seeJericho,Dayan ordered him back. It was only after intelligence reports indicated that Hussein had withdrawn his forces across the Jordan River that Dayan ordered his troops to capture the West Bank.[121]According to Narkis:
First, the Israeli government had no intention of capturing the West Bank. On the contrary, it was opposed to it. Second, there was not any provocation on the part of the IDF. Third, the rein was only loosened when a real threat to Jerusalem's security emerged. This is truly how things happened on June 5, although it is difficult to believe. The end result was something that no one had planned.[139]
Golan Heights
In May–June 1967, in preparation for conflict, the Israeli government planned to confine the confrontation to the Egyptian front, whilst taking into account the possibility of some fighting on the Syrian front.[113]
Syrian front 5–8 June
Syria largely stayed out of the conflict for the first four days.[140][141]
False Egyptian reports of a crushing victory against the Israeli army[92]and forecasts that Egyptian forces would soon be attackingTel Avivinfluenced Syria's decision to enter the war – in a sporadic manner – during this period.[140]Syrian artillery began shelling northern Israel, and twelve Syrian jets attacked Israeli settlements in theGalilee.Israeli fighter jets intercepted the Syrian aircraft, shooting down three and driving off the rest.[142]In addition, twoLebaneseHawker Hunterjets, two of the twelve Lebanon had, crossed into Israeli airspace and began strafing Israeli positions in the Galilee. They were intercepted by Israeli fighter jets, and one was shot down.[2]
On the evening of 5 June, the Israeli Air Force attacked Syrian airfields. TheSyrian Air Forcelost some 32MiG 21s,23MiG-15and MiG-17 fighters, and twoIlyushin Il-28bombers, two-thirds of its fighting strength. The Syrian aircraft that survived the attack retreated to distant bases and played no further role in the war. Following the attack, Syria realised that the news it had received from Egypt of the near-total destruction of the Israeli military could not have been true.[142]
On 6 June, a minor Syrian force tried to capture the water plants atTel Dan(the subject of a fierce escalation two years earlier),Dan,andShe'ar Yashuv.These attacks were repulsed with the loss of twenty soldiers and seven tanks. An Israeli officer was also killed. But a broader Syrian offensive quickly failed. Syrian reserve units were broken up by Israeli air attacks, and several tanks were reported to have sunk in the Jordan River.[142]
Other problems included tanks being too wide for bridges, lack of radio communications between tanks and infantry, and units ignoring orders to advance. A post-war Syrian army report concluded:
Our forces did not go on the offensive either because they did not arrive or were not wholly prepared or because they could not find shelter from the enemy's aircraft. The reserves could not withstand the air attacks; they dispersed after their morale plummeted.[143]
The Syrians bombarded Israeli civilian settlements in theGalilee Panhandlewith two battalions ofM-46 130mm guns,four companies of heavy mortars, and dug-inPanzer IVtanks. The Syrian bombardment killed two civilians and hit 205 houses as well as farming installations. An inaccurate report from a Syrian officer, however, said that as a result of the bombardment that "the enemy appears to have suffered heavy losses and is retreating".[40]
Israelis debate whether the Golan Heights should be attacked
On 7 and 8 June, the Israeli leadership debated about whether to attack the Golan Heights as well. Syria had supported pre-war raids that had helped raise tensions and had routinely shelled Israel from the Heights, so some Israeli leaders wanted to see Syria punished.[144]Military opinion was that the attack would be extremely costly since it would entail an uphill battle against a strongly fortified enemy. The western side of the Golan Heights consists of a rock escarpment that rises 500 meters (1,700 ft) from theSea of Galileeand theJordan River,and then flattens to a gently sloping plateau. Dayan opposed the operation bitterly at first, believing such an undertaking would result in losses of 30,000 and might trigger Soviet intervention. Prime MinisterEshkol,on the other hand, was more open to the possibility, as was the head of the Northern Command,David Elazar,whose unbridled enthusiasm for and confidence in the operation may have eroded Dayan's reluctance.[citation needed]
Eventually, the situation on the Southern and Central fronts cleared up, intelligence estimated that the likelihood of Soviet intervention had been reduced,reconnaissanceshowed some Syrian defences in the Golan region collapsing, and an intercepted cable revealed that Nasser was urging the President of Syria to immediately accept a ceasefire. At 3 AM on 9 June, Syria announced its acceptance of the ceasefire. Despite this announcement, Dayan became more enthusiastic about the idea and four hours later at 7 AM, "gave the order to go into action against Syria"[d][144]without consultation or government authorisation.[146]
The Syrian army consisted of about 75,000 men grouped in nine brigades, supported by an adequate amount of artillery and armour. Israeli forces used in combat consisted of two brigades (the8th Armored Brigadeand theGolani Brigade) in the northern part of the front atGivat HaEm,and another two (infantry and one of Peled's brigades summoned from Jenin) in the centre. The Golan Heights' unique terrain (mountainous slopes crossed by parallel streams every several kilometres running east to west), and the general lack of roads in the area channelled both forces along east–west axes of movement and restricted the ability of units to support those on either flank. Thus the Syrians could move north–south on the plateau itself, and the Israelis could move north–south at the base of the Golan escarpment. An advantage Israel possessed was the intelligence collected byMossadoperativeEli Cohen(who was captured and executed in Syria in 1965) regarding the Syrian battle positions. Syria had built extensive defensive fortifications in depths up to 15 kilometers.[147]
As opposed to all the other campaigns, IAF was only partially effective in the Golan because the fixed fortifications were so effective. However, the Syrian forces proved unable to put up effective defence largely because the officers were poor leaders and treated their soldiers badly; often officers would retreat from danger, leaving their men confused and ineffective. The Israelis also had the upper hand during close combat that took place in the numerous Syrian bunkers along the Golan Heights, as they were armed with theUzi,asubmachine gundesigned for close combat, while Syrian soldiers were armed with the heavierAK-47assault rifle, designed for combat in more open areas.[citation needed]
Israeli attack: first day (9 June)
On the morning of 9 June, Israeli jets began carrying out dozens of sorties against Syrian positions fromMount HermontoTawfiq,using rockets salvaged from captured Egyptian stocks. The airstrikes knocked out artillery batteries and storehouses and forced transport columns off the roads. The Syrians suffered heavy casualties and a drop in morale, with a number of senior officers and troops deserting. The attacks also provided time as Israeli forces cleared paths through Syrian minefields. However, the airstrikes did not seriously damage the Syrians' bunkers and trench systems, and the bulk of Syrian forces on the Golan remained in their positions.[148]
About two hours after the airstrikes began, the8th Armored Brigade,led by ColonelAlbert Mandler,advanced into the Golan Heights fromGivat HaEm.Its advance was spearheaded byEngineering Corpssappers and eight bulldozers, which cleared away barbed wire and mines. As they advanced, the force came under fire, and five bulldozers were immediately hit. The Israeli tanks, with their manoeuvrability sharply reduced by the terrain, advanced slowly under fire toward the fortified village of Sir al-Dib, with their ultimate objective being the fortress at Qala. Israeli casualties steadily mounted.[149]
Part of the attacking force lost its way and emerged opposite Za'ura, a redoubt manned by Syrian reservists. With the situation critical, Colonel Mandler ordered simultaneous assaults on Za'ura and Qala. Heavy and confused fighting followed, with Israeli and Syrian tanks struggling around obstacles and firing at extremely short ranges. Mandler recalled that "the Syrians fought well and bloodied us. We beat them only by crushing them under our treads and by blasting them with our cannons at very short range, from 100 to 500 meters." The first three Israeli tanks to enter Qala were stopped by a Syrian bazooka team, and a relief column of seven Syrian tanks arrived to repel the attackers.[149]
The Israelis took heavy fire from the houses, but could not turn back, as other forces were advancing behind them, and they were on a narrow path with mines on either side. The Israelis continued pressing forward and called for air support. A pair of Israeli jets destroyed two of the Syrian tanks, and the remainder withdrew. The surviving defenders of Qala retreated after their commander was killed. Meanwhile, Za'ura fell in an Israeli assault, and the Israelis also captured the 'Ein Fit fortress.[149]
In the central sector, the Israeli 181st Battalion captured the strongholds of Dardara and Tel Hillal after fierce fighting. Desperate fighting also broke out along the operation's northern axis, whereGolani Brigadeattacked thirteen Syrian positions, including the formidableTel Fakhrposition. Navigational errors placed the Israelis directly under the Syrians' guns. In the fighting that followed, both sides took heavy casualties, with the Israelis losing all nineteen of their tanks and half-tracks.[150]The Israeli battalion commander then ordered his twenty-five remaining men to dismount, divide into two groups, and charge the northern and southern flanks of Tel Fakhr. The first Israelis to reach the perimeter of the southern approach laid on thebarbed wire,allowing their comrades to vault over them. From there, they assaulted the fortified Syrian positions. The fighting was waged at extremely close quarters, often hand-to-hand.[150]
On the northern flank, the Israelis broke through within minutes and cleared out the trenches and bunkers. During the seven-hour battle, the Israelis lost 31 dead and 82 wounded, while the Syrians lost 62 dead and 20 captured. Among the dead was the Israeli battalion commander. The Golani Brigade's 51st Battalion took Tel 'Azzaziat, and Darbashiya also fell to Israeli forces.[150]
By the evening of 9 June, the four Israeli brigades had all broken through to the plateau, where they could be reinforced and replaced. Thousands of reinforcements began reaching the front, those tanks and half-tracks that had survived the previous day's fighting were refuelled and replenished with ammunition, and the wounded were evacuated. By dawn, the Israelis had eight brigades in the sector.[citation needed]
Syria's first line of defence had been shattered, but the defences beyond that remained largely intact. Mount Hermon and the Banias in the north, and the entire sector between Tawfiq and Customs House Road in the south remained in Syrian hands. In a meeting early on the night of 9 June, Syrian leaders decided to reinforce those positions as quickly as possible and to maintain a steady barrage on Israeli civilian settlements.[citation needed]
Israeli attack: second day (10 June)
Throughout the night, the Israelis continued their advance, though it was slowed by fierce resistance. An anticipated Syrian counterattack never materialized. At the fortified village of Jalabina, a garrison of Syrian reservists, levelling their anti-aircraft guns, held off the Israeli 65th Paratroop Battalion for four hours before a small detachment managed to penetrate the village and knock out the heavy guns.[citation needed]
Meanwhile, the 8th Brigade's tanks moved south from Qala, advancing six miles to Wasit under heavy artillery and tank bombardment. At the Banias in the north, Syrian mortar batteries opened fire on advancing Israeli forces only after Golani Brigade sappers cleared a path through a minefield, killing sixteen Israeli soldiers and wounding four.[citation needed]
On the next day, 10 June, the central and northern groups joined in apincer movementon the plateau, but that fell mainly on empty territory as the Syrian forces retreated. At 8:30 am, the Syrians began blowing up their own bunkers, burning documents and retreating. Several units joined by Elad Peled's troops climbed to the Golan from the south, only to find the positions mostly empty. When the 8th Brigade reached Mansura, five miles from Wasit, the Israelis met no opposition and found abandoned equipment, including tanks, in perfect working condition. In the fortified Banias village, Golani Brigade troops found only several Syrian soldiers chained to their positions.[151]
During the day, the Israeli units stopped after obtaining manoeuvre room between their positions and a line of volcanic hills to the west. In some locations, Israeli troops advanced after an agreed-upon cease-fire[152]to occupy strategically strong positions.[153]To the east, the ground terrain is an open gently sloping plain. This position later became the cease-fire line known as the "Purple Line".
