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Slavs

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(Redirected fromSlavic people)
"Slav" redirects here. For other uses, seeSlav (disambiguation).
"Slav people" redirects here. For the Slavs of the Early Middle Ages, seeEarly Slavs.For the First Nations ethnic group, seeSlavey.

Slavs
Total population
see§ Population
Regions with significant populations
Languages
Slavic languages
Religion
MostlyChristianity
(Orthodox·Catholic·Protestant·Spiritual)
Minorities:
Non-religious·Sunni Islam·Slavic paganism(neopaganism)
Related ethnic groups
OtherEuropean peoples

TheSlavsorSlavic peopleare groups of people who speakSlavic languages.Slavs are geographically distributed throughout the northern parts ofEurasia;they predominantly inhabitCentral Europe,Eastern Europe,andSoutheastern Europe,though there is a large Slavic minority scattered across theBaltic states,Northern Asia,andCentral Asia,[1][2]and a substantial Slavic diaspora in theAmericas,Western Europe,andNorthern Europe.[3]

Early Slavslived during theMigration Periodand theEarly Middle Ages(approximately from the 5th to the 10th century AD), and came to control large parts ofCentral,EasternandSoutheast Europebetween the sixth and seventh centuries. Beginning in the 7th century, they were graduallyChristianized.By the 12th century, they formed the core population of a number of medieval Christian states:East Slavsin theKievan Rus',South Slavsin theBulgarian Empire,thePrincipality of Serbia,theDuchy of Croatiaand theBanate of Bosnia,andWest Slavsin thePrincipality of Nitra,Great Moravia,theDuchy of Bohemia,and theKingdom of Poland.

Beginning in the mid-19th century, apan-Slavicmovement has emphasized the common heritage and unity of all the Slavic peoples. The main focus of the movement was in the Balkans, whereas theRussian Empirewas opposed to it.

The Slavic languages belong to theBalto-Slavic branchof theIndo-European language family.Present-day Slavs are classified into three groups:[4][5][6][7][8][9]

Though the majority of Slavs areChristians,some groups, such as the Bosniaks, mostly identify asMuslims.Modern Slavic nations and ethnic groups are considerably diverse, both genetically and culturally, and relations between them may range from "ethnic solidarity to mutual feelings of hostility" — even within the individual groups.[10]

Ethnonym

[edit]
Main article:Slavs (ethnonym)

The oldest mention of the Slavicethnonymis from the 6th century AD, whenProcopius,writing inByzantine Greek,used various forms such asSklaboi(Σκλάβοι),Sklabēnoi(Σκλαβηνοί),Sklauenoi(Σκλαυηνοί),Sthlabenoi(Σθλαβηνοί), orSklabinoi(Σκλαβῖνοι),[11]and his contemporaryJordanesrefers to theSclaveniinLatin.[12]The oldest documents written inOld Church Slavonic,dating from the 9th century, attest the autonym asSlověne(Словѣне). Those forms point back to a Slavicautonym,which can be reconstructed inProto-Slavicas*Slověninъ,pluralSlověne.[citation needed]

The reconstructed autonym*Slověninъis usually considered a derivation fromslovo( "word" ), originally denoting "people who speak (the same language)", meaning "people who understand one another", in contrast to the Slavic word denoting "German people",namely*němьcь,meaning "silent, mute people" (from Slavic*němъ"mute,mumbling "). The wordslovo( "word" ) and the relatedslava( "glory, fame" ) andsluh( "hearing" ) originate from theProto-Indo-Europeanroot*ḱlew-( "be spoken of, glory" ), cognate with Ancient Greekκλέος(kléos"fame" ), as in the namePericles,Latinclueō( "be called" ), and Englishloud.[citation needed]

In medieval and early modern sources written in Latin, Slavs are most commonly referred to asSclavenior the shortened versionSclavi.[13]

History

[edit]
The origin and migration of Slavs in Europe between the 5th and 10th centuries AD:
Original Slavic homeland (modern-day southeasternPoland,northwesternUkraineand southwesternBelarus)
Expansion of the Slavic migration in Europe

Origins

[edit]

First mentions

[edit]
Main article:Early Slavs
See also:Vistula Veneti,Spori,Antes,Sclaveni,andWends
Terracotta tile from the 6th–7th century AD found inVinica,North Macedonia,depicting a battle scene between theBulgarsand Slavs, with the Latin inscription BOLGAR and SCLAVIGI[14]

Ancient Roman sources refer to theEarly Slavicpeoples asVeneti,who dwelt in a region of central Europe east of theGermanictribe ofSuebi,and west of the IranianSarmatiansin the 1st and 2nd centuries AD,[15][16]between the upperVistulaandDnieperrivers. The Slavs under name of theAntesand theSclavenifirst appear inByzantinerecords in the early 6th century. Byzantine historiographers under emperorJustinian I(527–565), such asProcopius of Caesarea,JordanesandTheophylact Simocattadescribe tribes of these names emerging from the area of theCarpathian Mountains,the lowerDanubeand theBlack Sea,invading the Danubian provinces of theEastern Empire.[citation needed]

Jordanes, in his workGetica(written in 551 AD),[17]describes the Veneti as a "populous nation" whose dwellings begin at the sources of the Vistula and occupy "a great expanse of land". He also describes the Veneti as the ancestors of Antes and Slaveni, two early Slavic tribes, who appeared on the Byzantine frontier in the early 6th century.

