Skepticism

"Skeptic" redirects here. For other uses, seeSkeptic (disambiguation).

For the philosophical view, seePhilosophical skepticism.For denial of uncomfortable truths, seeDenialism.For the band, seeSkepticism (band).

Skepticism,also spelledscepticisminBritish English,is a questioning attitude ordoubttowardknowledgeclaims that are seen as merebeliefordogma.For example, if a person is skeptical about claims made by their government about an ongoing war then the person doubts that these claims are accurate. In such cases, skeptics normally recommend not disbelief but suspension of belief, i.e. maintaining a neutral attitude that neither affirms nor denies the claim. This attitude is often motivated by the impression that the availableevidenceis insufficient to support the claim. Formally, skepticism is a topic of interest inphilosophy,particularlyepistemology.

More informally, skepticism as an expression of questioning or doubt can be applied to any topic, such as politics, religion, or pseudoscience. It is often applied within restricted domains, such as morality (moral skepticism),atheism(skepticism about theexistence of God), or thesupernatural.Some theorists distinguish "good" or moderate skepticism, which seeks strong evidence before accepting a position, from "bad" or radical skepticism, which wants to suspend judgment indefinitely.

Philosophical skepticismis one important form of skepticism. It rejects knowledge claims that seem certain from the perspective ofcommon sense.Radical forms of philosophical skepticism deny that "knowledge or rational belief is possible" and urge us tosuspend judgmenton many or all controversial matters. More moderate forms claim only that nothing can be known with certainty, or that we can know little or nothing about nonempirical matters, such as whether God exists, whether human beings have free will, or whether there is an afterlife. In ancient philosophy, skepticism was understood as a way of life associated withinner peace.

Skepticism has been responsible for many important developments in science and philosophy. It has also inspired several contemporary social movements.Religious skepticismadvocates for doubt concerning basic religious principles, such as immortality,providence,andrevelation.Scientific skepticismadvocates for testing beliefs for reliability, by subjecting them tosystematicinvestigation using thescientific method,to discoverempirical evidencefor them.

Definition and semantic field

Skepticism,also spelledscepticism(from the Greekσκέπτομαιskeptomai,to search, to think about or look for), refers to a doubting attitude towardknowledgeclaims.So if a person is skeptical of their government's claims about an ongoing war then the person has doubts that these claims are true. Or being skeptical that one's favorite hockey team will win the championship means that one is uncertain about the strength of their performance.Skepticism about a claim implies that one does notbelievethe claim to be true. But it does not automatically follow that one should believe that the claim is false either. Instead, skeptics usually recommend a neutral attitude: beliefs about this matter should be suspended. In this regard, skepticism about a claim can be defined as the thesis that "the only justified attitude with respect to [this claim] is suspension of judgment".It is often motivated by the impression that one cannot be certain about it. This is especially relevant when there is significant expert disagreement.Skepticism is usually restricted to a claim or a field of inquiry. So religious andmoral skepticshave a doubtful attitude about religious and moral doctrines. But some forms of philosophical skepticism, are wider in that they reject any form of knowledge.

Some definitions, often inspired byancient philosophy,see skepticism not just as an attitude but as a way of life. This is based on the idea that maintaining the skeptical attitude of doubt toward most concerns in life is superior to living in dogmatic certainty, for example because such a skeptic has morehappinessandpeace of mindor because it is morally better.Incontemporary philosophy,on the other hand, skepticism is often understood neither as an attitude nor as a way of life but as a thesis: the thesis that knowledge does not exist.

Skepticism is related to various terms. It is sometimes equated withagnosticismandrelativism.However, there are slight differences in meaning. Agnosticism is often understood more narrowly as skepticism about religious questions, in particular, about theChristian doctrine.Relativism does not deny the existence of knowledge or truth but holds that they are relative to a person and differ from person to person, for example, because they follow different cognitive norms.The opposite of skepticism isdogmatism,which implies an attitude of certainty in the form of an unquestioning belief.A similar contrast is often drawn in relation to blind faith and credulity.

Types

Various types of skepticism have been discussed in the academic literature. Skepticism is usually restricted to knowledge claims on one particular subject, which is why its different forms can be distinguished based on the subject.For example,religious skepticsdistrustreligious doctrinesandmoral skepticsraise doubts about accepting various moral requirements and customs. Skepticism can also be applied to knowledge in general. However, this attitude is usually only found in some forms of philosophical skepticism.A closely related classification distinguishes based on thesource of knowledge,such as skepticism aboutperception,memory,orintuition.A further distinction is based on the degree of the skeptical attitude. The strongest forms assert that there is no knowledge at all or that knowledge is impossible. Weaker forms merely state that one can never be absolutely certain.

