Ska
Ska | |
---|---|
Stylistic origins | |
Cultural origins | Late 1950s, Jamaica |
Derivative forms | |
Fusion genres | |
| |
Regional scenes | |
Other topics | |
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Madness_at_Bimbos.jpg/220px-Madness_at_Bimbos.jpg)
Ska(/skɑː/;Jamaican Creole:skia,[skjæ]) is amusic genrethat originated inJamaicain the late 1950s and was the precursor torocksteadyandreggae.[1]It combined elements ofCaribbeanmentoandcalypsowithAmericanjazzandrhythm and blues.Ska is characterized by awalking bassline accented with rhythms on theoff beat.It was developed in Jamaica in the 1960s whenStranger Cole,Prince Buster,Clement "Coxsone" Dodd,andDuke Reidformedsound systemsto play American rhythm and blues and then began recording their own songs.[2][dead link]In the early 1960s, ska was the dominant music genre of Jamaica and was popular withBritish modsand with manyskinheads.[3][4][5][6]
Music historians typically divide the history of ska into three periods: the original Jamaican scene of the 1960s; the2 Toneska revival of the late 1970s in Britain, which fused Jamaican ska rhythms and melodies with the faster tempos and harder edge ofpunk rockformingska-punk;andthird wave ska,which involved bands from a wide range of countries around the world, in the late 1980s and 1990s.[7]
Etymology
[edit]There are multiple theories about the origins of the wordska.Ernest Ranglinclaimed that the term was coined by musicians to refer to the "skat! skat! skat!" scratching guitar strum.[8]Another explanation is that at a recording session in 1959 produced byCoxsone Dodd,double bassistCluett Johnsoninstructed guitarist Ranglin to "play like ska, ska, ska", although Ranglin has denied this, stating "Clue couldn't tell me what to play!"[9]A further theory is that it derives from Johnson's wordskavoovie,with which he was known to greet his friends.[10]Jackie Mittooinsisted that the musicians called the rhythmStaya Staya,and that it wasByron Leewho introduced the term "ska".[11]Derrick Morgansaid: "Guitar and piano making a ska sound, like 'ska, ska".[12]
History
[edit]Jamaican ska
[edit]![]() | ||
Music of Jamaica | ||
General topics | ||
---|---|---|
Related articles | ||
Genres | ||
|
||
Nationalistic and patriotic songs | ||
|
||
Regional music | ||
|
||
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Backbeat_chop.png/350px-Backbeat_chop.png)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Ska-Rock_Steady_on_D_and_Em64.png/350px-Ska-Rock_Steady_on_D_and_Em64.png)
AfterWorld War II,Jamaicanspurchased radios in increasing numbers and were able to hearrhythm and bluesmusic from theSouthern United Statesin cities such asNew Orleansby artists such asFats Domino,Barbie Gaye,Rosco GordonandLouis Jordan[15]whose early recordings all contain the seeds of the "behind-the-beat" feel of ska and reggae.[16]The stationing of American military forces during and after the war meant that Jamaicans could listen to military broadcasts of American music, and there was a constant influx of records from the United States. To meet the demand for that music, entrepreneurs such asPrince Buster,Coxsone Dodd,andDuke Reidformedsound systems.