Procopius wrote in 545 that "the Sclaveni and the Antae actually had a single name in the remote past; for they were both calledSporoiin olden times ". The nameSporoiderives fromGreekσπείρω ( "tosow"). He described them as barbarians, who lived under democracy, believed in one god," the maker of lightning "(Perun), to whom they made a sacrifice. They lived in scattered housing and constantly changed settlement. In war, they were mainlyfoot soldierswith shields, spears, bows, and little armour, which was reserved mainly for chiefs and their inner circle of warriors.[18]Their language is "barbarous" (that is, not Greek), and the two tribes are alike in appearance, being tall and robust, "while their bodies and hair are neither very fair or blond, nor indeed do they incline entirely to the dark type, but they are all slightly ruddy in color. And they live a hard life, giving no heed to bodily comforts..."[19]

Jordanes described the Sclaveni having swamps and forests for their cities.[20]Another 6th-century source refers to them living among nearly-impenetrable forests, rivers, lakes, and marshes.[21]

Menander Protectormentions aDaurentius(c. 577–579) who slew anAvarenvoy of KhaganBayan Ifor asking the Slavs to accept the suzerainty of the Avars; Daurentius declined and is reported as saying: "Others do not conquer our land, we conquer theirs – so it shall always be for us as long as there are wars and weapons".[22]

Migrations

[edit]
Further information:Slavic migrations to Southeastern Europe
Slavic tribes from the 7th to 9th centuries AD in Europe

According to eastern homeland theory, prior to becoming known to theRomanworld,Slavic-speaking tribes were part of the many multi-ethnic confederacies ofEurasia– such as the Sarmatian, Hun and Gothic empires. The Slavs emerged from obscurity when the westward movement of Germanic tribes in the 5th and 6th centuries AD (thought to be in conjunction with the movement of peoples from Siberia and Eastern Europe:Huns,and laterAvarsandBulgars) started thegreat migrationof the Slavs, who settled the lands abandoned by Germanic tribes fleeing the Huns and their allies: westward into the country between the Oder and theElbe-Saaleline; southward intoBohemia,Moravia,much of present-dayAustria,thePannonian plainand theBalkans;and northward along the upperDnieperriver. It has also been suggested that some Slavs migrated with theVandalsto theIberian Peninsulaand evenNorth Africa.[23]On the other hand, historianFlorin Curtacategorically dismisses the concept of "Slavs' migration" and opts instead for short-distance population movements that would explain the spread ofSlavic languages.He argues in favor of this view that the proposed migration models are inconsistent with the archaeological findings, for example thePraguetype pottery associated with Slavs was not found anywhere south of the Danube where large numbers of Slavic speaking population emerged in the early Middle Ages.[24]

Around the 6th century, Slavs appeared onByzantineborders in great numbers.[25]Byzantine records note that Slav numbers were so great, that grass would not regrow where the Slavs had marched through[citation needed].After a military movement even thePeloponneseandAsia Minorwere reported to have Slavic settlements.[26]This southern movement has traditionally been seen as an invasive expansion.[27]By the end of the 6th century, Slavs hadsettled the Eastern Alps regions.[28]

Pope Gregory Iin 600 AD wrote to Maximus, the bishop ofSalona(inDalmatia), in which he expresses concern about the arrival of the Slavs:

Latin:"Et quidem de Sclavorum gente, quae vobis valde imminet, et affligor vehementer et conturbor. Affligor in his quae jam in vobis patior; conturbor, quia per Istriae aditum jam ad Italiam intrare coeperunt."

English:"I am both distressed and disturbed about the Slavs, who are pressing hard on you. I am distressed because I sympathize with you; I am disturbed because they have already begun to arrive inItalythrough the entry-point ofIstria."[29]

Middle Ages

[edit]
Great MoraviaduringSvatopluk I(r. 871–894), according to Štefanovičová (1989)

When Slav migrations ended, their firststateorganizations appeared, each headed by a prince with a treasury and a defense force. In the 7th century, the Frankish merchantSamosupported the Slavs against theirAvarrulers and became the ruler of the first known Slav state in Central Europe,Samo's Empire.This early Slavic polity probably did not outlive its founder and ruler, but it was the foundation for laterWest Slavicstates on its territory.

The oldest of them wasCarantania;others are thePrincipality of Nitra,theMoravianprincipality (see underGreat Moravia) and theBalaton Principality.TheFirst Bulgarian Empirewas founded in 681 as an alliance between the rulingBulgarsand the numerousSlavsin the area, and theirSouth Slaviclanguage, theOld Church Slavonic,became the main and official language of the empire in 864 AD. Bulgaria was instrumental in the spread ofSlavic literacyand Christianity to the rest of the Slavic world.Duchy of Croatiawas founded in 7th century and later becameKingdom of Croatia.[30]Principality of Serbiawas founded in 8th,Duchy of BohemiaandKievan Rus'both in the 9th century.

The expansion of theMagyarsinto theCarpathian Basinand theGermanizationofAustriagradually separated theSouth Slavsfrom theWestandEast Slavs.Later Slavic states, which formed in the following centuries included theSecond Bulgarian Empire,theKingdom of Poland,Banate of Bosnia,DukljaandKingdom of Serbiawhich later grew intoSerbian Empire.[citation needed]

Modern era

[edit]
Seal from thepan-Slavic Congressheld inPrague,1848

Pan-Slavism,a movement which came into prominence in the mid-19th century, emphasized the common heritage and unity of all the Slavic peoples. The main focus was in the Balkans where the South Slavs had been ruled for centuries by other empires: the Byzantine Empire,Austria-Hungary,theOttoman Empire,andVenice.Austro-Hungary envisioned its own political concept ofAustro-Slavism,in opposition of Pan-Slavism that was predominantly led by theRussian Empire.[31]

As of 1878, there were only three majority Slavic states in the world: the Russian Empire,Principality of SerbiaandPrincipality of Montenegro.Bulgariawas effectively independent but wasde jurevassal to the Ottoman Empire until official independence was declared in 1908. The Slavic peoples who were, for the most part, denied a voice in the affairs of theAustro-Hungarian Empire,were calling for national self-determination.[32]

DuringWorld War I,representatives of the Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes set up organizations in theAlliedcountries to gain sympathy and recognition.[32]In 1918, after World War I ended, the Slavs established such independent states asCzechoslovakia,theSecond Polish Republic,and theKingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.

