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Slavery in Australia

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Slavery in Australiahas existed in various forms fromcolonisationin 1788 to the present day. European settlement relied heavily onconvicts,sent to Australia as punishment for crimes and forced into labour and oftenleased to private individuals.ManyAboriginalandAfrican Australianswere also forced intovarious forms of slaveryand unfree labour from colonisation. SomeIndigenous Australiansperformed unpaid labour until the 1970s.

Pacific Islanders were kidnapped or coerced to come to Australia and work, in a practice known asblackbirding.Labourers were also imported fromIndiaandChina,and employed in various degrees of unfree labour. Legal protections varied and were sometimes not enforced, particularly with workers who were effectively forced to work for their employers and would often go unpaid.

Australia was held to theSlave Trade Act 1807as well as theSlavery Abolition Act 1833,which abolished slavery in theBritish Empire.

Types of slavery[edit]

Convicts[edit]

Main article:Convicts in Australia

Many of the convictstransportedto the Australian penal colonies were treated like slave labour. William Hill, an officer aboard theSecond Fleet,wrote that "the slave traffic is merciful compared with what I have seen in this fleet [...] the more they can withhold from the unhappy wretches, the more provisions they have to dispose of at a foreign market, and the earlier in the voyage they die, the longer they can draw the deceased's allowance to themselves". Once the convicts arrived in Australia they were subjected to the system of "assigned service", whereby they were leased out to private citizens and placed entirely under their control, often forced to work inchain gangs.The unwillingness of wealthy landowners to give up this cheap source of labour was a key factor in why penal transportation persisted for so long, especially inVan Diemen's Landwhere "assigned service" continued to be widespread until the 1850s.[1]

Coolies[edit]

Main article:Coolie

With the ceasing of convict transportation toNew South Walesbecoming imminent by the late 1830s, colonists required a substitute cheap form of labour. In 1837 a Committee on Immigration identified the possibility of importingcoolielabourers fromIndiaandChinaas a solution. John Mackay, an owner ofindigoplantations inBengaland a distillery inSydney,organised the import of 42 coolies from India who arrived on 24 December 1837 on boardPeter Proctor.This was the first sizeable transport of coolie labour into Australia and Mackay leased most of them out as shepherds to work at John Lord's Underbank land-holding just north ofDungog.[2]The contracts included a 5 or 6 year term of indenture with food, clothing, pay and shelter to be provided, but many absconded, due to reasons of these conditions not being met. The coolies were also subject to assault, slavery, and kidnap.[3]

Government enquiries delayed further coolie importation, but in 1842 a number of colonists, includingWilliam WentworthandGordon Sandeman,formed an Association to Import Coolies to pressure the colonial government into allowing further intakes.[4]The following year, Major G.F. Davidson imported 30 Indian coolies intoMelbourne,and in 1844 Sandeman and Phillip Freil organised a shipment of 30 Indian coolies, most of whom were sent to work on their properties in theLockyer Valley.Wentworth andRobert Townsarranged a shipment of 56 Indian coolies who arrived in a state of starvation in 1846.[5]These coolies went either to labour on Wentworth's pastoral properties such as Burburgate on theNamoi Riveror worked as servants at hisVaucluse Housemansion. Several were imprisoned with sentences of hard labour for absconding.[6][7]Some were leased out to Helenus Scott's Glendon property in theHunter Valley– it was alleged that four or five of these died of "a terrible disorder," to which Scott countered that two died of lung inflammation; five were imprisoned after refusing to work on account of not having received summer clothing, cavalierly rejoicing "Gaol–very goot––no work gaol."[8][9]