Some theorists distinguish between a good or healthy form of moderate skepticism in contrast to a bad or unhealthy form of radical skepticism. On this view, the "good" skeptic is a critically-minded person who seeks strong evidence before accepting a position. The "bad" skeptic, on the other hand, wants to "suspend judgment indefinitely... even in the face of demonstrable truth".Another categorization focuses on the motivation for the skeptical attitude. Some skeptics haveideologicalmotives: they want to replace inferior beliefs with better ones. Others have a more practical outlook in that they see problematic beliefs as the cause of harmful customs they wish to stop. Some skeptics have very particular goals in mind, such as bringing down a certain institution associated with the spread of claims they reject.

Philosophical skepticismis a prominent form of skepticism and can be contrasted with non-philosophical or ordinary skepticism. Ordinary skepticism involves a doubting attitude toward knowledge claims that are rejected by many.Almost everyone shows some form of ordinary skepticism, for example, by doubting the knowledge claims made byflat earthersorastrologers.Philosophical skepticism, on the other hand, is a much more radical and rare position. It includes the rejection of knowledge claims that seem certain from the perspective ofcommon sense.Some forms of it even deny that one knows that "I have two hands" or that "the sun will come out tomorrow".It is taken seriously in philosophy nonetheless because it has proven very hard to conclusively refute philosophical skepticism.

In various fields

Skepticism has been responsible for important developments in various fields, such asscience,medicine,andphilosophy.In science, the skeptical attitude toward traditional opinions was a key factor in the development of thescientific method.It emphasizes the need to scrutinize knowledge claims by testing them throughexperimentationand precisemeasurement.In the field of medicine, skepticism has helped establish more advanced forms of treatment by putting into doubt traditional forms that were based on intuitive appeal rather thanempirical evidence.In the history of philosophy, skepticism has often played a productive role not just for skeptics but also for non-skeptical philosophers.This is due to its critical attitude that challenges theepistemologicalfoundations of philosophical theories. This can help to keep speculation in check and may provoke creative responses, transforming the theory in question in order to overcome the problems posed by skepticism.According to Richard H. Popkin, "the history of philosophy can be seen, in part, as a struggle with skepticism". This struggle has led many contemporary philosophers to abandon the quest for absolutely certain or indubitable first principles of philosophy, which was still prevalent in many earlier periods.Skepticism has been an important topic throughout the history of philosophy and is still widely discussed today.

Philosophy

Main article:Philosophical skepticism

As a philosophical school or movement, skepticism arose both in ancient Greece and India. In India theAjñanaschool of philosophy espoused skepticism. It was a major early rival ofBuddhismandJainism,and possibly a major influence on Buddhism. Two of the foremost disciples of theBuddha,SariputtaandMoggallāna,were initially students of the Ajñana philosopherSanjaya Belatthiputta.A strong element of skepticism is found inEarly Buddhism,most particularly in theAṭṭhakavaggasutra. However the total effect these philosophies had on each other is difficult to discern. Since skepticism is a philosophical attitude and a style of philosophizing rather than a position, the Ajñanins may have influenced other skeptical thinkers of India such asNagarjuna,Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa,andShriharsha.

In Greece, philosophers as early asXenophanes(c. 570–c. 475BCE) expressed skeptical views, as didDemocritus and a number ofSophists.Gorgias,for example, reputedly argued that nothing exists, that even if there were something we could not know it, and that even if we could know it we could not communicate it.TheHeracliteanphilosopherCratylusrefused to discuss anything and would merely wriggle his finger, claiming that communication is impossible since meanings are constantly changing.Socratesalso had skeptical tendencies, claiming to know nothing worthwhile.

Pyrrho of Eliswas the founder of the school of skepticism known asPyrrhonism.

There were two major schools of skepticism in the ancient Greek and Roman world. The first wasPyrrhonism,founded byPyrrho of Elis(c. 360–270BCE). The second wasAcademic Skepticism,so-called because its two leading defenders,Arcesilaus(c. 315–240BCE) who initiated the philosophy, andCarneades(c. 217–128BCE), the philosophy's most famous proponent, were heads of Plato'sAcademy.Pyrrhonism's aims are psychological. It urges suspension of judgment (epoche) to achieve mental tranquility (ataraxia). The Academic Skeptics denied that knowledge is possible (acatalepsy). The Academic Skeptics claimed that some beliefs are more reasonable or probable than others, whereas Pyrrhonian skeptics argue that equally compelling arguments can be given for or against any disputed view.Nearly all the writings of the ancient skeptics are now lost. Most of what we know about ancient skepticism is fromSextus Empiricus,a Pyrrhonian skeptic who lived in the second or third centuryCE.His works contain a lucid summary of stock skeptical arguments.