Starving peasants on a street inKharkivduring theHolodomorin 1933

The first half of the 20th century in Russia and theSoviet Unionwas marked by a succession of wars,faminesand other disasters, each accompanied by large-scale population losses.[33]The two major famines were in1921 to 1923and1932 to 1933,which caused millions of deaths mostly aroundUkraineand theNorthern Caucasus.[34][35]The latter resulted from Soviet leaderJoseph Stalin'scollectivization of agriculture in Ukraine.[36]

During the war,Nazi Germanyused hundreds of thousands of people forslave labor in their concentration camps,the majority of whom wereJewishor Slavic.[37]Both groups were a part of what Germans claimed to be a "vast raciallysubhumansurplus population "that they"intended to eliminatein time fromtheir new empire",[37]their term for "racial subhumans" beingUntermensch.[38]Thus, one ofAdolf Hitler's ambitions at the start ofWorld War IIwas to exterminate, expel, or enslave most or all West and East Slavs from their native lands, so as to make "living space"for German settlers.[33]

An improvised camp forSoviet prisoners of warin 1942
Dead inmates at Italy'sRab concentration campin modern-day Croatia. The camp held mostly Slavs, specificallyCroatsandSlovenes[39][40]

In early 1941, Germany began planningGeneralplan Ost,the genocide of Slavs in Eastern Europe which was supposed to start after a major expansion ofGerman concentration camps in occupied Polandand the fall of Stalin's regime.[37][41][42]This plan was to be carried out gradually over 25 to 30 years.[33][41]After an approximate 30 million[43]Slavs would be killed through starvation and their major cities depopulated, the Germans were supposed to repopulate Eastern Europe.[42][44][45]In June 1941, when Germany invaded the Soviet Union inOperation Barbarossa,Hitler paused the plan to focus on theextermination of the Jews.[45]However, some of the plan was nonetheless implemented. Millions of Slavs were murdered in Eastern Europe;[45]this includes victims of theHunger Plan,Germany's intentional starvation of the region,[43]as well as themurders of 3.3. million Soviet prisoners of war.[46]Germany'sHeinrich Himmleralso ordered his subordinateLudolf-Hermann von Alvenslebento start repopulatingCrimea,and hundreds of ethnic Germans were forcibly moved to cities and villages there.[47]The SovietRed Armytook back their land from the Germansin 1944.[45]Stephen J. Lee estimates that, by the end ofWorld War IIin 1945, the Russian population was about90 million fewerthan it could have been otherwise.[48]Also during World War II,fascist Italysent tens of thousands of Slavs toconcentration campsin mainland Italy,Libya,andthe Balkans,because Italian leaderBenito Mussolinialso had a hatred of them.[49]

In 1991, theSoviet Union collapsed,and many former Soviet republics became independent countries.[36][50]Currently, former Soviet states in Central Asia such asKazakhstanandKyrgyzstanhave very large minority Slavic populations, with most being Russians.[50]Kazakhstan has the largest Slavic minority population.[51]

Languages

[edit]
Main articles:History of the Slavic languagesandSlavic languages
East Slavic languages[image reference needed]
Russian
Belarusian
Ukrainian
Rusyn
South Slavic dialect continuum with major dialect groups
West Slavic languages[image reference needed]
Polish
Kashubian
Silesian
Polabian†
Lower Sorbian
Upper Sorbian
Czech
Slovak

Proto-Slavic,the supposed ancestor language of all Slavic languages, is a descendant of commonProto-Indo-European,via aBalto-Slavic stagein which it developed numerous lexical and morphophonological isoglosses with theBaltic languages.In the framework of theKurgan hypothesis,"the Indo-Europeans who remained after the migrations [from the steppe] became speakers of Balto-Slavic".[52]

Proto-Slavic is defined as the last stage of the language preceding the geographical split of the historicalSlavic languages.That language was uniform, and on the basis of borrowings from foreign languages and Slavic borrowings into other languages, it cannot be said to have any recognizable dialects, which suggests that there was, at one time, a relatively-smallProto-Slavic homeland.[53]

Slavic linguistic unity was to some extent visible as late asOld Church Slavonic(orOld Bulgarian) manuscripts which, though based on local Slavic speech ofThessaloniki,could still serve the purpose of the first common Slavic literary language.[54]

StandardisedSlavic languages that have official status in at least one country are:Belarusian,Bosnian,Bulgarian,Croatian,Czech,Macedonian,Montenegrin,Polish,Russian,Serbian,Slovak,Slovene,andUkrainian.Russian is the most spoken Slavic language, and is the most spokennative languagein Europe.[55]

The Alpha bets used for Slavic languages are usually connected to the dominant religion among the respective ethnic groups. Orthodox Christians use theCyrillic Alpha betwhile Catholics use theLatin Alpha bet;the Bosniaks, who are Muslim, also use the Latin Alpha bet and Cyrillic Alpha bet in Serbia. Additionally, someEastern CatholicsandWestern Catholicsuse the Cyrillic Alpha bet. Serbian and Montenegrin use both the Cyrillic and Latin Alpha bets. There is also a Latin script to write in Belarusian, calledŁacinkaand in Ukrainian, calledLatynka.[citation needed]

Ethno-cultural subdivisions

[edit]

West Slavsoriginate from early Slavic tribes which settled inCentral Europeafter theEast Germanic tribeshad left this area during themigration period.[56]They are noted as having mixed withGermanics,Hungarians,Celts(particularly theBoii),Old Prussians,and thePannonian Avars.[57]The West Slavs came under the influence of theWestern Roman Empire(Latin) and of theCatholic Church.[citation needed]

East Slavshave origins in early Slavic tribes who mixed and contacted withFinns,Balts[58][59]and with the remnants of the people of theGoths.[60]Their early Slavic component,Antes,mixed or absorbedIranians,and later received influence from theKhazarsandVikings.[61]The East Slavs trace their national origins to the tribal unions ofKievan Rus'andRus' Khaganate,beginning in the 10th century. They came particularly under the influence of theByzantine Empireand of theEastern Orthodox Church.[citation needed]