As the supply of previously unheard tunes in thejump bluesand more traditional R&B genres began to dry up in the late 1950s, Jamaican producers began recording their own version of the genres with local artists.[2]These recordings were initially made to be played on "soft wax" (a lacquer on metal disc acetate later to become known as a "dub plate" ), but as demand for them grew eventually sometime in the second half of 1959 (believed by most to be in the last quarter) producers such as Coxsone Dodd and Duke Reid began to issue these recording on 45rpm 7-inch discs. At this point, the style was a direct copy of the American "shuffle blues" style, but within two or three years it had morphed into the more familiar ska style with the off-beat guitar chop that could be heard in some of the more uptempo late-1950s American rhythm and blues recordings such as Domino's "Be My Guest"and Barbie Gaye's"My Boy Lollypop",both of which were popular on Jamaicansound systemsof the late 1950s.[17]Domino's rhythm, accentuating the offbeat, was a particular influence.[18]
This "classic" ska style was of bars made up of four triplets but was characterized by aguitar chopon theoff beat—known as an upstroke or 'skank'—with horns taking the lead and often following the off-beat skank and piano emphasizing the bass line and, again, playing the skank.[1]Drums kept4
4timeand the bass drum was accented on the third beat of each four-triplet phrase. The snare would play side stick and accent the third beat of each 4-triplet phrase.[1]The upstroke sound can also be found in otherCaribbeanforms of music, such asmentoandcalypso.[19]Ernest Ranglinasserted that the difference between R&B and ska beats is that the former goes "chink-ka "and the latter goes" ka-chink".[12]
Famous ska band theSkatalitesrecorded "Dynamite", "Ringo" and "Guns of Navarone".[20]One theory about the origin of ska is that Prince Buster created it during the inaugural recording session for his new record label Wild Bells.[19]The session was financed by Duke Reid, who was supposed to get half of the songs to release. The guitar began emphasizing the second and fourth beats in the bar, giving rise to the new sound. The drums were taken from traditional Jamaican drumming and marching styles. To create the ska beat, Prince Buster essentially flipped the R&B shuffle beat, stressing the offbeats with the help of the guitar. Prince Buster has explicitly cited American rhythm and blues as the origin of ska: specifically,Willis Jackson's song "Later for the Gator" (which was Coxsone Dodd's number one selection).
The first ska recordings were created at facilities such asFederal Records,Studio One,and WIRL Records inKingston, Jamaicawith producers such as Dodd, Reid, Prince Buster, andEdward Seaga.[19]The ska sound coincided with the celebratory feelings surrounding Jamaica's independence from the UK in 1962; an event commemorated by songs such asDerrick Morgan's "Forward March" andthe Skatalites' "Freedom Sound".
Until Jamaica ratified theBerne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works,the country did not honor international musiccopyrightprotection. This created many cover songs and reinterpretations. One such cover wasMillie Small's version of the R&B/shuffle tune, "My Boy Lollypop", first recorded in New York in 1956 by 14-year-oldBarbie Gaye.[21][22]Small's rhythmically similar version, released in 1964, was Jamaica's first commercially successful international hit. With over seven million copies sold, it remains one of the best selling reggae/ska songs of all time. Many other Jamaican artists would have success recording instrumental ska versions of popular American and British music, such asBeatlessongs,MotownandAtlanticsoulhits,movietheme songs and instrumentals (007, Guns of Navarone).The Wailerscovered the Beatles' "And I Love Her",and radically reinterpretedBob Dylan's "Like a Rolling Stone".They also created their own versions of Latin-influenced music from artists such asMongo Santamaría.[23]The Skatalites,Lord Creator,Laurel Aitken,Roland Alphonso,Tommy McCook,Jackie Mittoo,Desmond Dekker,andDon Drummond[24]also recorded ska.
Byron Lee & the Dragonairesperformed ska with Prince Buster,Eric "Monty" Morris,andJimmy Cliffat the1964 New York World's Fair.As music changed in the United States, so did ska. In 1965 and 1966, when American soul music became slower and smoother, ska changed its sound accordingly and evolved intorocksteady.[19][25]However, rocksteady's heyday was brief, peaking in 1967. By 1968, ska evolved again into reggae.
2 Tone
[edit]The2 tonegenre, which began in the late 1970s in theCoventryarea of UK, was a fusion of Jamaican ska rhythms and melodies withpunk rock's more aggressive guitar chords and lyrics.[25]Compared to 1960s ska, 2 Tone music had faster tempos, fuller instrumentation, and a harder edge. The genre was named after2 Tone Records,a record label founded byJerry Dammersofthe Specials.In many cases, the reworking of classic ska songs turned the originals into hits again in the United Kingdom. The Specials recorded "A Message to You Rudy"in 1979.