Timemagazine reported: "In an effort to pressure the United Nations into enforcing a ceasefire, Damascus Radio undercut its own army by broadcasting the fall of the city ofQuneitrathree hours before it actually capitulated. That premature report of the surrender of their headquarters destroyed the morale of the Syrian troops left in the Golan area. "[154]
Conclusion
A week ago, the fateful campaign began. The existence of the State of Israel hung in the balance, the hopes of generations, and the vision that was realised in our own time... During the fighting, our forces destroyed about 450 enemy planes and hundreds of tanks. The enemy forces were decisively defeated in battles. Many fled for their lives or were captured. For the first time since the establishment of the state, the threat to our security has been removed at once from the Sinai Peninsula, the Gaza Strip, Jerusalem, the West Bank and the northern border.
–Levi Eshkol,12 June 1967 (Address to Israeli Parliament)[155]
By 10 June, Israel had completed its final offensive in the Golan Heights, and aceasefirewas signed the day after. Israel had seized theGaza Strip,theSinai Peninsula,theWest Bankof the Jordan River (including East Jerusalem), and theGolan Heights.[156]About one million Arabs were placed under Israel's direct control in the newly captured territories. Israel's strategic depth grew to at least 300 kilometres in the south, 60 kilometres in the east, and 20 kilometres of extremely rugged terrain in the north, a security asset that would prove useful in theYom Kippur Warsix years later.
Speaking three weeks after the war ended, as he accepted an honorary degree fromHebrew University,Yitzhak Rabingave his reasoning behind the success of Israel:
Our airmen, who struck the enemies' planes so accurately that no one in the world understands how it was done and people seek technological explanations or secret weapons; our armoured troops who beat the enemy even when their equipment was inferior to his; our soldiers in all other branches... who overcame our enemies everywhere, despite the latter's superior numbers and fortifications—all these revealed not only coolness and courage in the battle but... an understanding that only their personal stand against the greatest dangers would achieve victory for their country and for their families, and that if victory was not theirs the alternative was annihilation.[157]
In recognition of contributions, Rabin was given the honour of naming the war for the Israelis. From the suggestions proposed, including the "War of Daring", "War of Salvation", and "War of the Sons of Light", he "chose the least ostentatious, the Six-Day War, evoking the days of creation".[158]
Dayan's final report on the war to the Israeli general staff listed several shortcomings in Israel's actions, including misinterpretation of Nasser's intentions, overdependence on the United States, and reluctance to act when Egypt closed the Straits. He also credited several factors for Israel's success: Egypt did not appreciate the advantage of striking first and their adversaries did not accurately gauge Israel's strength and its willingness to use it.[158]
In Egypt, according toHeikal,Nasser had admitted his responsibility for the military defeat in June 1967.[159]According to historian Abd al-Azim Ramadan, Nasser's mistaken decisions to expel the international peacekeeping force from the Sinai Peninsula and close the Straits of Tiran in 1967 led to a state of war with Israel, despite Egypt's lack of military preparedness.[160]
After the 1973Yom Kippur War,Egypt reviewed the causes of its loss of the 1967 war. Issues that were identified included "the individualistic bureaucratic leadership"; "promotions on the basis of loyalty, not expertise, and the army's fear of telling Nasser the truth"; lack of intelligence; and better Israeli weapons, command, organization, and will to fight.[158]
Casualties
Between 776[18]and 983 Israelis were killed and 4,517 were wounded. Fifteen Israeli soldiers were captured. Arab casualties were far greater. Between 9,800[20]and15000[21]Egyptian soldiers were listed as killed or missing in action. An additional 4,338 Egyptian soldiers were captured.[22]Jordanian losses are estimated to be 700 killed in action with another 2,500 wounded.[17][26]The Syrians were estimated to have sustained between 1000[161]and 2,500[23][25]killed in action. Between 367[22]and 591[24]Syrians were captured.
Casualties were also suffered byUNEF,theUnited Nations Emergency Forcethat was stationed on the Egyptian side of the border. In three different episodes, Israeli forces attacked a UNEF convoy, camps in which UNEF personnel were concentrated and the UNEF headquarters inGaza,[29]resulting in one Brazilian peacekeeper and 14 Indian officials killed by Israeli forces, with an additional seventeen peacekeepers wounded in both contingents.[29]
Controversies
Preventative war vs war of aggression
At the commencement of hostilities, both Egypt and Israel announced that they had been attacked by the other country.[82]The Israeli government later abandoned its initial position, acknowledging Israel had struck first, claiming that it was a preemptive strike in the face of a planned invasion by Egypt.[82][38]The Arab view was that it was unjustified to attack Egypt.[162][163]Many scholars consider the war a case of preventative war as a form of self-defense.[164][165]However, the war has been assessed by others as a war of aggression.[166]
Allegations of atrocities committed against Egyptian soldiers
It has been alleged that Nasser did not want Egypt to learn of the true extent of his defeat and so ordered the killing of Egyptian army stragglers making their way back to the Suez canal zone.[167]There have also been allegations from both Israeli and Egyptian sources that Israeli troops killed unarmed Egyptian prisoners.[168][169][170][171][172][173][174][175][176]
Allegations of military support from the US, UK and Soviet Union
There have been a number of allegations of direct military support of Israel during the war by the US and the UK, including the supply of equipment (despite an embargo) and the participation of US forces in the conflict.[177][178][179][180][181]Many of these allegations andconspiracy theories[182]have been disputed and it has been claimed that some were given currency in the Arab world to explain the Arab defeat.[183] It has also been claimed that the Soviet Union, in support of its Arab allies, used its naval strength in the Mediterranean to act as a major restraint on the US Navy.[184][185]
America features prominently in Arab conspiracy theories purporting to explain the June 1967 defeat.Mohamed Hassanein Heikal,a confidant of Nasser, claims that PresidentLyndon B. Johnsonwas obsessed with Nasser and that Johnson conspired with Israel to bring him down.[186]The reported Israeli troop movements seemed all the more threatening because they were perceived in the context of a US conspiracy against Egypt. Salah Bassiouny of the Foreign Ministry, claims that Foreign Ministry saw the reported Israeli troop movements as credible because Israel had reached the level at which it could find strategic alliance with the United States.[187]
During the war, Cairo announced that American and British planes were participating in the Israeli attack. Nasser broke off diplomatic relations following this allegation. Nasser's image of the United States was such that he might well have believed the worst. HoweverAnwar Sadatimplied that Nasser used this deliberate conspiracy in order to accuse the United States as a political cover-up for domestic consumption.[188]Lutfi Abd al-Qadir, the director ofRadio Cairoduring the late 1960s, who accompanied Nasser to his visits in Moscow, had his conspiracy theory that both the Soviets and the Western powers wanted to topple Nasser or to reduce his influence.[189]
USSLibertyincident
On 8 June 1967,USSLiberty,aUnited States Navyelectronic intelligencevessel sailing 13 nautical miles (24 km) offArish(just outside Egypt'sterritorial waters), was attacked by Israeli jets and torpedo boats, nearly sinking the ship, killing 34 sailors and wounding 171. Israel said the attack was a case of mistaken identity, and that the ship had been misidentified as the Egyptian vesselEl Quseir.Israel apologized for the mistake and paid compensation to the victims or their families, and to the United States for damage to the ship. After an investigation, the U.S. accepted the explanation that the incident was friendly fire and the issue was closed by the exchange of diplomatic notes in 1987. Others however, including the thenUnited States Secretary of StateDean RuskandChief of Naval OperationsAdmiral Thomas Moorer,some survivors of the attack, and intelligence officials familiar with transcripts of intercepted signals on the day, have rejected these conclusions as unsatisfactory and maintain that the attack was made in the knowledge that the ship was American.[190][191][192]
Aftermath
The political importance of the 1967 War was immense. Israel demonstrated again that it was able and willing to initiate strategic strikes that could change the regional balance. Egypt and Syria learned tactical lessons and wouldlaunch an attack in 1973in an attempt to reclaim their lost territories.[193][194]
After following other Arab nations in declaring war,Mauritaniaremained in adeclared state of warwith Israel until about 1999.[195]The United States imposed an embargo on new arms agreements to all Middle East countries, including Israel. The embargo remained in force until the end of 1967, despite urgent Israeli requests to lift it.[196]
Exodus of Arabs from Israeli-occupied territories
There was extensive displacement of populations in the occupied territories: of about one million Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza,280000to325000were displaced from their homes.[41]Most of them settled in Jordan.[197]The other700000[198]remained. In the Golan Heights, over100000fled.[42]Israel allowed only the inhabitants of East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights to receive full Israeli citizenship, applying its law, administration and jurisdiction to these territories in 1967 and 1981, respectively. The vast majority of the populations in both territories declined to take citizenship. See alsoIsraeli–Palestinian conflictandGolan Heights.