South Slavsfrom most of the region have origins in early Slavic tribes who mixed with the local Proto-Balkanic tribes (Illyrian,Dacian,Thracian,Paeonian,Hellenic tribes), andCeltic tribes(particularly theScordisci), as well as with Romans (and the Romanized remnants of the former groups), and also with remnants of temporarily settled invading East Germanic, Asiatic or Caucasian tribes such asGepids,Huns,Avars,Goths andBulgars.[citation needed]The original inhabitants of present-day Slovenia and continental Croatia have origins in early Slavic tribes who mixed with Romans and romanized Celtic and Illyrian people as well as with Avars and Germanic peoples (Lombards and East Goths). The South Slavs (except the Slovenes and Croats) came under the cultural sphere of theEastern Roman Empire(Byzantine Empire), of theOttoman Empireand of theEastern Orthodox ChurchandIslam,while the Slovenes and the Croats were influenced by theWestern Roman Empire(Latin) and thus by theCatholic Churchin a similar fashion to that of the West Slavs.[citation needed]

Genetics

[edit]
See also:Corded Ware culture,Fatyanovo–Balanovo culture,andMiddle Dnieper culture

Consistent with the proximity of their languages, analyses ofY chromosomes,mDNA,andautosomalmarker CCR5de132 shows thatEast SlavsandWest Slavsare genetically very similar, but demonstrating significant differences from neighboring Finno-Ugric,Turkic,and North Caucasian peoples. Such genetic homogeneity is somewhat unusual, given such a wide dispersal of Slavic populations.[62][63]Together they form the basis of the "East European"gene cluster,which also includes non-SlavicHungariansandAromanians.[62][64]

OnlyNorthern Russiansamong East and West Slavs belong to a different, "Northern European"genetic cluster, along withBalts,GermanicandBaltic Finnic peoples(Northern Russian populations are very similar to Balts).[65][66]

The 2006 Y-DNA study results "suggest that the Slavic expansion started from the territory of present-day Ukraine, thus supporting the hypothesis placing the earliest known homeland of Slavs in the basin of the middleDnieper".[67]According to genetic studies until 2020, the distribution, variance and frequency of theY-DNA haplogroupsR1aandI2and their subclades R-M558, R-M458 and I-CTS10228 amongSouth Slavscorrelate with the spread of Slavic languages during the medieval Slavic expansion from Eastern Europe, most probably from the territory of present-day Ukraine andSoutheastern Poland.[68][69][70][71][72][73][74]

Religion

[edit]
See also:Slavic paganism
The "Zbruch Idol"preserved at theKraków Archaeological Museum

Thepagan Slavicpopulationswere Christianizedbetween the 7th and 12th centuries.Orthodox Christianityis predominant among East and South Slavs, whileCatholicismis predominant among West Slavs and some westernSouth Slavs.The religious borders are largely comparable to theEast–West Schismwhich began in the 11th century. Islam first arrived in the 7th century during theearly Muslim conquests,and was gradually adopted by a number of Slavic ethnic groups through the centuries in the Balkans.[citation needed]

Among Slavic populations who profess a religion, the majority of contemporary Christian Slavs are Orthodox, followed by Catholic. The majority of Muslim Slavs follow theHanafischool of theSunnibranch of Islam.[75]Religious delineations by nationality can be very sharp; usually in the Slavic ethnic groups, the vast majority of religious people share the same religion.[citation needed]

Relations with non-Slavic people

[edit]
See also:Baltic Slavic piracy,Narentines,andGermania Slavica

Throughout their history, Slavs came into contact with non-Slavic groups. In the postulated homeland region (present-dayUkraine), they had contacts with the IranianSarmatiansand the GermanicGoths.After their subsequent spread, the Slavs began assimilating non-Slavic peoples. For example, in the Northern Black Sea region, the Slavs assimilated the remnants of the Goths.[84]In the Balkans, there werePaleo-Balkanpeoples, such as Romanized andHellenized(Jireček Line)Illyrians,ThraciansandDacians,as well asGreeksandCelticScordisciandSerdi.[85]Because Slavs were so numerous, most indigenous populations of the Balkans were Slavicized. Thracians and Illyrians mixed as ethnic groups in this period.

A notable exception is Greece, whereSlavs were HellenizedbecauseGreekswere more numerous, especially with more Greeks returning to Greece in the 9th century and the influence of the church and administration,[86]however, Slavicized regions withinMacedonia,ThraceandMoesia Inferioralso had a larger portion of locals compared to migrating Slavs.[87]Other notable exceptions are the territory of present-dayRomaniaandHungary,where Slavs settled en route to present-day Greece, North Macedonia, Bulgaria andEast Thracebut assimilated, and the modernAlbaniannation which claims descent from Illyrians and other Balkan tribes.[citation needed]

The status of theBulgarsas a ruling class and their control of the land nominally left their legacy in theBulgarian country and people,but Bulgars were gradually also Slavicized into the present-day South Slavic ethnic group known asBulgarians.TheRomance speakerswithinthe fortified Dalmatian citiesretained their culture and language for a long time.[88]Dalmatian Romance was spoken until the high Middle Ages, but, they too were eventually assimilated into the body of Slavs.[89]

In the Western Balkans, South Slavs and GermanicGepidsintermarried with invaders, eventually producing a Slavicized population.[citation needed]In Central Europe, the West Slavs intermixed withGermanic,Hungarian,andCelticpeoples, while in Eastern Europe the East Slavs had encounteredFinnicandScandinavian peoples.Scandinavians (Varangians) and Finnic peoples were involved in theearly formation of the Rus' statebut were completely Slavicized after a century. SomeFinno-Ugrictribes in the north were also absorbed into the expanding Rus population.[65]In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadicTurkictribes, such as theKipchakand thePecheneg,caused a massive migration of East Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north.[90]In the Middle Ages, groups ofSaxonore miners settled in medievalBosnia,SerbiaandBulgaria,where they were Slavicized.[citation needed]

