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Sobekneferu
Neferusobek
Scemiophris fromGreek:Σκεμίοφρις
Partially defaced bust of a female
Statue of Sobekneferuwhich was lost duringWorld War II
Pharaoh
Reign3 years, 10 months, and 24 days according to theTurin Canonin the mid-18th century BC[1][2][a]
PredecessorAmenemhat IV
SuccessorSobekhotep IorWegaf
Royal titulary
Horus name
mryt-rꜥ
Meryt-re
Beloved of Re[14][15]
G5X1
N5U6M17M17X1

G5X1
N5Z1U6
X1
Nebty name
sꜣt-sḫm-nbt-tꜣwy
Sat-sekhem-nebet-tawy
The daughter of the powerful one is,
Mistress of the Two Lands[14]
G16
X1
G39		S42V30
X1		N16
N16
Golden Horus
ḏdt-ḫꜥw
Djedet-khau
Stable of appearances[14]
G8
X1
R11N28G43
S12
Prenomen (Praenomen)
kꜣ-sbk-rꜥ
Ka-sobek-re
The ka of Sobek-Re[14]
M23L2
N5I4D28
Nomen
sbk-nfrw
Sobek-neferu/Neferu-sobek
Beauty of Sobek[14][16]
X1G39N5
F35F35F35I5A

sbk-šdt-nfrw
Sobek-shedet-neferu
Beauty of Sobek, lord ofShedyt[17]
X1G39N5
I5AF30
X1		F35F35F35
ConsortAmenemhat IV?
FatherAmenemhat III
BurialNorthern Mazghuna pyramid?
DynastyTwelfth Dynasty

SobekneferuorNeferusobek(Ancient Egyptian:Sbk-nfrwmeaning 'Beauty of Sobek') was apharaohofancient Egyptand the last ruler of theTwelfth Dynastyof theMiddle Kingdom.She ascended to the throne following the death ofAmenemhat IV,possibly her brother or husband, though their relationship is unproven. Instead, she asserted legitimacy through her fatherAmenemhat III.Her reign lasted 3 years, 10 months, and 24 days, according to theTurin King List.

She adopted the fullroyal titulary,distinguishing herself from prior female rulers. She was also the first ruler to have a name associated with the crocodile godSobek.Contemporary evidence for her reign is scant: there are a few partial statues – one with her face – and inscriptions that have been uncovered. It is assumed that theNorthern Mazghuna pyramidwas intended for her, though this assignment is speculative with no firm evidence to confirm it. The monument was abandoned with only the substructure ever completed. Apapyrusdiscovered inHaragehmentions a place calledSekhemSobekneferuthat may refer to the pyramid. Her rule is attested on several king lists.

Family[edit]

See also:Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt family tree
Amenemhat III, father of Sobekneferu

Sobekneferu was the daughter of PharaohAmenemhat III,[5][18]but her mother's identity is unknown.[19]Amenemhat III had two known wives,Aatand an unnamed queen, both buried in hispyramid at Dahshur.He had at least one other daughter,Neferuptah,who had a burial at hissecond pyramid at Hawarathat was eventually moved toher own pyramid.[20]Neferuptah appears to have been groomed as Amenemhat III's heir as she had her name enclosed in a cartouche.[21]Evidence of burials of three other princesses –Hathorhotep,Nubhotepet,and Sithathor – were found at the Dahshur complex, but it is not clear whether these princesses were his daughters as the complex was used for royal burials throughout theThirteenth Dynasty.[22]

Amenemhat III's eventual heir, Amenemhat IV, is attested to be the son ofHetepti,though her titulary lacks reference to her being a 'King's Wife'.[23]The relationship between Amenemhat IV and Sobekneferu remains unclear. According to the ancient historianManethoinAegyptiacathey were brother and sister.[5]According to Gae Callender they were also probably married.[24]Although, neither the title of 'King's Wife' nor 'King's Sister' are attested for Sobekneferu.[19]Sobekneferu's accession may have been motivated by the lack of a male heir for Amenemhat IV.[5]However, two kings of the Thirteenth Dynasty,Sobekhotep IandSonbef,have been identified as possible sons of his based on their shared nomen 'Amenemhat'.[25]As such, Sobekneferu may have usurped the throne after Amenemhat IV's death, viewing his heirs as illegitimate.[26]