In his bookRighteous Victims(1999), Israeli "New Historian"Benny Morriswrites:
In three villages southwest of Jerusalem and at Qalqilya, houses were destroyed "not in battle, but as punishment... and in order to chase away the inhabitants... contrary to government... policy," Dayan wrote in his memoirs. In Qalqilya, about a third of the homes were razed and about12000inhabitants were evicted, though many then camped out in the environs. The evictees in both areas were allowed to stay and later were given cement and tools by the Israeli authorities to rebuild at least some of their dwellings.
But many thousands of other Palestinians now took to the roads. Perhaps as many as seventy thousand, mostly from the Jericho area, fled during the fighting; tens of thousands more left over the following months. Altogether, about one-quarter of the population of the West Bank, about 200–250000people, went into exile.... They simply walked to the Jordan River crossings and made their way on foot to the East Bank. It is unclear how many were intimidated or forced out by the Israeli troops and how many left voluntarily, in panic and fear. There is some evidence of IDF soldiers going around with loudspeakers ordering West Bankers to leave their homes and cross the Jordan. Some left because they had relatives or sources of livelihood on the East Bank and feared being permanently cut off.
Thousands of Arabs were taken by bus from East Jerusalem to theAllenby Bridge,though there is no evidence of coercion. The free Israeli-organized transportation, which began on June 11, 1967, went on for about a month. At the bridge, they had to sign a document stating that they were leaving of their own free will. Perhaps as many as70000people emigrated from the Gaza Strip to Egypt and elsewhere in the Arab world.
On July 2, the Israeli government announced that it would allow the return of those 1967 refugees who desired to do so, but no later than August 10, later extended to September 13. The Jordanian authorities probably pressured many of the refugees, who constituted an enormous burden, to sign up to return. In practice only14000of the120000who applied were allowed by Israel back into the West Bank by the beginning of September. After that, only a trickle of "special cases" were allowed back, perhaps 3000 in all. (328–29)
In addition, between80000and110000Syrians fled the Golan Heights,[199]of which about20000were from the city of Quneitra.[200]According to more recent research by the Israeli dailyHaaretz,a total of130000Syrian inhabitants fled or were expelled from the territory, most of them pushed out by the Israeli army.[201]
Israel and Zionism
Following the war, Israel experienced a wave of national euphoria, and the press praised the military's performance for weeks afterwards. New "victory coins" were minted to celebrate. In addition, the world's interest in Israel grew, and the country's economy, which had been in crisis before the war, flourished due to an influx of tourists and donations, as well as the extraction of oil from the Sinai's wells.[202]The aftermath of the war also saw ababy boom,which lasted for four years.[203]
The aftermath of the war is also of religious significance. UnderJordanian rule,Jews were expelled from Jerusalem and were effectively barred from visiting theWestern Wall,despite Article VIII of the1949 Armistice Agreementwhich required making arrangements for Israeli Jewish access to the Western Wall.[204]Jewish holy sites were not maintained, and Jewish cemeteries had been desecrated. After the annexation to Israel, each religious group was granted administration over its holy sites. For the first time since 1948, Jews could visit the Old City of Jerusalem and pray at the Western Wall, the holiest site where Jews are permitted to pray, an event celebrated every year duringYom Yerushalayim.[205]
Despite theTemple Mountwhere theAl-Aqsacompound is located being the most important holy site in Jewish tradition, it has been under sole administration of the Jordanian MuslimWaqf,and Jews are barred from praying there, although they are allowed to visit.[206][207]In Hebron, Jews gained access to theCave of the Patriarchs– the second-most holy site in Judaism, after the Temple Mount – for the first time since the 14th century (previously Jews were allowed to pray only at the entrance).[208][209]Other Jewish holy sites, such asRachel's TombinBethlehemandJoseph's TombinNablus,also became accessible.[210]
The war inspired theJewish diaspora,which was swept up in overwhelming support for Israel. According toMichael Oren,the war enabled American Jews to "walk with their backs straight and flex their political muscle as never before. American Jewish organizations which had previously kept Israel at arms length suddenly proclaimed their Zionism."[211]Thousands of Jewish immigrants arrived from Western countries such as theUnited States,United Kingdom,Canada,FranceandSouth Africaafter the war. Many of them returned to their countries of origin after a few years; one survey found that 58% of American Jews who immigrated to Israel between 1961 and 1972 returned to the United States. Nevertheless, immigration to Israel of Jews from Western countries, which was previously only a trickle, was a significant force for the first time.[212][213]
Most notably, the war stirred Zionist passions among Jews in theSoviet Union,who had by that time been forcibly assimilated. Many Soviet Jews subsequently applied for exit visas and began protesting for their right to immigrate to Israel. Following diplomatic pressure from the West, the Soviet government began granting exit visas to Jews in growing numbers. From 1970 to 1988,some291000Soviet Jews were granted exit visas,of whom165000immigrated to Israel and126000immigrated to the United States.[214]The great rise in Jewish pride in the wake of Israel's victory also fueled the beginnings of thebaal teshuva movement,the return of secular Jews to religious Judaism.[215][216][217]The war gave impetus to a campaign in which theleaderof the hasidicLubavitchmovement directed his male followers around the world to weartefillin(small leather boxes) during morning prayers.[218][219]
Jews in Arab countries
In the Arab nations, populations of minority Jews faced persecution and expulsion following the Israeli victory, contributing to theJewish exodus from Arab lands,which had been ongoing since 1948. As a result, Jewish populations in Arab countries further diminished as many Jews emigrated to Israel and other Western countries. According to historian and ambassadorMichael Oren:[220]
Mobs attacked Jewish neighbourhoods in Egypt, Yemen, Lebanon, Tunisia, and Morocco, burning synagogues and assaulting residents. Apogrom in Tripoli, Libya,left 18 Jews dead and 25 injured; the survivors were herded into detention centres. Of Egypt's 4000 Jews, 800 were arrested, including the chief rabbis of bothCairoandAlexandria,and their property sequestered by the government. The ancient communities ofDamascusandBaghdadwere placed under house arrest, their leaders imprisoned and fined. A total of 7000 Jews were expelled, many with merely a satchel.