Ancient skepticism faded out during the late Roman Empire, particularly afterAugustine(354–430CE) attacked the skeptics in his workAgainst the Academics(386CE). There was little knowledge of, or interest in, ancient skepticism in Christian Europe during the Middle Ages. Interest revived during the Renaissance and Reformation, particularly after the complete writings of Sextus Empiricus were translated into Latin in 1569 and afterMartin Luther's skepticism of holy orders.A number of Catholic writers, includingFrancisco Sanches(c. 1550–1623),Michel de Montaigne(1533–1592),Pierre Gassendi(1592–1655), andMarin Mersenne(1588–1648) deployed ancient skeptical arguments to defend moderate forms of skepticism and to argue that faith, rather than reason, must be the primary guide to truth. Similar arguments were offered later (perhaps ironically) by the Protestant thinkerPierre Baylein his influential Historical and Critical Dictionary (1697–1702).

The growing popularity of skeptical views created an intellectual crisis in seventeenth-century Europe. An influential response was offered by the French philosopher and mathematicianRené Descartes(1596–1650). In his classic work,Meditations of First Philosophy(1641), Descartes sought to refute skepticism, but only after he had formulated the case for skepticism as powerfully as possible. Descartes argued that no matter what radical skeptical possibilities we imagine there are certain truths (e.g., that thinking is occurring, or that I exist) that are absolutely certain. Thus, the ancient skeptics were wrong to claim that knowledge is impossible. Descartes also attempted to refute skeptical doubts about the reliability of our senses, our memory, and other cognitive faculties. To do this, Descartes tried to prove that God exists and that God would not allow us to be systematically deceived about the nature of reality. Many contemporary philosophers question whether this second stage of Descartes's critique of skepticism is successful.

In the eighteenth century a new case for skepticism was offered by the Scottish philosopherDavid Hume(1711–1776). Hume was an empiricist, claiming that all genuine ideas can be traced back to original impressions of sensation or introspective consciousness. Hume argued that on empiricist grounds there are no sound reasons for belief in God, an enduring self or soul, an external world, causal necessity, objective morality, or inductive reasoning. In fact, he argued that "Philosophy would render us entirely Pyrrhonian, were not Nature too strong for it."As Hume saw it, the real basis of human belief is not reason, but custom or habit. We are hard-wired by nature to trust, say, our memories or inductive reasoning, and no skeptical arguments, however powerful, can dislodge those beliefs. In this way, Hume embraced what he called a "mitigated" skepticism, while rejecting an "excessive" Pyrrhonian skepticism that he saw as both impractical and psychologically impossible.

Hume's skepticism provoked a number of important responses. Hume's Scottish contemporary,Thomas Reid(1710–1796), challenged Hume's strict empiricism and argued that it is rational to accept "common-sense" beliefs such as the basic reliability of our senses, our reason, our memories, and inductive reasoning, even though none of these things can be proved. In Reid's view, such common-sense beliefs are foundational and require no proof in order to be rationally justified.Not long after Hume's death, the German philosopherImmanuel Kant(1724–1804) argued that human empirical experience has possibility conditions which could not have been realized unless Hume's skeptical conclusions about causal synthetica priorijudgements were false.

Today, skepticism continues to be a topic of lively debate among philosophers.British philosopherJulian Bagginiposits that reason is perceived as "an enemy of mystery and ambiguity," but, if used properly, can be an effective tool for solving many larger societal issues.

Religion

Main article:Religious skepticism

Religious skepticism generally refers to doubting particular religious beliefs or claims. For example, a religious skeptic might believe thatJesusexisted (seehistoricity of Jesus) while questioning claims that he was the messiah or performed miracles. Historically, religious skepticism can be traced back toXenophanes,who doubted many religious claims of his time, although he recognized that "Godis one, supreme among gods and men, and not like mortals in body or in mind. "He maintained that there was one greatest God. God is one eternal being, spherical in form, comprehending all things within himself, is the absolute mind and thought, therefore is intelligent, and moves all things, but bears no resemblance to human nature either in body or mind."

Religious skepticism is not the same asatheismoragnosticism,though these often do involve skeptical attitudes toward religion and philosophical theology (for example, towards divineomnipotence). Religious people are generally skeptical about claims of other religions, at least when the two denominations conflict concerning some belief. Additionally, they may also be skeptical of the claims made by atheists.

The historianWill Durantwrites thatPlatowas "as skeptical of atheism as of any other dogma". TheBaháʼí Faithencourages skepticism that is mainly centered around self-investigation of truth.

Science

Main article:Scientific skepticism

A scientific orempiricalskeptic is one who questions beliefs on the basis of scientific understanding and empirical evidence.

Scientificskepticism may discard beliefs pertaining topurported phenomenanot subject to reliable observation and thus not systematic or empiricallytestable.Most scientists, being scientific skeptics, test the reliability of certain kinds of claims by subjecting them to systematic investigation via thescientific method.As a result,a number of ostensibly scientific claimsare considered to be "pseudoscience"if they are found to improperly apply or to ignore the fundamental aspects of the scientific method.