The 2 tone movement promoted racial unity at a time when racial tensions were high in England. There were many Specials songs that raised awareness of the issues of racism, fighting and friendship. Riots in English cities were a feature during the summer that the Specials song "Ghost Town"was a hit, although this work was in a slower, reggae beat. Most of the 2 Tone bands had multiracial lineups, such asthe Beat(known as the English Beat inNorth Americaand Australia),the Specials,andthe Selecter.[1]Although only on the 2 tone label for one single,Madnesswas one of the most effective bands at bringing the 2 tone genre into the mainstream, with hits such as "One Step Beyond","Night Boat to Cairo",and"Our House".The music of this era resonated with white working class youth and West Indian immigrants who experienced the struggles addressed in the lyrics.[23]
Third Wave Ska(3rd Wave Ska)
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Fishbone-28.jpg/230px-Fishbone-28.jpg)
Ska historian Albino Brown (of the radio programThe Ska Parade) coined the term "third-wave ska" (3rd Wave Ska) in 1989 and helped to catalyze such multi-platinum bands asNo DoubtandSublime.Third-wave ska originated in the punk scene in the late 1980s and became commercially successful in the 1990s. Although some third-wave ska has a traditional 1960s sound, most third-wave ska is characterized by dominating guitar riffs and large horn sections.
United Kingdom
[edit]By the late 1980s, ska had experienced a minor resurgence of popularity in the United Kingdom, due to bands such asthe Burialandthe Hotknives.The 1980s and 1990s also heralded many ska festivals, and a re-emergence of thetraditional skinheadsubculture.[26][27][28][29]
Europe
[edit]The early 1980s saw a massive surge in ska's popularity in Germany, leading to the founding of many German ska bands like the Busters, record labels and festivals.[27][30]
In Spain, ska became relevant in the 1980s in theBasque Countrydue to the influence ofBasque Radical Rock,withKortatuand Potato being the most representatives bands.[according to whom?]SkalariakandBetagarrifollowed in the early 1990s and their influence is visible outside the Basque Country in punk-rock bands likeSka-P,Boikotand many others that have gained importance in the Spanish rock and punk rock scene and festivals.[citation needed]
Australia
[edit]TheAustralian skascene flourished in the mid-1980s, following the musical precedents set by 2 Tone, and spearheaded by bands such asthe Porkers.[31]Some of the Australian ska revival bands found success on the national music charts, most notablyAllniters,who had a number 10 hit with a ska cover of "Montego Bay"in 1983.[32]The 30 pieceMelbourne Ska Orchestrahas enjoyed success in recent years, touring internationally, including sets atGlastonburyandMontreux Jazz Festival.[33]
Russia and Japan
[edit]A Russian (then-Soviet) ska scene was established in the mid-1980s inSaint Petersburgas a kind ofanglophoneopposition to more traditionalRussian rockmusic.Strannye Igry,AVIAandN.O.M.were among the first bands of genre. Then bands likeSpitfire,Distemper,LeningradandMarkscheider Kunstbecame popular and commercially successful in Russia and abroad in the late 1990s.
Japan established its own ska scene, colloquially referred to asJ-ska,in the mid-1980s.[34][35]TheTokyo Ska Paradise Orchestra,formed in 1985, have been one of the most commercially successful progenitors of Japanese ska.[36]
The Americas
[edit]Latin America's ska scene started developing in the mid-1980s. Latin American ska bands typically play traditional ska rhythms blended with strong influences from Latin music androck en Español.[37]The most prominent bands include the Grammy nominatedDesorden Públicofrom Venezuela[38]and Grammy awardedLos Fabulosos Cadillacsfrom Argentina, who scored an international hit single with "El Matador"in 1994.[39]
By the early 1980s, 2 Tone-influenced ska bands began forming throughout the United States.[25]The UptonesfromBerkeley, Californiaandthe ToastersfromNew York City—both formed in 1981 — were among the first active ska bands in North America. They are both credited with laying the groundwork for American ska and establishing scenes in their respective regions.[7][40][41]In Los Angeles around the same time,the Untouchablesalso formed. While many of the early American ska bands continued in the musical traditions set by 2 Tone and themod revival,bands such asFishbone,the Mighty Mighty BosstonesandOperation Ivypioneered the Americanska punksubgenre, afusionof ska andpunk rockthat typically downplayed ska's R&B influence in favor of fastertemposand guitardistortion.[25][42]In 1986,No Doubt,a ska punk band was formed. They were one of the more mainstream ska bands that set the stage for many up and coming bands.