Antisemitism in Communist countries
Following the war, a series of antisemitic purges began in Communist countries.[221][222]Some 11,200 Jews from Poland immigrated to Israel during the1968 Polish political crisisand the following year.[223]
War of Attrition
Following the war, Egypt initiated clashes along the Suez Canal in what became known as theWar of Attrition.[224]
Palestinian terrorism
As a result of Israel's victory, the Palestinian leadership concluded that the Arab world was not able to defeat Israel in open warfare, which in turn led to an increase interroristattacks with an international reach.[225][226][227][228]While thePalestine Liberation Organization(PLO) was established in 1964, it became more active after the Six-Day War; its actions gave credibility to those who claimed that only terror could end Israel's existence.[229]Also after the war, thePopular Front for the Liberation of Palestineemerged, with its leaderGeorge Habashspeaking of turning the occupied territories into an "inferno whose fires consume the usurpers".[225]These events led to a series of hijackings, bombings, and kidnappings that culminated in themassacre of Israeli athletesduring the1972 Munich Olympics.[225]
Peace and diplomacy
Following the war, Israel made an offer for peace that included the return of most of the recently captured territories. According toChaim Herzog:
On June 19, 1967, the National Unity Government [of Israel] voted unanimously to return the Sinai to Egypt and the Golan Heights to Syria in return for peace agreements. The Golans would have to be demilitarized and special arrangement would be negotiated for the Straits of Tiran. The government also resolved to open negotiations with King Hussein of Jordan regarding the Eastern border.[230]
The 19 June Israeli cabinet decision did not include theGaza Stripand left open the possibility of Israel permanently acquiring parts of theWest Bank.On 25–27 June, Israel incorporatedEast Jerusalemtogether with areas of the West Bank to the north and south into Jerusalem's new municipal boundaries.
The Israeli decision was to be conveyed to the Arab nations by the United States. The U.S. was informed of the decision, but not that it was to transmit it. There is no evidence of receipt from Egypt or Syria, and some historians claim that they may never have received the offer.[231]
In September, theKhartoum Arab Summitresolved that there would be "no peace, no recognition and no negotiation with Israel". However, asAvraham Selanotes, the Khartoum conference effectively marked a shift in the perception of the conflict by the Arab states away from one centred on the question of Israel's legitimacy, toward one focusing on territories and boundaries. This was shown on 22 November when Egypt and Jordan acceptedUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 242.[232]Nasserforestalled any movement toward direct negotiations with Israel. In dozens of speeches and statements, Nasser posited the equation that any direct peace talks withIsraelwere tantamount to surrender.[233]
After the war, the entire Soviet bloc of Eastern Europe (with the exception of Romania) broke off diplomatic relations with Israel.[234]
The 1967 War laid the foundation for future discord in the region, as the Arab states resented Israel's victory and did not want to give up territory.
On 22 November 1967, theUnited Nations Security CounciladoptedResolution 242,the "land for peace"formula, which called for Israeli withdrawal" from territories occupied "in 1967 and" the termination of all claims or states of belligerency ". Resolution 242 recognized the right of" every state in the area to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries free from threats or acts of force. "Israel returned the Sinai to Egypt in 1978, after theCamp David Accords.In the summer of 2005, Israelwithdrew all military forcesand evacuated all civilians from the Gaza Strip. Its army frequently re-enters Gaza for military operations and still retains control of the seaports, airports and most of the border crossings.
Long term
Israel made peace with Egypt following theCamp David Accordsof 1978 and completed a staged withdrawal from the Sinai in 1982. However, the position of the otheroccupied territorieshas been a long-standing and bitter cause of conflict for decades between Israel and the Palestinians, and the Arab world in general. Jordan and Egypt eventually withdrew their claims to sovereignty over the West Bank and Gaza, respectively. Israel and Jordan signed apeace treaty in 1994.[235]
After the Israeli occupation of these territories, theGush Emunimmovement launched alarge settlement effortin these areas to secure a permanent foothold. There are now hundreds of thousands of Israeli settlers in the West Bank. They are a matter of controversy within Israel, both among the general population and within different political administrations, supporting them to varying degrees. Palestinians consider them a provocation. The Israeli settlements in Gaza were evacuated in August 2005 as a part ofIsrael's disengagement from Gaza.[236][237]
See also
- 1967 Palestinian exodus
- Hafez al-Assad,Syrian Defense Minister
- Catch 67,a 2017 Israeli philosophy book on the West Bank occupation that launched a public dialogue on the war's 50th anniversary
- Abba Eban,Israeli Foreign Minister
- Israeli MIAs
- Ras Sedr massacre
- Syrian towns and villages depopulated in the Arab–Israeli conflict
References
Explanatory notes
- ^Photograph:
It was twenty minutes after the capture of the Western Wall thatDavid Rubingershot his "signature" photograph of three Israeli paratroopers gazing in wonder up at the wall.[238]As part of the terms for his access to the front lines, Rubinger handed thenegativesto the Israeli government, who then distributed this image widely. Although he was displeased with the violation of his copyright, the widespread use of his photo made it famous,[239]and it is now considered a defining image of the conflict and one of the best-known in the history of Israel.[240] - ^Both Egypt and Israel announced that they had been attacked by the other country.
- Gideon Rafael[Israeli Ambassador to the UN] received a message from the Israeli foreign office: "Inform immediately the President of the Sec. Co. that Israel is now engaged in repelling Egyptian land and air forces." At 3:10 am, Rafael woke ambassadorHans Tabor,the Danish President of the Security Council for June, with the news that Egyptian forces had "moved against Israel".[241]
- [At Security Council meeting of 5 June], both Israel and Egypt claimed to be repelling an invasion by the other.[241]
- "Egyptian sources claimed that Israel had initiated hostilities [...] but Israeli officials – Eban and Evron – swore that Egypt had fired first".[242]
- "Gideon Rafael phoned Danish ambassador Hans Tabor, Security Council president for the month of June, and informed him that Israel was responding to a 'cowardly and treacherous' attack from Egypt...".[243]
- ^Hebrew:מִלְחֶמֶת שֵׁשֶׁת הַיָּמִים,Milḥemet Šešet HaYamim;Arabic:النكسة,an-Naksah,lit. 'The Setback'orحرب 1967,Ḥarb 1967,'War of 1967'
- ^Shlaim writes: "To understand Hussein's conduct during the June 1967 War it is essential to recall that he had handed over command of his army to Egypt under the terms of his pact with Nasser. On 1 June, General Riad arrived in Amman and assumed command of the Jordanian armed forces."[108]
- ^On the initial Jordanian attack, Shlaim writes: "The cable was from First Vice-President and Deputy Supreme Commander Field Marshal Abd al-Hakim Amer. Amer was a nincompoop who largely owed his rapid promotion to his friendship with Nasser... He was inexperienced in military affairs, impulsive, and prone to wishful thinking... Amer's cable to Riad was a pack of lies... On the basis of these alleged successes, Amer ordered Riad to open a new front against the enemy and launch offensive operations. By the time Hussein arrived at the headquarters, Riad had already given the orders for the artillery to move to the front lines and bombard Israeli airbases and other targets; an infantry brigade to occupy the Israeli enclave on Mount Scopus in Jerusalem; the two Egyptian commando battalions to infiltrate enemy territory from the West Bank at dusk; and the air force to be put on combat alert and commence airstrikes immediately. Although these decisions were made in his absence, Hussein made no attempt to cancel them or to delay the opening of fire until the information from Cairo could be checked. Jordan was thus committed to war by the decision of an Egyptian general who was acting on the orders of a serial blunderer in Cairo."[110]
- ^Israel clearly did not want the US Government to know too much about its dispositions for attacking Syria, initially planned for June 8, but postponed for 24 hours. It should be pointed out that the attack on theLibertyoccurred on June 8, whereas on June 9 at 3 AM, Syria announced its acceptance of the cease-fire. Despite this, at 7 AM, that is, four hours later, Israel'sMinister of Defense,Moshe Dayan,"gave the order to go into action against Syria.[145]
Citations
- ^Krauthammer, Charles (18 May 2007)."Prelude to the Six Days".The Washington Post.p. A23.ISSN0740-5421.Archivedfrom the original on 24 July 2019.Retrieved20 June2008.
- ^abcdOren (2002),p. 237.
- ^Arnold, Guy (2016).Wars in the Third World Since 1945.Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 299.ISBN9781474291019.
- ^"Milestones: 1961–1968".Office of the Historian.Archivedfrom the original on 23 October 2018.Retrieved30 November2018.
Between June 5 and June 10, Israel defeated Egypt, Jordan, and Syria and occupied the Sinai Peninsula, the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, East Jerusalem, and the Golan Heights
- ^abWeill, Sharon (2007). "The judicial arm of the occupation: the Israeli military courts in the occupied territories".International Review of the Red Cross.89(866): 401.doi:10.1017/s1816383107001142.ISSN1816-3831.S2CID55988443.
On 7 June 1967, the day the occupation started, Military Proclamation No. 2 was issued, endowing the area commander with full legislative, executive, and judicial authorities over the West Bank and declaring that the law in force prior to the occupation remained in force as long as it did not contradict new military orders.
- ^abStone (2004),p. 217.
- ^abcOren (2002),p.171.
- ^Tucker (2015),pp.540–541.
- ^abTucker (2004),p. 176.
- ^abcdePollack (2004),p. 59.
- ^abOren (2002),p. 176.
- ^abMorris (2001),p. 318.
- ^abEhteshami & Hinnebusch (1997),p. 76.
- ^abMutawi (2002),p. 42.
- ^abcdeSegev (1967),pp. 82, 175–191.