Indian coolie transportation was largely discontinued after this but the first shipment of 150 Chinese coolies arrived inMelbournein 1847 aboard the brigAdelaideand another 31 arrived in Perth a year later. Toward the end of 1848,NimrodandPhillip Laingbrought a further 420 mostly Chinese coolies into thePort Phillip District.Many of these coolies were abandoned, perished in the bush, were jailed, or were found wandering the streets of Melbourne with no food or shelter.[10]Around another 1500 Chinese coolies were shipped into Australia up to the year 1854 withRobert TownsandGordon Sandemanagain being the principal organisers of the trade. A number of scandals occurred that caused a government select committee to be formed to investigate the importation of Asiatic labour. The inquiry found that 70 coolies had died aboardGeneral Palmerduring the voyage fromAmoytoSydneyand that others had died from sickness once in Australia. There were no berths, bedding, medical, or toilet facilities available on the vessel and a great deal of kidnapping was involved in the recruitment process.[11]The poor conditions on board the vesselSpartan,chartered by Robert Towns, sparked a rebellion of coolies against the crew of the ship. The second-mate and ten of the Chinese were killed before the captain was able to regain control. Out of nearly 250 coolies who had embarked onSpartan,only 180 arrived in Australia.[12]These events together with concurrent disasters in the Chinese coolie trade toCubaandPeru,ended Asian coolie transportation to Australia by 1855. From 1858, Chinese migration to Australia again spiked due to thegold rushes,but this was mostly voluntary travel.[13]

Forced Indigenous labour and stolen wages[edit]

Further information:Wage theft from Indigenous Australians

From the early stages of theBritish colonisation of Australiaright up until the 1960s,Aboriginal AustraliansandTorres Strait Islanderswere used as unpaid labour in many sectors such as thepastoralistindustry,beche-de-merharvesting,pearling,theboiling downindustry,marsupialeradication, andprostitution,they were also used as householdservants.In return for this labour, theIndigenous peoplewere given portions of inexpensive commodities such astobacco,rum, slop-clothing, flour andoffal.[14]Trade in Aboriginal children and adolescents was often sought after. Children were often taken from Aboriginal camp-sites afterpunitive expeditionsand they were used as either personal servants or as labour by the colonists who took them.[15]Sometimes these children were taken very far away from their lands and traded to other colonists. For instance,Mary Durackdescribed how one of her relatives in theKimberley regionbought an Aboriginal boy fromQueenslandfor a tin of jam.[16][17]

In Australia's early years, colonists debated whether the conditions under which Aboriginal people worked breached laws against slavery in the British Empire.[18]In the pastoralist sector, unpaid labour also allowed Aboriginal people to stay on their land instead of being forced off ormassacred.[19]

Anti-slaverycampaigners described the conditions of Aboriginal labour in northern Australia as slavery as far back as the 1860s. In 1891 the British journalAnti-Slavery Reporterpublished a "Slave Map of Modern Australia".[20]

In Queensland, theAboriginals Protection and Restriction of the Sale of Opium Act 1897and successive legislation allowed theProtector of Aboriginesto keep wages in funds which were never paid out.[20]From 1897, no person could employ Indigenous labour in that state without the permission of a Protector. The Protector, usually a policeman or government official, had full control of the contract with the employer. Fraud was common, whereby the Protectors would collude with the employers, mostlypastoralists,to underpay or not pay the Aboriginal workers. Those who refused to work were jailed, threatened with removal or denied access to food. Aboriginal settlements were run as depots for cheap labour where a 20% levy was placed on the inmates' already meagre wages, with the remainder held in a departmental trust account. The money in this account was subject to additional levies, bureaucratic corruption and also appropriated for government spending. The interest earned also went to the government not the wage earner. Aboriginal workers had to get permission from the Protector to make withdrawals and asking questions about their money were often met with the workers being jailed or otherwise punished. This system has been described as "economic slavery" and existed in largely the same format in the state until the mid 1970s.[21][19][22]

AfterFederationin 1901, where Aboriginal labour was legislated as requiring payment in money, these wages were often kept in bank accounts that could not be accessed by them, with the money being redirected elsewhere by government bureaucracies.[19]

Through the 20th century, theBritish Commonwealth League,theNorth Australian Workers' Union,anthropologistsRonaldandCatherine Berndt,artistAlbert Namatjiraand others raised concerns about the slave-like conditions under which many Aboriginal people worked.[20]

TheAborigines Act 1911gave South Australian police powers to “inspect workers and their conditions” but not to enforce change.[20]

Oncattle stationsin the Northern Territory (NT), Aboriginal workers not only lived in very poor conditions (no built accommodation, having to use water from thecattle trough), but they were given no money, only food. Clothing was lent but had to be returned. TheAboriginals Ordinance 1918(Cth) allowed the non-payment of wages and forced recruitment of labour in the NT. NT ProtectorCecil Cooknoted that Australia was in breach of its obligations under theLeague of NationsSlavery Convention in the 1930s.[20]