Female kingship[edit]

Sobekneferu was one of the few women that ruled in Egypt,[27][28]and the first to adopt thefull royal titulary,distinguishing herself from any prior female rulers.[5][29]She was also the first ruler associated with the crocodile godSobekby name, whose identity appears in both her birth and throne names.[30]Kara Cooney views ancient Egypt as unique in allowing women to acquire formal – and absolute – power. She posits that women were elevated to the throne during crises to guide the civilization and maintain social order. Though, she also notes that, this elevation to power was illusory. Women acquired the throne as temporary replacements for a male leader; their reigns were regularly targeted for erasure by their successors; and overall, Egyptian society was oppressive to women.[31]

In ancient Egyptian historiography, there is some evidence for other female rulers. As early as theFirst Dynasty,Merneithis proposed to have ruled as regent for her son.[32]In theFifth Dynasty,Setibhormay have been a female king regnant based on the manner her monuments were targets for destruction.[33]Another candidate,Nitocris,is generally considered to have ruled in theSixth Dynasty,[34]though there is little proof of her historicity[33][35]and she is not mentioned before the Eighteenth Dynasty.[34]The kingship of Nitocris may instead be a Greek legend[35]and that the name originated with an incorrect translation of the name of the male pharaohNeitiqerty Siptah.[36]

Reign[edit]

Serpentinitestatuette head of Sobekneferu from theLouvre,Paris

TheMiddle Kingdomwas in decline by the time of Sobekneferu's accession.[37]The peak of the Middle Kingdom is attributed toSenusret IIIand Amenemhat III.[38][39]Senusret III formed the basis for the legendary characterSesostrisdescribed by Manetho andHerodotus.[40][41]He led military expeditions intoNubiaand into Syria-Palestine[42][43]and built a 60-metre-tall (200 ft) mudbrick pyramid as his monument.[44]He reigned for 39 years, as evidenced by an inscription inAbydos,where he was buried.[45]Amenemhat III, in contrast, presided over a peaceful Egypt that consisted of monumental constructions, the development ofFaiyum,and numerous mining expeditions.[46][47]His reign lasted at least 45 years, probably longer.[24]He built two pyramids,at Dahshurandat Hawara.[48]Nicolas Grimalnotes that such long reigns contributed to the end of the Twelfth Dynasty, but without the collapse that ended theOld Kingdom.[37]Amenemhat IV ruled for nine or ten years.[49]There is little information regarding his reign.[24]

It is to this backdrop that Sobekneferu acquired the throne.[37]She reigned for around four years, but as with her predecessor, there are few surviving records.[50]Her death brought a close to the Twelfth Dynasty[51][52]and began theSecond Intermediate Periodspanning the following two centuries.[53]

This period is poorly understood owing to the paucity of references to the rulers of the time.[54]She was succeeded by eitherSobekhotep I[55]orWegaf,[56]who inaugurated theThirteenth Dynasty.[37]Stephen Quirke proposed, based on the numerosity of kingships and brevity of their rule, that a rotating succession of kings from Egypt's most powerful families took the throne.[50][57]They retained Itj-tawy as their capital through the Thirteenth Dynasty.[58][59]Their role, however, was relegated to a much lesser status than earlier and power rested within the administration.[57][59]It is generally accepted that Egypt remained unified until late into the dynasty.[58]Kim Ryholt contends that theFourteenth Dynastyinstead arose in the Nile Delta at the end of Sobekneferu's reign as a rival to the Thirteenth.[60]Thomas Schneider argues that the evidence for this hypothesis is weak.[61]

Attestations[edit]

Contemporary evidence[edit]

Bust of Sobekneferu in theLouvre Museum

Only a small collection of sources attest to Sobekneferu's rule as pharaoh of Egypt.[50]AgraffitoinKumma,aNubianfortress, records the height of the Nile inundation at 1.83 m (6 ft) during her third regnal year.[49][50]Another inscription discovered in the Eastern Desert records "year 4, second month of theSeason of the Emergence".[62]TheBritish Museumhas a fine cylinder seal bearing her name androyal titularyin its collection.[50][63]The seal is made of glazedsteatiteand is 4.42 cm (1.74 in) long with a diameter of 1.55 cm (0.61 in).[64]