- ^abHerzog, Chaim (1 January 1984).The Arab-Israeli Wars: War and Peace in the Middle East from the War of Independence through Lebanon(Revised ed.). Vintage Books. p. 149.ISBN978-0394717463.
- ^abcdeGawrych (2000),p. 3.
- ^abIsrael Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2008).The Six-Day War (June 1967)Archived6 March 2009 at theWayback Machine.
- ^Zaloga, Steven (1981).Armour of the Middle East Wars 1948–78 (Vanguard).Osprey Publishing.
- ^abEl Gamasy 1993 p. 79
- ^abHerzog (1982),p. 165.
- ^abcdIsrael Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2004).Background on Israeli POWs and MIAsArchived22 February 2007 at theWayback Machine.
- ^abTucker (2010),p.1198.
- ^abWoolf, Alex (2012).Arab–Israeli War Since 1948.Heinemann-Raintree. p.27.ISBN978-1-4329-6004-9.
- ^abSachar (2013),p.[1][page needed]
- ^abDunstan (2013a),p.[2]
- ^Warfare since the Second World War,By Klaus Jürgen Gantzel, Torsten Schwinghammer, p. 253
- ^Guy Arnold(1991)Wars in the Third World since 1945.[page needed][full citation needed]
- ^abcde"UNEF I withdrawal (16 May - 17 June 1967) - SecGen report, addenda, corrigendum".Question of Palestine.Archivedfrom the original on 11 July 2020.Retrieved19 May2022.
- ^Oren (2002),p. 187: Over a thousand civilians were wounded, 150 seriously, 20 of them died.
- ^Gerhard, William D.; Millington, Henry W. (1981). "Attack on a SIGINT Collector, the USS Liberty" (PDF). NSA History Report, U.S. Cryptologic History series. National Security Agency. partially declassified 1999, 2003.
- ^Both USA and Israel officially attributed theUSSLibertyincidentas being due to mistaken identification.
- ^abGinor, Isabella and Remez, Gideon:The Soviet-Israeli War, 1967–1973: The USSR's Military Intervention in the Egyptian-Israeli Conflict,p. 23
- ^Jeremy Bowen(2003).Six Days: How the 1967 War Shaped the Middle East.Simon and Schuster,2012.ISBN978-1-4711-1475-5.
UNRWA put the figure at413000
- ^Major General Indar Jit Rikhye (28 October 2013).The Sinai Blunder: Withdrawal of the United Nations Emergency Force Leading...Taylor & Francis.pp. 8–.ISBN978-1-136-27985-0.
- ^abQuigley (2013),p.32.
- ^Mendoza, Terry; Hart, Rona; Herlitz, Lewis; Stone, John; Oboler, Andre (2007)."Six Day War Comprehensive Timeline".sixdaywar.Archived fromthe originalon 18 May 2007.Retrieved22 January2021.2nd-5th author details from Six Day War, 40th anniversary, June 1, 2007, at oboler /six-day-war-40th-anniversary/
{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: postscript (link) - ^ab"BBC Panorama".BBC News.6 February 2009.Archivedfrom the original on 12 May 2011.Retrieved1 February2012.
- ^Mutawi (2002),p. 183: "It is clear that King Hussein joined forces with Egypt in the knowledge that there was no possibility of overrunning Israel. Instead, he sought to preserve the status quo. He believed that he could not stand aside at a time when Arab co-operation and solidarity were vital and he was convinced that any Arab confrontation with Israel would be greatly enhanced if the Arabs fought as a unified body. The plan of action devised at his meeting with Nasser in Cairo on 30 May was established on this basis. It was envisaged that Jordan would not take an offensive role but would tie down a proportion of Israel's forces and so prevent it from using its full weight against Egypt and Syria. By forcing Israel to fight a war on three fronts simultaneously King Hussein believed that the Arabs stood a chance of preventing it from making any territorial gains while allowing the Arabs a chance of gaining a political victory, which may, eventually, lead to peace. King Hussein was also convinced that even if Jordan did not participate in the war Israel would take the opportunity to seize the West Bank once it had dealt with Syria and Egypt. He decided that for this reason, the wisest course of action was to bring Jordan into the total Arab effort. This would provide his army with two elements that were essential for its efficient operation – additional troops and air cover. When King Hussein met Nasser in Cairo it was agreed that these requirements would be met."
- ^abDunstan (2013),p.65.
- ^abBowker (2003),p. 81.
- ^abMcDowall (1991),p. 84:116000had fled from the Golan further into Syria,...
- ^"Suez Canal".30 March 2021.Archivedfrom the original on 8 September 2023.Retrieved27 August2022.
- ^Ami Gluska (12 February 2007).The Israeli Military and the Origins of the 1967 War: Government, Armed Forces and Defence Policy 1963–67.Routledge. p. 152.ISBN978-1-134-16377-9.Archivedfrom the original on 17 May 2024.Retrieved20 October2020.
On the evening of 22 May, President Gamal Abdul Nasser, accompanied by... Egyptian air force base at Bir Gafgafa in Sinai and addressed the pilots and officers.... 'The Jews are threatening war – we say to them ahlan wa-sahlan (welcome)!
- ^Rauschning, Wiesbrock & Lailach (1997),p. 30.
- ^Sachar (2007),pp. 504, 507–508.
- ^"First United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF I) – Background (Full text)".Archivedfrom the original on 8 August 2016.Retrieved29 June2017.
- ^Gawrych (2000),p. 5. "Some sources date the agreement to 4 November, others to 7 November. Most sources simply say November."
- ^Schiff, Zeev (1974)History of the Israeli Army,Straight Arrow Books. p. 145
- ^Churchill & Churchill (1967),p. 21.
- ^Pollack (2004),p. 290.
- ^Segev (2007),pp. 149–152.
- ^Hart (1989),p. 226.
- ^Oren (2002),p. 312.
- ^Burrowes & Muzzio (1972),pp. 224–225.
- ^Shemesh, Moshe (2007).Arab Politics, Palestinian Nationalism and the Six Day War: The Crystallization of Arab Strategy and Nasir's Descent to War, 1957–1967.Sussex Academic Press. p. 118.ISBN978-1-84519-188-7.Archivedfrom the original on 1 January 2016.Retrieved27 October2015.
The Jordanian leadership's appraisal of the repercussions of the Samu' raid was a major factor in King Husayn's decision to join Nasir's war chariot by signing a joint defense pact with Egypt on May 30, 1967. This was the determining factor for Jordan's participation in the war that would soon break out.... Convinced after the Samu' raid that Israel's strategic goal was the West Bank, Husayn allied himself to Nasir out of a genuine fear that, in a comprehensive war, Israel would invade the West Bank whether or not Jordan was an active participant.
- ^Tessler (1994),p.378:"Towards the War of June 1967: Growing tensions in the region were clearly visible long before Israel's November attack on Samu and two other West Bank towns. An escalating spiral of raid and retaliation had already been set in motion..."
- ^Herzog (1982),p. 148.
- ^Shlaim (2007),p. 238.
- ^Mutawi (2002),p. 93: "Although Eshkol denounced the Egyptians, his response to this development was a model of moderation. His speech on 21 May demanded that Nasser withdraw his forces from Sinai but made no mention of the removal of UNEF from the Straits nor of what Israel would do if they were closed to Israeli shipping. The next day Nasser announced to an astonished world that henceforth the Straits were, indeed, closed to all Israeli ships"
- ^Cohen (1988),p. 12.
- ^"Statement to the General Assembly by Foreign Minister Meir, 1 March 1957".Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs – The State of Israel.Archivedfrom the original on 13 October 2007.Retrieved13 October2008.
Interference, by armed force, with ships of Israeli flag exercising free and innocent passage in the Gulf of Aqaba and through the Straits of Tiran will be regarded by Israel as an attack entitling it to exercise its inherent right of self-defence under Article 51 of the Charter and to take all such measures as are necessary to ensure the free and innocent passage of its ships in the Gulf and in the Straits.
- ^Morris (1999),p. 306.
- ^Gat (2003),p.202.
- ^Colonomos, Ariel (2013).The Gamble of War: Is it Possible to Justify Preventive War?.Palgrave Macmillan. p. 25.ISBN978-1-137-01894-6.Archivedfrom the original on 17 May 2024.Retrieved20 October2020.
- ^"LBJ Pledges U.S. to Peace EffortArchived17 May 2017 at theWayback Machine",Eugene Register-Guard(19 June 1967). See also Johnson, Lyndon."Address at the State Department's Foreign Policy Conference for Educators"Archived27 December 2016 at theWayback Machine(19 June 1967).
- ^Churchill & Churchill (1967),pp. 52 & 77.
- ^Reston, James (24 May 1967)."Washington: Nasser's Reckless Maneuvers; Cairo and Moscow The U.S. Commitment The Staggering Economy Moscow's Role".The New York Times.p. 46.Archivedfrom the original on 6 July 2018.Retrieved22 July2018.
- ^Quigley (2013),p.60.
- ^"Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964–1968, Volume XIX, Arab-Israeli Crisis and War, 1967 – Office of the Historian".history.state.gov.Archivedfrom the original on 17 March 2020.Retrieved8 June2019.