Auditing

Professional skepticism is an important concept inauditing.It requires an auditor to have a "questioning mind", to make a critical assessment of evidence, and to consider the sufficiency of the evidence.

See also

• The Amaz!ng Meeting– Annual conference for skeptics, 2003–2015Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
• Critical thinking– Analysis of facts to form a judgment
• Committee for Skeptical Inquiry– Organization examining paranormal claims
• Cynicism
• Debunker– Person or group discrediting false claims
• Euroscepticism– Body of criticism of the European Union
• List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
• Pseudoskepticism– Philosophical position that appears to be skeptic but is actually dogmatic
• Scientific skepticism– Questioning of claims lacking empirical evidence
• Skeptic– American science education magazinePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
• The Skeptic– British magazinePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
• Skeptical Inquirer– Bimonthly magazine published by CSI
• Skepticality– Skeptical podcast
• Skeptical movement– Questioning of claims lacking empirical evidencePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
• The Skeptic's Dictionary– 2003 essay collection by Robert Todd Carroll
• Skeptics in the Pub– Informal social event for skeptics since 1999
• The Skeptics Society– American nonprofit organization
• Trivialism– Logical theory

Sources

• Butchvarov, Panayot(1998).Skepticism About the External World.Oxford University Press.
• Hönigswald, Richard(2008) [1914].Die Skepsis in Philosophie und Wissenschaft.Göttingen: Edition Ruprecht.ISBN978-3-7675-3056-0.
• Keeton, Morris T. (1962). "skepticism". In Runes, Dagobert D. (ed.).Dictionary of Philosophy.Totowa, N.J.: Littlefield, Adams, and Company. pp. 277–278.
• Le Morvan, P. (March 2011)."Healthy Skepticism and Practical Wisdom"(PDF).Logos & Episteme.2(1). Institute for Economic and Social Research: 87–102.doi:10.5840/logos-episteme20112151.ISSN2069-0533.Archived(PDF)from the original on 4 September 2019.
• Liddell, Henry George;Scott, Robert;Jones, Henry Stuart;McKenzie, Roderick (1940).A Greek-English Lexicon(revised and augmented ed.). Oxford, U.K.:Clarendon Press.
• Neilson, W.A.; Knott, T.A.; Carhart, P.W., eds. (1950).Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language(Second, Unabridged ed.). Springfield, Mass.: G. & C. Merriam Company.

Further reading

• Burnyeat, Myles(1983).The Skeptical Tradition.University of California Press.ISBN978-0520037472.
• Bury, Robert Gregg(1933).Sextus Empiricus: Outlines of Pyrrhonism.Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0674993013.
• Empiricus, Sextus;Annas, Julia;Barnes, Jonathan(20 July 2000).Sextus Empiricus: Outlines of Scepticism.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0521778091.
• Novella, Steven(2018).The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe: How to Know What's Really Real in a World Increasingly Full of Fake.Hodder & Stoughton.ISBN978-1473696419.
• Pearcey, Nancy(2005).Total Truth:Liberating Christianity from Its Cultural Captivity.Crossway Books.ISBN978-1581347463.
• Popkin, Richard H.(2003).The History of Scepticism: From Savonarola to Bayle.Oxford University Press, US.ISBN978-0198026716.
• Rosa L; Rosa E; Sarner L; Barrett S (1 April 1998)."A close look at therapeutic touch".JAMA.279(13): 1005–1010.CiteSeerX10.1.1.592.8130.doi:10.1001/jama.279.13.1005.ISSN0098-7484.PMID9533499.
• Thaxton, Charles(1994).The Soul of Science: Christian Faith and Natural Philosophy.Crossway Books.ISBN978-0891077664.
• Wilson, Richard (2009).Don't Get Fooled Again: A Sceptic's Handbook.Icon.ISBN978-1848310520.

External links

• SkepticismatPhilPapers
• Skepticismat theIndiana Philosophy Ontology Project
• Klein, Peter."Skepticism".InZalta, Edward N.(ed.).Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Vogt, Katja."Ancient Greek Skepticism".InZalta, Edward N.(ed.).Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Thorsrud, Harald."Ancient Greek Skepticism".Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Bolyard, Charles."Medieval Skepticism".InZalta, Edward N.(ed.).Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Pritchard, Duncan."Contemporary Skepticism".Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Kleiner, Kurt (30 August 2005)."Most Scientific Papers are Probably Wrong".New Scientist.Archived fromthe originalon 19 September 2008.
• "Skeptical InquirerMagazine Names the Ten Outstanding Skeptics of the Century ".Committee for Skeptical Inquiry.Amherst, N.Y. Archived fromthe originalon 15 July 2007.