Two hotspots for the United States' burgeoning ska scenes were New York City andOrange County,California. In New York, Toasters frontmanRobert "Bucket" Hingleyformed the independent record labelMoon Ska Recordsin 1983. The label quickly became the largest independent ska label in the United States.[43]TheOrange County skascene was a major breeding ground for ska punk and more contemporary pop-influenced ska music, personified by bands such asReel Big FishandSublime.[44]It was here that the term "third wave ska" was coined and popularized by Albino Brown and Tazy Phyllipz (hosts of theSka Paraderadio show) to describe the new wave of ska-influenced bands which were steadily gaining notoriety; and Brown wrote the first treatise on ska's third wave in 1994.[45][46][47]TheSan Francisco Bay Areaalso contributed to ska's growing popularity, withSkankin' Pickle,Let's Go Bowlingand theDance Hall Crashersbecoming known on the touring circuit.
The mid-1990s saw a considerable rise in ska music's underground popularity, marked by the formation of many ska-based record labels, booking organizations and indiezines.While Moon Ska was still the largest of the United States' ska labels, other notable labels included Jump Up Records ofChicago,which covered the thrivingmidwestscene, and Steady Beat Recordings ofLos Angeles,which covered Southern California's traditional ska revival.Stomp RecordsofMontrealwas Canada's primary producer and distributor of ska music.[48]Additionally, many punk and indie rock labels, such asHellcat RecordsandFueled by Ramen,broadened their scope to include both ska and ska punk bands.Asian Man Records(formerlyDill Records), founded in 1996, started out primarily releasing ska punk albums before branching out to other music styles.[49]
In 1993, the Mighty Mighty Bosstones signed withMercury Records,becoming the first American ska punk band to find mainstream commercial success, with their 1994 albumQuestion the Answersachievinggold recordstatus and peaking at number 138 on theBillboard200.[50]In 1995, punk bandRancid,featuring former members of Operation Ivy, released the ska punk single "Time Bomb",which reached number 8 on theBillboardModern Rock Tracks,becoming the first major ska punk hit of the 1990s and launching the genre into the public eye.[51]Over the next few years, a string of notable ska and ska-influenced singles became hits on mainstream radio, including "Sell Out"by Reel Big Fish and"The Impression That I Get"by the Mighty Mighty Bosstones, all of whom would reach platinum status with each of their respective albums. By 1996, third wave ska was one of the most popular forms ofalternative musicin the United States.[51]
By the late 1990s, mainstream interest in third wave ska bands waned as other music genres gained momentum.[52]Moon Ska Records folded in 2000, but Moon Ska Europe, a licensed affiliate based in Europe, continued operating in the 2000s and was later relaunched asMoon Ska World.In 2003, Hingley launched a new ska record label,Megalith Records.
-
Desorden Publico,which are fromCaracas,Venezuela formed in 1985.
-
The Uptones,which are fromBerkeley, California,formed in 1981.
-
The Mighty Mighty Bosstonesin their typical plaid outfits
-
TheDance Hall Crashersin 1998
Post-third wave
[edit]In the early 21st century, ska was mostly absent from the radio, though there were exceptions.[53]In 2017,Captain SKAreached number 4 on theUK Singles Chartwith "Liar Liar GE2017."In 2018,the Interruptersbroke into the U.S. charts with their single "She's Kerosene." By 2019, several publications started wondering aloud whether a "fourth wave" of ska was about to emerge.[54][55]
The term New Tone to describe a fourth wave of ska has started to pick up traction. The term New Tone originates from new ska band Bad Operation, to describe their two-tone sound and their city of New Orleans.[56]The term has been popularized by the record label Bad Time Records due to their movie This Is New Tone.[57]New Tone now has a vague definition and is used to describe the modern ska scene in general.[58]
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^abcd"Ska".Encyclopædia Britannica.Hussey Dermot. pp.http:// search.eb /eb/article–9118222.
- ^ab"Ska Revival"(Web).Genre Listing.AllMusic.2007.Retrieved2 February2007.
- ^Brown, Timothy S. (2004)."Subcultures, pop music and politics: skinheads and" Nazi rock "in England and Germany".Journal of Social History.Archived fromthe originalon 28 June 2009.
- ^"Smiling Smash: An Interview with Cathal Smyth, a.k.a Chas Smash, of Madness - Ska/Reggae - 08/16/99".19 February 2001. Archived fromthe originalon 19 February 2001.Retrieved28 October2011.