When wages started being paid with cash in the 1950s and 1960s, they were still much less (reportedly 15–20%) of white people doing similar work. In 1966 the NT'sWave Hill walk-off,a strike byGurindjiworkers led byVincent Lingiaribrought international attention to the injustice of the system, and eventually led to the government mandating equal pay from December 1968. However, at the same time, mechanisation of the stations led to most workers being laid off, and the policy ofassimilationmeant that the government was placing Aboriginal people onreserveswith minimal facilities instead.[23][24]

Legislation governing and regulating the forced employment of Indigenous Australians continued until the 1970s in some states.[25][26]

Blackbirding[edit]

Main article:Blackbirding

The first shipload of 65 Melanesian labourers arrived inBoyd Townon 16 April 1847 on board theVelocity,a vessel under the command of Captain Kirsopp and chartered byBenjamin Boyd.[27]Boyd was a Scottish colonist who wanted cheap labourers to work at his expansive pastoral leaseholds in the colony ofNew South Wales.He financed two more procurements of South Sea Islanders, 70 of which arrived inSydneyin September 1847, and another 57 in October of that same year.[28][29]Many of these Islanders soon absconded from their workplaces and were observed starving and destitute on the streets of Sydney.[30]Reports of violence, kidnap and murder used during the recruitment of these labourers surfaced in 1848 with a closed-door enquiry choosing not to take any action against Boyd or Kirsopp.[31]The experiment of exploiting Melanesian labour was discontinued in Australia untilRobert Townsrecommenced the practice in the early 1860s.

In 1863,Robert Townswanted to profit from the world-wide cotton shortage due to theAmerican Civil War.He bought a property he namedTownsvaleon theLogan Riverand planted 400 acres ofcotton.Towns also wanted cheap labour to harvest and prepare the cotton and decided to import Melanesian labour from theLoyalty Islandsand theNew Hebrides.Captain Grueber together with labour recruiterHenry Ross Lewinaboard theDon Juan,brought 73South Sea Islandersto the port ofBrisbanein August 1863.[32]Towns specifically wanted adolescent males recruited and kidnapping was reportedly employed in obtaining these boys.[33][34]Over the following two years, Towns imported around 400 moreMelanesiansto Townsvale on one to three year terms of labour. They came on the vesselsUncle TomandBlack Dog.In 1865, Towns obtained large land leases inFar North Queenslandand funded the establishment of the port ofTownsville.He organised the first importation of South Sea Islander labour to that port in 1866. They came aboardBlue Bellunder Captain Edwards.[35]Apart from a small amount of Melanesian labour imported for thebeche-de-mertrade aroundBowen,[36]Robert Towns was the primary exploiter of blackbirded labour up til 1867.[37]

From 1867, the high demand for very cheap labour in the sugar and pastoral industries ofQueensland,led Towns' main labour recruiter,Henry Ross Lewin,and another recruiter by the name of John Crossley opening their services to other land-owners. This resulted in a massive increase in blackbirded labour into Queensland which continued for another approximately 35 years. Traders "recruited" Melanesian orKanakalabourers for the sugar cane fields ofQueensland,from theNew Hebrides(nowVanuatu),Papua New Guinea,theSolomon Islandsand theLoyalty IslandsofNew Caledoniaas well as various Micronesian islands such asKiribatiand theGilbert Islands.

In the late 1860s, these labourers were allegedly sold for as little as £2 each and kidnapping was at least partially used during recruitment, which raised fears of a burgeoning new slave trade.[38][39][40][41]French officials inNew Caledoniacomplained that Crossley had stolen half the inhabitants of a village inLifou,and in 1868 a scandal evolved when Captain McEachern of the shipSyrenanchored in Brisbane with 24 dead islander recruits and reports that the remaining ninety on board were taken by force and deception. Despite the controversy, no action was taken against McEachern or Crossley.[42][43]

The methods of blackbirding were varied. Some labourers were willing to be taken to Australia to work, while others were tricked or forced. In some cases blackbirding ships (which made huge profits) would entice entire villages by luring them on board for trade or a religious service, and then setting sail. Many died in the fields due to the hard manual labour.[44]