- ^Pollack (2004),p. 294.
- ^Shlaim & Louis (2012),pp. 86–87: "Syria was severely unprepared for war. Despite the bombastic and jingoistic rhetoric, theBaathistregime viewed its actions against Israel as low-level warfare that was not meant to lead to an all-out war. The months and years prior to the 1967 Arab-Israeli war were filled with military purges associated with actual and attempted coups that decimated and further fractured the military and party, resulting in an inexperienced officer corps as well as a deep distrust between the rank and file and officers in the army. In addition, there were uprisings by discontented elements of the Syrian population, less than satisfactory encounters with Israeli forces, and lukewarm Soviet support... One would be hard-pressed to find a military less prepared for war with a clearly superior foe. "
- ^Pollack (2004),pp. 293–94.
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- ^Oren (2002),p. 172.
- ^Bowen (2003),p. 99 (author interview with Moredechai Hod, 7 May 2002).
- ^abOren (2002e),Section "The War: Day One, June 5".
- ^Bowen (2003),pp. 114–115 (author interview with General Salahadeen Hadidi who presided over the firstcourt-martialof the heads of the air force and the air defence system after the war).
- ^Pollack (2005),p. 474.
- ^Oren (2002),p. 176, says 282 out of 420.Morris (2001),p. 318, says 304 out of 419.Tessler (1994),p. 396, says over 350 planes were destroyed.
- ^Long (1984),p. 19, Table 1.
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- ^Oren (2002),p. 175.
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- ^abcdOren (2002),p. 180.
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- ^Oren (2002),p. 182.
- ^Dunstan (2012),p. 125.[verification needed]
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- ^abOren (2002),p. 201.
- ^abHammel (1992),p. 239.
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- ^abOren (2002),p. 248.
- ^Shlaim & Louis (2012),p. 112.
- ^Oren (2002),pp. 184–185.
- ^Shlaim & Louis (2012),p. 113.
- ^"On June 5, Israel sent a message to Hussein urging him not to open fire. Despite shelling into West Jerusalem, Netanya, and the outskirts of Tel Aviv, Israel did nothing."The Six-Day War and Its Enduring LegacyArchived16 February 2006 at theWayback Machine.Summary of remarks by Michael Oren at theWashington Institute for Near East Policy,29 May 2002.
- ^Donald Neff (1984).Warriors for Jerusalem: the six days that changed the Middle East.Linden Press/Simon & Schuster. p.205.ISBN978-0-671-45485-2.Retrieved27 October2015.
Odd Bull: "[the message] was a threat, pure and simple and it is not the normal practice of the U.N. to pass on threats from one government to another." However, as "…this message seemed so important… we quickly sent it…and King Hussein received the message before 10:30 the same morning."
- ^abShlaim (2000),pp. 243–244: "In May–June 1967Eshkol's government did everything in its power to confine the confrontation to the Egyptian front. Eshkol and his colleagues took into account the possibility of some fighting on the Syrian front. But they wanted to avoid having a clash with Jordan and the inevitable complications of having to deal with the predominantly Palestinian population of the West Bank. The fighting on the eastern front was initiated by Jordan, not by Israel. King Hussein got carried along by a powerful current of Arab nationalism. On 30 May he flew to Cairo and signed a defense pact with Nasser. On 5 June, Jordan started shelling the Israeli side in Jerusalem. This could have been interpreted either as a salvo to uphold Jordanian honour or as a declaration of war. Eshkol decided to give King Hussein the benefit of the doubt. Through GeneralOdd Bull,the Norwegian commander of UNTSO, he sent the following message the morning of 5 June: "We shall not initiate any action whatsoever against Jordan. However, should Jordan open hostilities, we shall react with all our might, and the king will have to bear the full responsibility of the consequences." King Hussein told General Bull that it was too late; the die was cast. "
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- ^abOren (2002),pp. 185–187.
- ^abcShlaim (2007),p. 244.
- ^abcOren (2002),pp. 187–188.
- ^"United Nations June 5, 1967".United Nations. Archived fromthe originalon 26 December 2011.Retrieved1 February2012.
- ^Oren (2002),p. 187.
- ^abShlaim (2007),p. 245.
- ^Oren (2002),pp. 188–189.
- ^Eric Hammel (1992)."The Jordanians Attack West Jerusalem".Pacifica Military History.Archived fromthe originalon 8 March 2012.Retrieved1 February2012.
- ^abOren (2002),pp. 191–192.
- ^abcdOren (2002),p. 222.
- ^abc"The Jordanian Front".
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- ^abcOren (2002),p. 203.
- ^abOren (2002),pp. 222–223.
- ^Oren (2002),p. 224.
- ^abMutawi (2002),p. 138.
- ^Sharon Weill (February 2014),The Role of National Courts in Applying International Humanitarian Law,OUP Oxford, p. 19,ISBN978-0-19-968542-4,archivedfrom the original on 17 May 2024,retrieved30 November2018
- ^Mutawi (2002),pp. 138–139.
- ^Mutawi (2002),p. 139.
- ^Oren (2002),p. 219.
- ^Goren, Shlomo (2016).With Might and Strength: An Autobiography.Toby Press LLC. p. 281.ISBN978-1-59264-409-4.
- ^Auerbach, Jerold (2009).Hebron Jews: Memory and Conflict in the Land of Israel.Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 82.ISBN978-0-7425-6615-6.
- ^abMutawi (2002),p. 140: "Shortly after the order for the withdrawal had been issued [10.00 a.m. on 6 June], the Jordanians were informed that the UN Security Council was meeting to consider a resolution for an unconditional ceasefire. On learning of this the Jordanian command decided that the order for withdrawal had been premature, since if a ceasefire went into effect that day they would still be in possession of the West Bank. Consequently, the order was countermanded and those forces which had already withdrawn were asked to return to their original positions... The Security Council ceasefire resolution was passed unanimously at 11.00 p.m. on 6 June. However, Jordan's hope that this would enable it to hold the West Bank was destroyed when Israel continued its offensive. On learning of this Riad once again ordered a complete withdrawal from the West Bank as he feared that failure to do so would result in the annihilation of the remains of the Jordanian Army. By nightfall on 7 June most elements of the army had withdrawn to the East Bank and by mid-day on 8 June Jordan was once again the Transjordan of King Abdullah, while Israel completed total occupation of historical Palestine."
- ^Shlaim (2007),p. 246.
- ^abShlaim & Louis (2012),pp. 92–93: "Except for some sporadic Syrian shelling of Israeli settlements along the border, Syria stayed pretty much out of the war for the first four days... the Syrians were confused by what they slowly learned was the scale of the destruction on the Egyptian front. They were astounded. They did not understand what was going on, nor did they have the military experience and capability, especially in the officer corps, to react to the new situation. With no air support, how could they move forward against Israel? They reasoned that if they sat tight, they could emerge from this with little damage."
- ^Mutawi (2002),p. 182: "When it came to war, Syria stood aside despite its defence pact with Egypt, while Israel overran Gaza, Sinai and the West Bank. Throughout the critical days between 5 and 8 June 1967, the Egyptian political and military leadership begged Syria to fulfil its commitments and to support Jordan's efforts, but it refused to respond even though Jordan had entered the war in the belief that it would be supported by Syria and Egypt."
- ^abcSachar (1976),p. 642.
- ^Oren (2002e),Section "Damascus and Jerusalem".
- ^abOren (2002e),Section "The War: Day Five, June 9".
- ^Lenczowski (1990),pp. 105–115, citing Moshe Dayan,Story of My Life,andNadav Safran,From War to War: The Arab–Israeli Confrontation, 1948–1967,p. 375
- ^Morris (2001),p. 325.
- ^Hammel (1992),p. 387.
- ^Oren (2002),p. 280.
- ^abcOren (2002),pp. 281–282.
- ^abcOren (2002),p. 283.
- ^Oren (2002),p. 295.
- ^Video: Cease-Fire. Uneasy Truce In Mid-East, 1967/06/13 (1967).Universal Newsreel.1960.Archivedfrom the original on 8 June 2013.Retrieved22 February2012.
- ^Oren (2002e),Section "Playing for the Brink".
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- ^Eshkol (1967),pp. 39, 49
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- ^Sachar (1976),p. 660.
- ^abcOren (2002e),Section "Aftershocks".
- ^Podeh & Winckler (2004),pp. 110–111: "The most outstanding exponent of the Nasserist narrative was Muhammad Hasanayn Haykal, who also embodied the revolutionary heritage personally as Nasser's closest aid and the editor in chief of the state-sponsored dailies Al-Akhbar and Al-Ahram.... Haykal acknowledged that Nasser had erred in various fields, noting that he had admitted, for example, his responsibility for the military defeat in the June 1967 War."