- ^Marshall, George (1991).Spirit of '69: A Skinhead Bible.Dunoon, Scotland: S.T. Publishing.ISBN1-898927-10-3.
- ^"Inspecter 7".Montreal Mirror.14 January 1998. Archived fromthe originalon 26 June 2002.Retrieved28 October2011.
- ^abJoel Selvin (23 March 2008)."A brief history of ska".San Francisco Chronicle.Archivedfrom the original on 9 November 2011.Retrieved28 October2011.
- ^White, Timothy (1983) "Catch a Fire: The Life of Bob Marley", Corgi Books
- ^Thompson, Dave (2002) "Reggae & Caribbean Music", Backbeat Books,ISBN0-87930-655-6
- ^Boot, Adrian & Salewicz, Chris (1995) "Bob Marley: Songs of Freedom", Bloomsbury
- ^Clarke, Sebastien "Jah Music: the Evolution of the Popular Jamaican Song"
- ^abAugustyn, Heather (2010).Ska: An Oral History,p. 16.ISBN0-7864-6040-7.
- ^Snyder, Jerry (1999).Jerry Snyder's Guitar School,p.28.ISBN0-7390-0260-0.
- ^Johnston, Richard (2004).How to Play Rhythm Guitar,p. 72.ISBN0-87930-811-7.
- ^Chen, Wayne (1998).Reggae Routes.Temple University Press. p.30.ISBN1-56639-629-8.
- ^Kauppila, Paul. "From Memphis to Kingston: An Investigation into the Origin of Jamaican Ska" Social and Economic Studies. SJSU Scholarsorks (2006): 75-91.
- ^Ricardo Henry, "Jamaican Ska Music - Made For Dancing",jamaica-land-we-loveArchived3 July 2019 at theWayback Machine.Retrieved 3 July 2019
- ^Coleman, Rick (2006).Blue Monday: Fats Domino and the lost dawn of rock 'n' roll.Da Capo Press. p.210.ISBN0-306-81491-9.
- ^abcdNidel, Richard O. (2005).World Music: The Basics.New York,New York:Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. p.282.ISBN0-415-96800-3.
- ^Skatalites Guns of Navarone[permanent dead link]Retrieved 7 June 2022
- ^Perry, Andrew (20 May 2009)."Chris Blackwell interview: Island Records".The Daily Telegraph.UK.Archivedfrom the original on 22 May 2010.Retrieved28 May2010.
- ^Stratton, Jon (2014) "When Music Migrates: Crossing British and European Racial Faultlines, 1945–2010" England: Ashgate.ISBN978-1-4724-2978-0
- ^abAugustyn, Heather (2013).Ska: The Rhythm of Liberation.New York City, NY: Rowman & Littlefield.ISBN978-0-8108-8449-6.Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2013.Retrieved28 November2013.
- ^"Don Drummond Biography - Interview with Author Heather Augustyn".Reggae Steady Ska. 13 September 2013.Archivedfrom the original on 13 December 2019.Retrieved13 December2019.
- ^abcdMoskowitz, David V. (2006).Caribbean Popular Music.Westport,Connecticut:Greenwood Press. p. 270.ISBN0-313-33158-8.
- ^"Ska Party".Skinheadheaven.org.uk.Archived fromthe originalon 7 April 2010.Retrieved31 August2010.
- ^abShafer, Steven (Summer 1998)."Unicorn Records and the new ska classics – the blueprint of ska today?"(PDF).Archived(PDF)from the original on 2 April 2012.Retrieved28 October2011.
- ^"Interview: Kevin Flowerdew of Do the Dog Records".fungalpunknature.co.uk.Archivedfrom the original on 22 June 2011.Retrieved28 October2011.
- ^"1986-1991 Ska Explosion!".hpska.Archivedfrom the original on 14 January 2012.Retrieved28 October2011.
- ^"Play It Upside Down".The Atlantic Times. January 2009. Archived fromthe originalon 25 April 2012.
- ^"Ska'd for Life: Remembering the Sydney 80s ska scene".powerhousemuseum. February 2010.Archivedfrom the original on 23 February 2011.Retrieved28 October2011.
- ^McFarlane, Ian(1999)."Encyclopedia entry for 'Allniters'".Encyclopedia of Australian Rock and Pop.Allen & Unwin.ISBN1-86448-768-2.Archived fromthe originalon 3 August 2004.