From 1868, the Queensland government tried to regulate the trade: it required every ship engaged in recruiting labourers from the Pacific islands to carry a person approved by the government to ensure that labourers were willingly recruited and not kidnapped. But, such government observers were often corrupted by bonuses paid for labourers 'recruited,' or blinded by alcohol, and did little or nothing to prevent sea-captains from tricking islanders on-board or otherwise engaging in kidnapping with violence.Joe Melvin,an investigative journalist who, undercover, in 1892 joined the crew of Queensland blackbirding shipHelenatoward the end of the blackbirding era, found no instances of intimidation or misrepresentation and concluded that the Islanders recruited did so "willingly and cannily".[45]However, theHelenatransported Islanders to and fromBundabergand in this region there was a very large mortality rate of Kanakas in 1892 and 1893. South Sea Islanders made up 50% of all deaths in this period even though they only made up 20% of the total population in the Bundaberg area.[46]

Adolescent South Sea Islanders on aHerbert Riverplantation in the early 1870s

Recruiting ofSouth Sea Islandersbecame an established industry during the 1870s with captains of labour vessels being paid about 5 shillings per recruit in "head money" incentives, while the owners of the ships would sell the Kanakas from anywhere between £4 and £20 per head.[47]The Kanakas were sometimes offloaded at the ports in Queensland with metal discs imprinted with a numeral hung around their neck making for easy identification for their buyers.[48]Captain Winship of theLyttonawas accused of kidnapping and importing Kanaka boys aged between 12 and 15 years for the plantations ofGeorge RaffatCaboolture.[49]Up to 45 of the Kanakas brought in by Captain John Coath died on plantations around theMary River.[50]Meanwhile, the famous recruiter Henry Ross Lewin was charged with the rape of a pubescent Islander girl. Despite strong evidence, Lewin was acquitted and the girl was later sold in Brisbane for £20.[42]

The South Sea Islanders were put to work not only in cane-fields along the Queensland coast but were also widely used as shepherds upon the largesheep stationsin the interior and as pearl divers in theTorres Strait.They were taken as far west asHughenden,NormantonandBlackall.When the owners of the properties they were labouring on went bankrupt, the Islanders would often either be abandoned[51]or sold as part of the estate to a new owner.[52]In the Torres Strait, Kanakas were left at isolated pearl fisheries such as the Warrior Reefs for years with little hope of being returned home.[53]In this region, three ships used to procure pearl-shells and beche-de-mer, including theChallengewere owned byJames Merrimanwho held the position ofMayor of Sydney.[54]

Poor conditions at the sugar plantations led to regular outbreaks of disease and death. From 1875 to 1880, at least 443 Kanakas died in the Maryborough region from gastrointestinal and pulmonary disease at a rate 10 times above average. TheYengarie,Yarra Yarraand Irrawarra plantations belonging toRobert Cranwere particularly bad. An investigation revealed that the Islanders were overworked, underfed, not provided with medical assistance and that the water supply was a stagnant drainage pond.[55]At the port ofMackay,the labour schoonerIsabellaarrived with half the Kanakas recruited dying on the voyage fromdysentery,[56]while CaptainJohn Mackay(after whom the city ofMackayis named), arrived atRockhamptonin theFlorawith a cargo of Kanakas, of which a considerable number were in a dead or dying condition.[57][58]

Captain William T. Wawn, a famous blackbirder working for theBurns Philpcompany on the shipLizzie,freely acknowledged in his memoirs that he took boatloads of young boys with no information given about contracts, pay or the nature of the work.[47]Up to 530 boys were recruited per month from these islands, most of whom were transported to the new large company plantations inFar North Queensland,such as theVictoria Plantationowned byCSR.This phase of the trade was very profitable, with Burns Philp selling each recruit for around £23.[42]Many of them could not speak any English and died on these plantations at a rate of up to 1 in every 5.[59]

Charges of neglect resulting in the death of his Islander labourers were made against Mr Melhuish of theYeppoonSugar Plantation. He was placed on trial, but even though he was found responsible, the judge involved imposed only the minimum £5 fine and wished it could be an even lesser amount.[60]When theYeppoonSugar Plantation was later put up for sale, the Islander labourers were included as part of the estate.[61]During a riot at theMackayracetrack,severalSouth Sea Islanderswere beaten to death by mounted white men wieldingstirrupirons. Only one man, George Goyner, was convicted and received a minor punishment of two months imprisonment.[62]