Map showingSlavic raidson Scandinavia in the mid-12th century

Saqalibarefers to the Slavicmercenariesandslavesin the medieval Arab world inNorth Africa,SicilyandAl-Andalus.Saqaliba served as caliph's guards.[91][92]In the 12th century,Slavic piracy in the Balticsincreased. TheWendish Crusadewas started against the Polabian Slavs in 1147, as a part of theNorthern Crusades.The pagan chief of the SlavicObodritetribes,Niklot,began his open resistance whenLothar III,Holy Roman Emperor,invaded Slavic lands. In August 1160, Niklot was killed, and German colonization (Ostsiedlung) of the Elbe-Oder region began. InHanoverian Wendland,Mecklenburg-VorpommernandLusatia,invaders startedgermanization.Early forms of germanization were described by German monks:Helmoldin the manuscriptChronicon SlavorumandAdam of BremeninGesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum.[93]ThePolabian languagesurvived until the beginning of the 19th century in what is now the German state ofLower Saxony.[94]InEastern Germany,around 20% of Germans have historic Slavic paternal ancestry, as revealed in Y-DNA testing.[95]Similarly, in Germany, around 20% of the foreign surnames are of Slavic origin.[96]

Cossacks,although Slavic and practicingOrthodox Christianity,came from a mix of ethnic backgrounds, includingTatarsand other peoples.[citation needed]TheGoralsof southernPolandand northernSlovakiaare partially descended from the originally Balkan Romance speakingVlachs,who migrated into the region from the 14th to 17th centuries and were quickly absorbed into the local population, especially since the majority of Vlachs were alreadyslavicizedand the term became synonymous with Ruthenians. The populations ofMoravian Wallachia,Carpathian Rutheniaand parts of northern Slovakia are also descended partially from the Vlachs.[97][98][99]Conversely, some Slavs were assimilated into other populations. Although the majority continued towards Southeast Europe, attracted by the riches of the area that became the state of Bulgaria, a few remained in the Carpathian Basin in Central Europe and were assimilated into theMagyarpeople. Numerous rivers and places inRomaniahave a name with Slavic origins.[100]

Population

[edit]
Slavs in the US (1990 census) and Canada (2016 census) by area:
20–35%
14–20%
11–14%
8–11%
5–8%
3–5%
0–3%
Percentage of ethnic Russians byfederal subjectsof Russia according to the2010 census:[101]
above 80%
70—79%
50—69%
20—49%
below 20%

Winkler Prins(2002) estimated the number of Slavs worldwide to be aroundc.260 million at the time.[102][unreliable source?]Currently it is estimated that there are 300 million Slavic inhabitants inCentral,Eastern,andSoutheastern Europe.[103]