- ^"Melbourne Ska Orchestra".Archivedfrom the original on 15 June 2013.Retrieved2 February2016.
- ^Balford Henry (26 April 2004)."Jamaica Observer,"SKA – alive and kicking but outside Jamaica"".Archived fromthe originalon 26 September 2007.
- ^Cahoon, Keith (21 May 2005)."Rastaman Vibration – What's up with Japanese Reggae?".Nippop.Archivedfrom the original on 29 June 2011.Retrieved28 October2011.
- ^"Nippop Profiles: Tokyo Ska Paradise Orchestra".Archived fromthe originalon 28 July 2012.Retrieved28 October2011.
- ^"Latin Ska".2-tone.de.Archivedfrom the original on 3 September 2017.Retrieved28 October2011.
- ^"Desorden Público Artist - GRAMMY".GRAMMY.Retrieved14 June2022.
- ^"Los Fabulosos Cadillacs – Biography".rockero. Archived fromthe originalon 10 November 2006.
- ^"The Toasters | AllMusic".AllMusic.
- ^Joel Selvin (23 March 2008)."Uptones Get Down".Sfgate.Archivedfrom the original on 26 May 2008.Retrieved28 October2011.
- ^"Ska-Punk | AllMusic".AllMusic.Archived fromthe originalon 2011-09-02.Retrieved2016-12-30.
- ^"This Are Moon Ska, Vol. 2".AllMusic.
- ^Bose, Lilledeshan (16 September 2010)."Ska's Not Dead".OC Weekly.Archived fromthe originalon 19 October 2010.Retrieved29 October2011.
- ^Layne, Anni."The Ska Parade Is Coming To Town".Rolling Stone.9 May 1998. Retrieved 26 April 2007.
- ^Iavazzi, Jessica."Can't Rain on This Parade".944. Archived fromthe originalon 16 July 2012.
- ^Gulla, Bob (1997)."Three Waves Of Ska".Guitar Magazine.15(published December 1997): 39.Archivedfrom the original on 10 March 2021.Retrieved8 January2017.
- ^"Union Label Group – Stomp Records".stomprecords.Archivedfrom the original on 24 April 2012.Retrieved29 October2011.
- ^"About Asian Man Records".Punknews.org.Archivedfrom the original on 12 November 2011.Retrieved29 October2011.
- ^"The Mighty Mighty Bosstones – AllMusic".AllMusic.Archivedfrom the original on 6 August 2011.Retrieved20 February2020.
- ^ab"Allmusic – Third Wave Ska Revival".AllMusic.Archivedfrom the original on 30 April 2012.Retrieved20 February2020.
- ^Gulla, Bob (2006).The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Rock History, Volume Six.Westport,Connecticut:Greenwood Press. p. 47.ISBN0-313-32981-8.
- ^Sia, Michel."Lily Allen, Britain's New Pop Star, Has Cheek, and Bite, to Spare."Archived3 January 2020 at theWayback MachineNew York Times.5 August 2006.
- ^"Ska Still Has Things to Say - A Fourth Wave?"(Archived3 January 2020 at theWayback Machine).The Economist.4 February 2019.
- ^Lipsky, Jessica."Ska Lives: How the Genre's Fourth Wave Has Managed to Pick It Up Where the '90s Left Off"Archived2 March 2020 at theWayback Machine.Billboard.25 April 2019.
- ^"New Tone and the Future of Ska".4 October 2021.
- ^https:// brooklynvegan /bad-time-records-documentaryconcert-film-this-is-new-tone-coming-kickstarter-launched/[bare URL]
- ^https:// brooklynvegan /kill-lincoln-declare-no-normal-on-new-album-new-song-interview-2024-state-of-ska-address/[bare URL]
Further reading
[edit]- Augustyn, Heather (2013).Ska: The Rhythm of Liberation.Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press.ISBN978-0-8108-8449-6.
- Du Noyer, Paul (2003). "Ska".The Billboard Illustrated Encyclopedia of Music.New York City:Billboard Books. pp. 350–351.ISBN0-8230-7869-8.
- Neville Staple(2009).Original Rude Boy,Aurum Press.ISBN978-1-84513-480-8.