In 1884, a significant and unique judicial punishment was imposed on the captain and crew of the blackbirding vesselHopeful.Captain Lewis Shaw and four crew were charged and convicted of various crimes, receiving jail terms of 7 to 10 years, while two others were sentenced to death, later commuted to life imprisonment. Despite evidence showing that at least 38 Islanders had been killed by theHopefulcrew, all the prisoners (except for one who died in jail) were released in 1890 in response to a massive public petition signed by 28,000 Queenslanders.[62]This case sparked a Royal Commission into the recruitment of Islanders from which thePremier of Queenslandconcluded that it was no better than the African slave trade,[63]and in 1885 a ship was commissioned by theGovernment of Queenslandto return 450 New Guinea Islanders to their homelands.[64]Just like the global slave trade, the plantation owners, instead of being held criminally responsible, were financially compensated by the government for the loss of these workers.[65]

Some 55,000 to 62,500South Sea Islanderswere taken to Australia.[66]The majority of the 10,000 Pacific Islanders remaining in Australia in 1901 were repatriated from 1906–08 under the provisions of thePacific Island Labourers Act 1901.[67]A 1992 census of South Sea Islanders reported around 10,000 descendants of the blackbirded labourers living in Queensland. Fewer than 3,500 were reported in the 2001 Australian census.[66]

Pearling[edit]

Indigenous Australians,[68]Malaysians, Timorese, andMicronesianswere kidnapped and sold as slave-labour for thepearlingindustry of north western Australia.[69]

Modern slavery[edit]

Further information:Human trafficking in Australia

According to theGlobal Slavery Index,there were approximately 15,000 people living in illegal "conditions ofmodern slavery"in Australia in 2016. During the 2015–16 financial year, 169 alleged human trafficking and slavery offences were referred to theAustralian Federal Police(AFP), including alleged instances of forced marriage, sexual exploitation, and forced labour. As of 2017, theCommonwealth Director of Public Prosecutionshad prosecuted 19 individuals for slavery-related offences since 2004, with several other prosecutions ongoing.[70]

The introduction of theModern Slavery Act 2018[71]into Australian law was partly based upon concerns of slavery being evident in the agricultural sector.[72]

Work For the Dole[edit]

Further information:Work for the Dole

Beginning in 1998, the Australian Government instituted a work program for unemployed welfare recipients. Due to the vulnerability of the participants and low level of agency, combined with the low pay, the policy has increasingly been viewed as slavery by some Australians.[73]

In remote indigenous communities, (who are provided with the similarCommunity Development Program), the perception of slavery is increased, due to perception of government policies creating a lack of alternative opportunity for workers.[74]

The "History Wars"[edit]

The assertion that slavery took place in Australia in colonial times is often disputed, as part of the ongoing "history wars"about Australia's past. In June 2020 theAustralian Prime Minister,Scott Morrison,stated on2GBradio in Sydney that "Australia when it was founded as a settlement, as New South Wales, was on the basis that there be no slavery... and while slave ships continued to travel around the world, when Australia was established, yes sure, it was a pretty brutal settlement... but there was no slavery in Australia".[75]After attracting reproach by Aboriginal activists and other sectors of the community,[76]Morrison apologised for any offence caused the following day, and said that he was talking specifically about thecolony of New South Wales.[77]

Colonisation funded by slavery elsewhere[edit]

Further information:Centre for the Study of the Legacies of British Slavery

In the nineteenth century there were also many beneficiaries of slavery practised overseas who came to the Australian colonies or who financed settlement of the colonies. Historians have shown that the wealth made from slavery helped finance thecolonisation of Australia,[78]in particular thecolonisation of South Australia[79]andVictoria.[80]

Among others,Lachlan Macquarie,Governor of New South Wales;James Stirling,foundingGovernor of Western Australia;Edward Eyre Williams,Supreme Court of Victoriajudge; and ReverendRobert Allwood,vicar ofSydney'sSt James' Churchand laterUniversity of SydneyVice-Chancellor (1869-1883), were all given wealth and opportunities thanks to money generated by slavery in theBritish West Indies.[81]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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Further reading[edit]

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