Ethnicity Estimates and census data
Belarusians
  • c.8.37 million Belarusians in Belarus(2009 Belarusian census)[104]
  • 46,787Belarusians in Poland(2011 Polish census)[105]
  • 20,710 "Byelorussian" (5,125 Byelorussian-only) in Canada(2016 Canadian census)[106]
Bosniaks(previously called "Bosnian Muslims" )
  • 1,898,963 Bosniaks in Bosnia and Herzegovina(1991, according to Statistic yearbook of SRBiH 1992)[107]: 43 
  • c.1.9 million Bosniaks in Bosnia and Herzegovina(2013–2022CIA World Factbookestimate)[108]
  • 153,801 Bosniaks in Serbia(2022 Serbian census)[109][110]
  • 53,786 Bosniaks in Montenegro(2011 Montenegrin census)[b]
  • 17,018 Bosniaks in North Macedonia(2002 North Macedonia census)[113]
  • 26,740 "Bosnians" (15,610 Bosnian-only) in Canada(2016 Canadian census)[106]
Bulgarians
  • c.10 million Bulgarians worldwide(Kolev early 2000s estimate)[114]
  • c.6.5 million Bulgarians in Bulgaria(Jeffreys et al. 2008 estimate)[115]
  • c.10 million Bulgarian speakers worldwide(Jeffreys et al. 2008 estimate)[115]
  • c.9 million Bulgarians worldwide, of which nearly 7 million in Bulgaria(Cole 2011 estimate)[116]
  • c.9 million Bulgarians worldwide, of whichc.7.3 million in Bulgaria(Danver 2015 estimate)[117]
  • 12,918 Bulgarians in Serbia(2022 Serbian census)[109]
  • 34,560 Bulgarians (19,965 Bulgarian-only) in Canada(2016 Canadian census)[106]
Bunjevci
  • 11,104 Bunjevci in Serbia(2022 Serbian census)[109]
Croats
  • c.4.5 million Croats in Croatia andc.4 million Croats abroad(1993 estimate by Palermo & Sabanadze 2011)[118]
  • 759,906 Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina(1991, according to Statistic yearbook of SRBiH 1992)[107]: 43 
  • c.4.5 million Croats outside Croatia(Winland 2004 estimate)[119]
  • c.4.5 million Croats and people of Croatian heritage outside Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina(HWC 2003 estimate)[120]
  • 39,107 Croats in Serbia(2022 Serbian census)[109][110]
  • 6,021 Croats in Montenegro(2011 Montenegrin census)[112]
  • 133,965 Croats (55,595 Croatian-only) in Canada(2016 Canadian census)[106]
Czechs
  • c.6.1 million Czechs in Czechia(2021–22CIA World Factbookestimate)[121]
  • 6,732,104 Czechs in Czechia(2011 Czech census)[122]
  • 28,996 Czechs in Slovakia(2021 Slovak census)[123]
  • 3,447 Czechs in Poland(2011 Polish census)[105]
  • 104,585 Czechs (23,250 Czech-only) in Canada(2016 Canadian census)[106]
Czechoslovaks(a supra-ethnic category of Czechs and Slovaks)
  • c.304,000 people with Czechoslovak ancestry in the United States(2010 American Community Survey)[124]
  • 40,715 "Czechoslovak, not otherwise specified" (5,075 Czechoslovak-only) in Canada(2016 Canadian census)[106]
Gorani
  • c.60,000 Gorani worldwide(2009 estimate by political party Građanska inicijativa Goranaca)[125]
  • 7,700 Gorani in Serbia(2022 Serbian census)[109]
Kashubians
  • c.331,000 Kashubs andc.184,000 "half-Kashubs"(couldn't speak Kashubian)in theGdańsk region(Latoszek 1980s)[126]
  • 52,665 inhabitants of Poland spoke Kashubian at home (49,855 of them also spoke Polish at home)(2002 Polish census)[127]
  • 566,737 "Kashubs and people with partial Kashubian ancestry" in Pomerania(Mordawski 2005)[127]
  • 232,547 Kashubians in Poland(2011 Polish census)[c]
Macedonians
  • 1,297,981 Macedonians in North Macedonia(2002 North Macedonia census)[113]
  • c.580,000Macedonian emigrants(1964 estimate)[128]
  • 14,767 Macedonians in Serbia(2022 Serbian census)[109]
  • 43,110 Macedonians (18,405 Macedonian-only) in Canada(2016 Canadian census)[106]
Montenegrins
  • 280,873 Montenegrins in Montenegro(2011 Montenegrin census)[d]
  • c.500,000 Montenegrins outside Montenegro(2014Montenegrin Foreign Ministryestimate)[129]
    • 20,238 Montenegrins in Serbia(2022 Serbian census)[109][110]
    • 4,165 Montenegrins (915 Montenegrin-only) in Canada(2016 Canadian census)[106]
Moravians
  • 522,474 Moravians in Czechia(2011 Czech census)[122]
  • 1,098 Moravians in Slovakia(2021 Slovak census)[123]
Muslims (ethnic group)(a supra-ethnic category of Bosniaks, Gorani,Torbeši,Pomaks)
  • 13,011 Muslims in Serbia(2022 Serbian census)[109][110]
  • 20,977 Muslims in Montenegro(2011 Montenegrin census)[e]
  • 12,121 Muslims in Bosnia and Herzegovina(2013 BiH census)[130]: 27 
Poles
Russians
  • c.118 million Russians in the Russian Federation(2002Winkler Prinsestimate)[134]
  • 622,445 Russians (120,165 Russian-only) in Canada(2016 Canadian census)[106]
Rusyns
(incl.Boykos,Lemkos,Hutsuls)
  • c.1.2 million Rusyns worldwide(1995 Magocsi estimate)[135]
  • 23,746 Rusyns in Slovakia(2021 Slovak census)[123]
  • 11,483 Ruthenians in Serbia(2022 Serbian census)[109]
  • 10,531 Lemkos in Poland(2011 Polish census)[105]
Serbs
Silesians
  • 435,750 Silesians in Poland(2011 Polish census)[105]
  • 12,231 Silesians in Czechia(2011 Czech census)[122]
  • c.2 million Silesians in Poland(Grabowska 2002 estimate)[137]: 6 
Slavs(in the United States and Canada)
  • c.137,000 people with "Slavic" ancestry in the United States(2010 American Community Survey)[124]
  • 4,870 "Slavic, not otherwise specified" (1,470 Slavic-only) in Canada(2016 Canadian census)[106]
Slavs in Greece(also a sub-ethnic category of Macedonians and Bulgarians)
  • c.200,000 speakers of "Macedonian" in Greece(Friedman 1985)[138]
  • c.150,000—350,000 "Macedonians in Greek Macedonia"(various estimates around 1995)[139]
  • c.20,000—50,000 "Slavic-speakers in northern Greece"(1990USDoSestimates)[140]
    • c.5,000—10,000 of them self-identified as "Macedonians"(1990USDoSestimates)[140]
  • c.10,000—50,000 Slavs in Greece(2002USDoSestimates)[141]
Slovaks
  • 4,353,775 Slovaks in Slovakia(2011 Slovak census)[142]: 10 
  • 4,567,547 Slovaks in Slovakia(2021 Slovak census)[123]
  • 149,140 Slovaks in Czechia(2011 Czech census)[122]
  • 41,730 Slovaks in Serbia(2022 Serbian census)[109]
  • c.762,000 people with Slovak ancestry in the United States(2010 American Community Survey)[124]
  • 2,294 (1,889 single, 947 multiple ethnic identity) Slovaks in Poland(2011 Polish census)[105]
  • 72,290 Slovaks (20,475 Slovak-only) in Canada(2016 Canadian census)[106]
Slovenes
  • c.1,632,000 Slovenes in Slovenia(2002 Slovenian census)[143]
  • c.2.5 million Slovenes worldwide(2004 Zupančič estimate[143])
  • 2,829 Slovenes in Serbia(2022 Serbian census)[109]
  • 40,470 Slovenes (13,690 Slovenian-only) in Canada(2016 Canadian census)[106]
Sorbs
  • c.60,000 Sorbs in Germany (20,000 of which still spoke Sorb)(2007 Reuters estimate)[144]
Ukrainians
  • c.46.7~51.8 million Ukrainians worldwide(2001 Ukrainian census + various diaspora estimates)[145]
  • c.58,693,854 Ukrainians worldwide(1994 Pawliczko estimate[146])
  • 1,359,655 Ukrainians (273,810 Ukrainian-only) in Canada(2016 Canadian census)[106]
  • 51,001 Ukrainians in Poland(2011 Polish census)[105]
  • c.1.2 millionUkrainian refugees recorded in Poland(August 2022 UNHCR figures)[147]
Yugoslavs(a supra-ethnic category of Bosniaks, Croats, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Serbs and Slovenes)