- ^Podeh & Winckler (2004),pp. 105–106: "the prominent historian and commentator Abd al-Azim Ramadan, In a series of articles published in AlWafd, subsequently compiled in a hook published in 2000, Ramadan criticized the Nasser cult,.... The events leading up to the nationalization of the Suez Canal Company, as other events during Nasser's rule, Ramadan wrote, showed Nasser to be far from a rational, responsible leader.... His decision to nationalize the Suez Canal was his alone, made without political or military consultation.... The source of all this evil. Ramadan noted, was Nasser's inclination to solitary decision making... the revolutionary regime led by the same individual—Nasser—repeated its mistakes when it decided to expel the international peacekeeping force from the Sinai Peninsula and close the Straits of Tiran in 1967. Both decisions led to a state of war with Israel, despite the lack of military preparedness."
- ^Churchill & Churchill (1967),p. 189.
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(p. 147) The sequence of events that led to the Israeli pre-emptive strike did indeed create a situation where an armed attack seemed unavoidable. (p. 148 ) Many commentators treat it (the six-day war) as the locus classicus of anticipatory action in self defence
- ^Quigley (2013),pp.135–."Terence Taylor wrote in 2004...that 'many scholars' considered Israel to have 'conducted the (1967) action in anticipatory of self-defense'."
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once hostilities were under way, the United states imposed an embargo on new arms agreements to all countries of the Middle East, including Israel. The embargo remained in force through the end of the year, despite urgent Israeli requests to lift it.
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The 1967 war marked a sharp rise in Palestinians' self-consciousness, convincing many that if their homeland was to be liberated, then it was they who must do it. Outgunned and outmanned by the Israeli military, their fighters resorted to guerilla tactics from staging grounds in Jordan and Lebanon. Some, like George Habash of the PFLP [...] spoke of turning the Occupied Territories into an "inferno whose fires consume the usurpers" (Hirst, 1984, 282). While this did not happen, by 1969 the activities of Habash and others were in the international spotlight as a consequence of cross-border raids and airplane hijackings. No incident was more spectacular than the hostage taking by the Black September group that led to the deaths of eleven Israeli athletes and five Palestinian commandos during the 1972 Olympic Games in Munich.
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Since 1967, when desperate Palestinian groups took to international terrorism in the wake of the Arab defeat in the Six-Day War, terrorism has become the characteristic weapon of the weak pretending to be strong.
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Yet until the combined forces of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria were defeated for the second time in less than two decades, the Palestinians deferred to their Arab hosts to spearhead the abortive Palestinian national cause. Only after the 1967 War did the Palestinian leadership pursue a policy of self-reliance that depended on terrorism as its primary political strategy.
- ^Jenkins, B. M. (1978). International terrorism: trends and potentialities.Journal of International Affairs,115-123. "Some perceive today's terrorism as the outgrowth of unique political circumstances prevailing in the late 1960s: the Israeli defeat of the Arabs in 1967, which caused Palestinians to abandon their dependence on Arab military power and turn to terrorism."
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The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), founded in 1967, became active in 1967 [...] The PLO originated after the extraordinary collapse of Arab armies in the six days of the 1967 Middle East war; its existence and persistence gave credibility to supporters who argued that only terror could remove Israel
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In dozens of speeches and statements, Nasser posited the equation that any direct peace talks with Israel were tantamount to surrender. His efforts to forestall any movement toward direct negotiations...
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- Prior, Michael (1999).Zionism and the State of Israel: A Moral Inquiry.London: Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-20462-0.
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- Rauschning, Dietrich; Wiesbrock, Katja; Lailach, Martin, eds. (1997).Key Resolutions of the United Nations General Assembly 1946–1996.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-59704-3.Archivedfrom the original on 17 May 2024.Retrieved3 January2022.
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- Sachar, Howard M. (2013).A History of Israel: From the Rise of Zionism to Our Time.Random House.ISBN978-0-8041-5049-1.[verification needed]
- Segev, Tom (1967).A Red Sheet: the Six Day War.[full citation needed]
- Segev, Tom (2007).1967: Israel, the War, and the Year that Transformed the Middle East.Metropolitan Books.ISBN978-0-8050-7057-6.
- Sela, Avraham (1997).The Decline of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: Middle East Politics and the Quest for Regional Order.SUNY Press.ISBN978-0-7914-3537-3.
- Shlaim, Avi (2000).The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World.W. W. Norton & Company.ISBN978-0-393-32112-8.ISBN978-0-393-04816-2
- Shlaim, Avi (2007).Lion of Jordan: The Life of King Hussein in War and Peace.Vintage Books.ISBN978-1-4000-7828-8.
- Shlaim, Avi; Louis, William Roger (2012).The 1967 Arab–Israeli War: Origins and Consequences.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-107-00236-4.Archivedfrom the original on 17 May 2024.Retrieved27 October2015.
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Further reading
- al-Qusi, Abdallah Ahmad Hamid. (1999).Al-Wisam fi at-Ta'rikh.Cairo: Al-Mu'asasa al-'Arabiya al-Haditha. No ISBN available.
- Aloni, Shlomo (2001).Arab–Israeli Air Wars 1947–1982.Osprey Aviation.ISBN978-1-84176-294-4
- Alteras, Isaac. (1993).Eisenhower and Israel: U.S.–Israeli Relations, 1953–1960,University Press of Florida.ISBN978-0-8130-1205-6.
- Bachmutsky, Roi. "Otherwise occupied: The legal status of the Gaza strip 50 years after the six-day war."Virginia Journal of International Law57 (2017): 413+onlineArchived17 May 2024 at theWayback Machine.
- Bar-On, Mordechai, ed. (2006).Never-Ending Conflict: Israeli Military History.Bloomsbury Academic.ISBN978-0-275-98158-7.
- Barzilai, Gad (1996).Wars, Internal Conflicts, and Political Order: A Jewish Democracy in the Middle East.New York University Press.ISBN978-0-7914-2944-0
- Ben-Gurion, David. (1999). Ben-Gurion diary: May–June 1967.Israel Studies4(2), 199–220.
- Black, Ian (1992).Israel's Secret Wars: A History of Israel's Intelligence Services.Grove Press.ISBN978-0-8021-3286-4
- Bober, Arie (ed.) (1972).The other Israel.Doubleday Anchor.ISBN978-0-385-01467-0.
- Boczek, Boleslaw Adam (2005).International Law: A Dictionary.Scarecrow Press.ISBN978-0-8108-5078-1
- Borowiec, Andrew. (1998).Modern Tunisia: A Democratic Apprenticeship.Greenwood Publishing Group.ISBN978-0-275-96136-7.
- Brecher, Michael. (1996). Eban and Israeli foreign policy: Diplomacy, war and disengagement. InA Restless Mind: Essays in Honor of Amos Perlmutter,Benjamin Frankel (ed.), pp. 104–117. Routledge.ISBN978-0-7146-4607-7
- Bregman, Ahron (2000).Israel's Wars, 1947–1993.Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-21468-1.
- Bregman, Ahron (2002).Israel's Wars: A History Since 1947.London: Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-28716-6
- Christie, Hazel (1999).Law of the Sea.Manchester:Manchester University Press.ISBN978-0-7190-4382-6
- Colaresi, Michael P. (2005).Scare Tactics: The politics of international rivalry.Syracuse University Press.ISBN978-0-8156-3066-1
- Cristol, A Jay (2002).Liberty Incident: The 1967 Israeli Attack on the U.S. Navy Spy Ship.Brassey's.ISBN978-1-57488-536-1
- Eban, Abba(1977).Abba Eban: An Autobiography.Random House.ISBN978-0-394-49302-2
- El-Gamasy, Mohamed Abdel Ghani.(1993).The October War.The American University in Cairo Press.ISBN978-977-424-316-5.
- Feron, James (13 May 1967)."Israelis Ponder Blow at Syrians; Some Leaders Decide That Force is the Only Way to Curtail Terrorism Some Israeli Leaders See Need for Force to Curb Syrians".The New York Times.Archivedfrom the original on 1 March 2012.Retrieved25 November2011.
- Finkelstein, Norman (2003).Image and Reality of the Israel–Palestine Conflict.Verso.ISBN978-1-85984-442-7.Archivedfrom the original on 17 May 2024.Retrieved20 October2020.
- Finkelstein, Norman(June 2017).Analysis of the war and its aftermath, on the 50th anniversary of the June 1967 warArchived9 June 2017 at theWayback Machine(3 parts, each about 30 min)
- Gelpi, Christopher (2002).Power of Legitimacy: Assessing the Role of Norms in Crisis Bargaining.Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-09248-5
- Gerner, Deborah J. (1994).One Land, Two Peoples.Westview Press.ISBN978-0-8133-2180-6,p. 112
- Gerteiny, Alfred G. & Ziegler, Jean (2007).The Terrorist Conjunction: The United States, the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict, and Al-Qā'ida.Greenwood Publishing Group.ISBN978-0-275-99643-7,p. 142
- Gilbert, Martin. (2008).Israel – A History.McNally & Loftin Publishers.ISBN978-0-688-12363-5.Chapter available online:Chapter 21: Nasser's ChallengeArchived17 May 2009 at theWayback Machine.
- Goldstein, Erik (1992).Wars and Peace Treaties, 1816–1991.Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-07822-1
- Haddad, Yvonne. (1992). Islamists and the "Problem of Israel": The 1967 Awakening.Middle East Journal,Vol. 46, No. 2, pp. 266–285.