Historiography

[edit]
Main article:List of Slavic studies journals

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^Originally Eastern Orthodox, with some groups adoptingByzantine-Rite Catholicismunder Polish and Austro-Hungarian rule and reverting to Eastern Orthodoxy starting in the late 19th Century.[citation needed]
  2. ^The 53,786 figure is the sum of 53,605 "Bosniaks" + 181 "Bosniaks-Muslims".[111][112]
  3. ^Including 16,000 single ethnic identity, 216,000 multiple ethnic identity Polish and Kashubian, 1,000 multiple ethnic identity Kashubian and another in Poland.[105]
  4. ^The 280,873 figure is the sum of 278,865 "Montenegrins" + 1,833 "Montenegrins-Serbs" + 175 "Montenegrins-Muslims".[111][112]
  5. ^The 20,977 figure is the sum of 20,537 "Muslims" + 183 "Muslims-Bosniaks" + 257 "Muslims-Montenegrins".[111][112]
  6. ^The 180,213 figure is the sum of 178,110 "Serbs" + 2,103 "Serbs-Montenegrins".[111][110]

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
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  2. ^Ramet, Pedro (1978). "Migration and Nationality Policy in Soviet Central Asia".Humboldt Journal of Social Relations.6(1).California State Polytechnic University, Humboldt:79–101.JSTOR23261898.
  3. ^"Geography and ethnic geography of the Balkans to 1500".25 February 1999. Archived fromthe originalon 25 February 1999.
  4. ^Encyclopædia Britannica (18 September 2006)."Slav (people) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia".Britannica.Retrieved18 August2010.
  5. ^Kamusella, Tomasz; Nomachi, Motoki; Gibson, Catherine (2016).The Palgrave Handbook of Slavic Languages, Identities and Borders.London: Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN978-1-137-34839-5.
  6. ^Serafin, Mikołaj (January 2015)."Cultural Proximity of the Slavic Nations"(PDF).Academia.Retrieved28 April2017.
  7. ^Živković, Tibor; Crnčević, Dejan; Bulić, Dejan; Petrović, Vladeta; Cvijanović, Irena; Radovanović, Bojana (2013).The World of the Slavs: Studies of the East, West and South Slavs: Civitas, Oppidas, Villas and Archeological Evidence (7th to 11th Centuries AD).Belgrade: Istorijski institut.ISBN978-86-7743-104-4.
  8. ^Gasparov, Boris; Raevsky-Hughes, Olga (2018).Christianity and the Eastern Slavs, Volume I: Slavic Cultures in the Middle Ages.Univ of California Press. pp. 120 & 124.ISBN978-0-520-30247-1.
  9. ^Stephen Barbour, Cathie Carmichael,Language and Nationalism in Europe,Oxford University Press, 2000, p. 199,ISBN0-19-823671-9
  10. ^Robert Bideleux; Ian Jeffries (January 1998).A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change.Psychology Press. p. 325.ISBN978-0-415-16112-1.
  11. ^Procopius,History of the Wars,\,VII. 14. 22–30, VIII.40.5
  12. ^Jordanes,The Origin and Deeds of the Goths,V.33.
  13. ^Curta 2001,pp. 41–42, 50, 55, 60, 69, 75, 88.
  14. ^Balabanov, Kosta (2011).Vinica Fortress: mythology, religion and history written with clay.Skopje: Matica. pp. 273–309.
  15. ^Coon, Carleton S. (1939)The Peoples of Europe.Chapter VI, Sec. 7 New York: Macmillan Publishers.
  16. ^Tacitus.Germania,page 46.
  17. ^Curta 2001: 38. Dzino 2010: 95.
  18. ^Barford, Paul M (2001).The Early Slavs: Culture and Society in Early Medieval Eastern Europe.Cornell University Press.ISBN978-0-8014-3977-3.
  19. ^"Procopius, History of the Wars, VII. 14. 22–30".Clas.ufl.edu.Retrieved4 April2014.
  20. ^Jordanes,The Origin and Deeds of the Goths,V. 35.
  21. ^Maurice's Strategikon: handbook of Byzantine military strategy,trans. G.T. Dennis (1984), p. 120.
  22. ^Curta 2001,pp. 91–92, 315.
  23. ^Mallory & Adams "Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture
  24. ^Curta, Florin (1 January 2024)."Migration and Common Slavic. Critical remarks of an archaeologist".Linguistica Brunensia.
  25. ^Cyril A. Mango (1980).Byzantium, the empire of New Rome.Scribner. p.26.ISBN978-0-684-16768-8.
  26. ^Tachiaos, Anthony-Emil N. 2001.Cyril and Methodius of Thessalonica: The Acculturation of the Slavs.Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press.
  27. ^Nystazopoulou-Pelekidou 1992:Middle Ages
  28. ^Štih, Peter (2010)."V. Wiped Out By The Slavic Settlement? The Issue Of Continuity Between Antiquity And The Early Middle Ages In The Slovene Area".The Middle Ages Between the Eastern Alps and the Northern Adriatic: Select Papers on Slovene Historiography and Medieval History.East Central and Eastern Europe in the Middle Ages. Vol. 2.Brill.pp. 85–99.doi:10.1163/ej.9789004185913.i-463.18.ISBN978-9-004-18770-2.
  29. ^Željko Rapanić; (2013) O početcima i nastajanju Dubrovnika (The origin and formation of Dubrovnik. additional considerations) p. 94; Starohrvatska prosvjeta, Vol. III No. 40,[1]
  30. ^During the reign ofHeraclius(r. 610–641).De Administrando Imperiochapter 30.
  31. ^Stergar, Rok (12 July 2017)."Panslavism".International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
  32. ^abStergar, Rok."Nationalities (Austria-Hungary)".International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
  33. ^abcMark Harrison (2002). "Accounting for War: Soviet Production, Employment, and the Defence Burden, 1940–1945".Cambridge University Press.p.167. ISBN 0-521-89424-7
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  67. ^Rebała, K; Mikulich, AI; Tsybovsky, IS; Siváková, D; Dzupinková, Z; Szczerkowska-Dobosz, A; Szczerkowska, Z (2007)."Y-STR variation among Slavs: Evidence for the Slavic homeland in the middle Dnieper basin".Journal of Human Genetics.52(5): 406–14.doi:10.1007/s10038-007-0125-6.PMID17364156.
  68. ^A. Zupan; et al. (2013)."The paternal perspective of the Slovenian population and its relationship with other populations".Annals of Human Biology.40(6): 515–526.doi:10.3109/03014460.2013.813584.PMID23879710.S2CID34621779.However, a study by Battaglia et al. (2009) showed a variance peak for I2a1 in the Ukraine and, based on the observed pattern of variation, it could be suggested that at least part of the I2a1 haplogroup could have arrived in the Balkans and Slovenia with the Slavic migrations from a homeland in present-day Ukraine... The calculated age of this specific haplogroup together with the variation peak detected in the suggested Slavic homeland could represent a signal of Slavic migration arising from medieval Slavic expansions. However, the strong genetic barrier around the area of Bosnia and Herzegovina, associated with the high frequency of the I2a1b-M423 haplogroup, could also be a consequence of a Paleolithic genetic signal of a Balkan refuge area, followed by mi xing with a medieval Slavic signal from modern-day Ukraine.
  69. ^Underhill, Peter A. (2015), "The phylogenetic and geographic structure of Y-chromosome haplogroup R1a",European Journal of Human Genetics,23(1): 124–131,doi:10.1038/ejhg.2014.50,PMC4266736,PMID24667786,R1a-M458 exceeds 20% in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Poland, and Western Belarus. The lineage averages 11–15% across Russia and Ukraine and occurs at 7% or less elsewhere (Figure 2d). Unlike hg R1a-M458, the R1a-M558 clade is also common in the Volga-Uralic populations. R1a-M558 occurs at 10–33% in parts of Russia, exceeds 26% in Poland and Western Belarus, and varies between 10 and 23% in the Ukraine, whereas it drops 10-fold lower in Western Europe. In general, both R1a-M458 and R1a-M558 occur at low but informative frequencies in Balkan populations with known Slavonic heritage.
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  103. ^Loginova, Nina N.; Radovanović, Milan M.; Yamashkin, Anatoliy A.; Vasin, Goran; Petrović, Marko D.; Demirović Bajrami, Dunja (31 December 2020)."Analysis of the population dynamics in the" Slavic World "with a special focus on Russia".Indonesian Journal of Geography.52(3): 317.doi:10.22146/ijg.51202.ISSN2354-9114.
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  108. ^This number is derived from the 2022 total population estimate of 3,816,459, multiplied by 0.501 based on the 2013 50.1% Bosniak share estimate. It is not certain that the Bosniak share was still 50.1% in 2022. TheFactbooknotes: "Republika Srpska authorities dispute the methodology and refuse to recognize the results.""Bosnia and Herzegovina - the World Factbook".18 August 2022.
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  111. ^abcde"Stanovništvo Crne Gore prema polu, tipu naselja, nacionalnoj, odnosno etničkoj pripadnosti, vjeroispovijesti i maternjem jeziku po opštinama u Crnoj Gori"[Population of Montenegro by sex, type of settlement, national or ethnic affiliation, religion and mother tongue by municipalities in Montenegro](PDF)(in Montenegrin and English).Retrieved19 August2022.
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  114. ^Kolev, Yordan, Българите извън България 1878 – 1945, 2005, р. 18Quote: "В началото на XXI в. общият брой на етническите българи в България и зад граница се изчислява на около 10 милиона души./At the beginning of the 21st century, the total number of ethnic Bulgarians in Bulgaria and abroad was estimated at about 10 million people."
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  116. ^Cole, Jeffrey E.(25 May 2011).Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia.Abc-Clio.ISBN978-1-59884-303-3.{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help)
  117. ^Danver, Steven L. (10 March 2015).Native Peoples of the World.Routledge.ISBN978-1-317-46400-6.{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help)
  118. ^Palermo, Francesco (2011)."National Minorities in Inter-State Relations: Filling the Legal Vacuum?".In Francesco Palermo (ed.).National Minorities in Inter-State Relations.Natalie Sabanadze. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 11.ISBN978-90-04-17598-3.
  119. ^Daphne Winland (2004), "Croatian Diaspora", in Melvin Ember; Carol R. Ember; Ian Skoggard (eds.),Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World. Volume I: Overviews and Topics; Volume II: Diaspora Communities,vol. 2 (illustrated ed.),Springer Science+Business,p. 76,ISBN978-0-306-48321-9,It is estimated that 4.5 million Croatians live outside Croatia...
  120. ^"Hrvatski Svjetski Kongres".Archived fromthe originalon 23 June 2003.Retrieved1 June2016.,Croatian World Congress, "4.5 million Croats and people of Croatian heritage live outside of the Republic of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina"
  121. ^An estimated 57.3% ethnic Czechs (2021) on an estimated 10,705,384 total population (2022) makes about 6.1 million. However, 31.6% was unspecified, so this may be far off the real figure."Czech Republic".CIA - The World Factbook.Retrieved16 August2022.
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  125. ^"Program političke stranke GIG".Do Nato intervencije na Srbiju, 24.03.1999.godine, u Gori je živelo oko 18.000 Goranaca. U Srbiji i bivšim jugoslovenskim republikama nalazi se oko 40.000 Goranaca, a značajan broj Goranaca živi i radi u zemljama Evropske unije i u drugim zemljama. Po našim procenama ukupan broj Goranaca, u Gori u Srbiji i u rasejanju iznosi oko 60.000.
  126. ^Kwidzińska, Sławina (2007).The Kashubs Today: Culture — Language — Identity(PDF).Gdańsk: The Kashubian Institute. pp. 34–35.ISBN978-83-89079-78-7.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 4 March 2016.Retrieved19 August2022.
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  131. ^Including 36,522,000 single declared ethnic identity, 871,000 multiple declared ethnic identities (Polish and another ethnic identity, especially 431,000 Polish and Silesian, 216,000 Polish and Kashubian and 224,000 Polish and another identity)."Przynależność narodowo-etniczna ludności – wyniki spisu ludności i mieszkań 2011"(PDF).stat.gov.pl.29 January 2013.Retrieved16 August2022.
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