- Hajjar, Sami G.The Israel-Syria Track,Middle East Policy,Volume VI, February 1999, Number 3. Retrieved 30 September 2006.
- Handel, Michael I. (1973).Israel's political-military doctrine.Center for International Affairs, Harvard University.ISBN978-0-87674-025-5
- Herbert, Nicholas (17 May 1967).Egyptian Forces On Full Alert: Ready to fight for Syria.The Times, p. 1; Issue 56943; col E.
- Higham, Robin. (2003).100 Years of Air Power and Aviation.TAMU Press.ISBN978-1-58544-241-6.
- Hinnebusch, Raymond A. (2003).The international politics of the Middle East.Manchester University Press.ISBN978-0-7190-5346-7
- Hammel, Eric (October 2002). "Sinai air strike: June 5, 1967".Military Heritage.4(2): 68–73.
- Hopwood, Derek(1991).Egypt: Politics and Society.London: Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-09432-0
- Hussein of Jordan (1969).My "War" with Israel.London: Peter Owen.ISBN978-0-7206-0310-1
- James, Laura (2005).The Nassar And His Enemies: Foreign Policy Decision Making In Egypt On The Eve Of The Six Day War.The Middle East Review of International Affairs.Volume 9, No. 2, Article 2.
- Jia, Bing Bing. (1998).The Regime of Straits in International LawArchived22 December 2022 at theWayback Machine(Oxford Monographs in International Law). Oxford University Press, USA.ISBN978-0-19-826556-6.
- Katz, Samuel M. (1991)Israel's Air Force;The Power Series. Motorbooks International Publishers & Wholesalers, Osceola, WI.
- Koboril, Iwao and Glantz, Michael H. (1998).Central Eurasian Water Crisis.United Nations University Press.ISBN978-92-808-0925-1
- Laron, Guy (21 February 2017).The Six Day War: The Breaking of the Middle East.Yale University Press.ISBN978-0-300-22632-4.Archivedfrom the original on 17 May 2024.Retrieved1 December2018.
- Lavoy, Peter R.; Sagan, Scott Douglas & Wirtz, James J. (Eds.) (2000).Planning the Unthinkable: How New Powers Will Use Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Weapons.Cornell University Press.ISBN978-0-8014-8704-0.
- Leibler, Isi (1972).The Case For Israel.Australia: The Executive Council of Australian Jewry.ISBN978-0-9598984-0-8.
- Little, Douglas. "Nasser Delenda Est: Lyndon Johnson, The Arabs, and the 1967 Six-Day War," in H.W. Brands, ed.The foreign policies of Lyndon Johnson: beyond Vietnam(1999) pp 145–167.online
- Lyndon Baines Johnson Library. (1994).Transcript, Robert S. McNamara Oral History,Special Interview I, 26 March 1993, by Robert Dallek, Internet Copy, LBJ Library. Retrieved 20 July 2010.
- Makiya, Kanan (1998).Republic of Fear: The Politics of Modern Iraq.University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-21439-2
- Maoz, Zeev (2006).Defending the Holy Land: A Critical Analysis of Israel's Security & Foreign Policy.The University of Michigan Press.ISBN978-0-472-03341-6
- Miller, Benjamin. (2007).States, Nations, and the Great Powers: The Sources of Regional War and Peace.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-69161-1
- Morris, Benny(1997).Israel's Border Wars, 1949–1956.Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-829262-3
- Murakami, Masahiro. (1995).Managing Water for Peace in the Middle East: Alternative StrategiesArchived29 June 2010 at theWayback Machine.United Nations University Press.ISBN978-92-808-0858-2.
- Nordeen, Lon & Nicole, David. (1996).Phoenix over the Nile: A history of Egyptian Air Power 1932–1994.Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution.ISBN978-1-56098-626-3.
- Oren, Michael. (2005).The Revelations of 1967: New Research on the Six Day War and Its Lessons for the Contemporary Middle EastArchived16 April 2016 at theWayback Machine,Israel Studies,volume 10, number 2. (Subscription required).
- Oren, Michael. (2006). "The Six-Day War", in Bar-On, Mordechai (ed.),Never-Ending Conflict: Israeli Military History.Greenwood Publishing Group.ISBN978-0-275-98158-7.
- Parker, Richard B. (1996).The Six-day War: A Retrospective.University Press of Florida.ISBN978-0-8130-1383-1.
- Parker, Richard B. (August 1997)."USAF in the Sinai in the 1967 War: Fact or Fiction"(PDF).Journal of Palestine Studies.XXVII(1): 67–75.doi:10.1525/jps.1997.27.1.00p0164l.Archived(PDF)from the original on 10 October 2017.Retrieved27 February2010.
- Pimlott, John. (1983). Middle East Conflicts: From 1945 to the Present. Orbis.ISBN978-0-85613-547-7.
- Pressfield, Steven(2014).The Lion's Gate: On the Front Lines of the Six Day War.Sentinel HC, 2014.ISBN978-1-59523-091-1
- Quandt, William B. (2005).Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab–Israeli Conflict Since 1967.Brookings Institution Press and the University of California Press; 3 edition.ISBN978-0-520-24631-7
- Quigley, John B. (2005).Case for Palestine: An International Law Perspective.Duke University Press.ISBN978-0-8223-3539-9
- Quigley, John B. (1990).Palestine and Israel: A Challenge to Justice.Duke University Press.ISBN978-0-8223-1023-5
- Rabil, Robert G. (2003).Embattled Neighbors: Syria, Israel, and Lebanon.Lynne Rienner Publishers.ISBN978-1-58826-149-6
- Rabin, Yitzhak (1996).The Rabin Memoirs.University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-20766-0.
- Rezun, Miron (1990). "Iran and Afghanistan." In A. Kapur (Ed.).Diplomatic Ideas and Practices of Asian States(pp. 9–25). Brill Academic Publishers.ISBN978-90-04-09289-1
- Rikhye, Indar Jit (1980).The Sinai Blunder.London: Routledge.ISBN978-0-7146-3136-3
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- Rubenberg, Cheryl A.(1989).Israel and the American National Interest.University of Illinois Press.ISBN978-0-252-06074-8
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- Shemesh, Moshe (2008).Arab Politics, Palestinian Nationalism and the Six Day War.Sussex Academic Press.ISBN978-1-84519-188-7.
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- Smith, Hedrick (15 June 1967)."As the Shock Wears Off; Arab World, Appraising Its Defeat, Is Split as It Gropes for Strategy".The New York Times.p. 16.Archivedfrom the original on 14 October 2007.Retrieved28 June2006.
- Stein, Janice Gross. (1991). The Arab-Israeli War of 1967: Inadvertent War Through Miscalculated Escalation, inAvoiding War: Problems of Crisis Management,Alexander L. George, ed. Boulder: Westview Press.
- Stephens, Robert H. (1971).Nasser: A Political Biography.London: Allen Lane/The Penguin Press.ISBN978-0-7139-0181-8
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External links
- The Photograph: A Search for June 1967.Retrieved 17 July 2010.
- The three soldiers – background to that photograph
- Six Day War Personal recollections & Timeline
- Video Clip: Sandhurst military historian analysing how King Hussein became involved in the Six Day War.onYouTube
- Video Clip: Analysis of Israel's Sinai Campaign in 1967 by Sandhurst military historian.onYouTube
- Video Clip: Military analysis of the attack on Jerusalem and the Jordanian defence.onYouTube
- "Six-Day War"in theEncyclopaedia of the Orient
- All State Department documents related to the crisis
- Letters from David Ben-Gurion on the Six-Day WarArchived24 August 2013 at theWayback MachineShapell Manuscript Foundation
- UN Resolution 242.Retrieved 17 July 2010.
- The status of Jerusalem, United Nations, New York, 1997 (Prepared for, and under the guidance of, the Committee on the Exercise of the Inalienable Rights of the Palestinian People)
- Status of Jerusalem: Legal Aspects.Retrieved 22 July 2014.
- Legal Aspects: The Six Day War – June 1967 and Its Aftermath – Professor Gerald Adler
- General Uzi NarkissArchived10 October 2017 at theWayback Machine– A historic radio interview with General Uzi Narkiss taken on 7 June – one day after the Six-Day War, describing the battle for Jerusalem
- Liberation of the Temple Mount and Western Wall by Israel Defense Forces– Historic Live Broadcast on Voice of Israel Radio, 7 June 1967
- "How the USSR Planned to Destroy Israel in 1967"by Isabella Ginor. Published by the journalMiddle East Review of International Affairs(MERIA), Volume 7, Number 3 (September 2003)
- Position of Arab forces May 1967Archived27 May 2015 at theWayback Machine.Retrieved 22 July 2014.
- Six-Day War
- 1967 in Egypt
- 1967 in Israel
- 1967 in Jordan
- 1967 in Syria
- 1967 in the Israeli Military Governorate
- Arab–Israeli conflict
- Cold War conflicts
- Conflicts in 1967
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- June 1967 events in Africa