A handful of headless statues of Sobekneferu have been identified.[5][50][65]In one quartzite image, she blends feminine and masculine dress with an inscription reading 'daughter ofRe(?), of his body, Sobekneferu, may she live like Re forever'.[50][65]On her torso rests a pendant modelled on that worn bySenusret III.[65]Three basalt statues of the female king were found inTell ed-Dab'a;[66]two depict her in a seated posture, another shows her kneeling.[67][68]In one, she is depicted trampling theNine Bows,representing the subjugation of Egypt's enemies.[5]The three statues appear to be life-sized.[68]One statuewith her head is known. The bust was held in theEgyptian Museum of Berlinbut was lost duringWorld War II.Its existence is confirmed by photographic images and plaster casts. It fits on top of the lower part of a seated statuette discovered atSemnawhich bears the royal symbolsmꜣ tꜣwyon the side of the throne.[69]The lower half is held at theMuseum of Fine Arts, Boston.[70][71]

Damaged statuette of a Late Middle Kingdom Queen in theMetropolitan Museum of Art,thought to represent Sobekneferu

There is a damaged statuette in theMetropolitan Museum of Artin New York that has been suggested to represent Sobekneferu, though this assignment is unverified.[70]The schist bust depicts a woman in a wig, wearing a crown composed of a uraeus cobra and two vultures with outstretched wings which is of unknown iconography, and theḥb-sdcloak.[50][72]The base of another statue bearing her name and identified as the representation of a king's royal daughter was discovered inGezer,though it may also refer to a daughter of Senusret I or another unknown Sobekneferu.[73][74]A headless black basalt sphinx discovered byÉdouard NavilleinKhatana-Qantirbearing a damaged inscription is also tentatively assigned to Sobekneferu.[75]

There is evidence that she had structures built inHeracleopolis Magnaand added to the Pyramid of Amenemhat III in Hawara.[50]She left inscriptions on four granitepapyriformcolumns found at a temple in Kom el-Akârib, while a further ten granite beams there may date to the same period.[76]Her monumental works consistently associate her with Amenemhat III rather than Amenemhat IV, supporting the theory that she was the royal daughter of Amenemhat III and perhaps only a stepsister to Amenemhat IV, whose mother was not royal. Contemporary sources from her reign show that Sobekneferu adopted only the 'King's Daughter' title, which further supports this hypothesis.[73]An example of such an inscription comes from a limestone block of 'the Labyrinth' of the Pyramid at Hawara. It reads 'Beloved ofDḥdḥtthe good godNỉ-mꜣꜥt-rꜥ[Amenemhat III] given [...] * Daughter of Re, Sobekneferu lord of Shedet, given all life'. The inscription is also the only known reference to a goddessDḥdḥt.[77][78]By contrast, Amenemhat IV's name does not appear at Hawara.[79]

Historical sources[edit]

Drawing byFlinders Petrieof the cylinder seal of Sobekneferu in theBritish Museum[80]

She is mentioned on theKarnaklist of early Egyptian kings,[81]theSaqqara Tablet,[82]andTurin King List,[50]but is conspicuously excluded from theAbydosking list.[83]Her exclusion, along with all other female kings, pharaohs of theFirstandSecond Intermediate Periods,and of theAmarna Period,is an indicator of whomRamesses IIandSeti Iviewed as the legitimate rulers of Egypt.[83]She is credited in the Turin Canon with a reign of 3 years, 10 months, and 24 days.[49][84][85]She is mentioned by Manetho as 'Scemiophris', where she is credited with a reign of four years.[86]

Funerary monument[edit]

Sobekneferu's tomb has not yet been positively identified. TheNorthern Mazghuna pyramidis assumed to be her monument. There is, however, no clear evidence to confirm this assignment[87][88]and the pyramid may date to a period well after the end of the Twelfth Dynasty.[89]Only its substructure was completed; construction of the superstructure and wider temple complex was never begun. The passages of the substructure had a complex plan. A stairway descended south from the east side of the pyramid leading to a square chamber which connected to the next sloping passage leading west to a portcullis. The portcullis consisted of a 42,000-kilogram (93,000 lb) quartzite block intended to slide into and block the passage. Beyond the passage wound through several more turns and a second smaller portcullis before terminating at the antechamber. South of this lay the burial chamber which was almost entirely occupied by a quartzite monolith which acted as the vessel for a sarcophagus. In a deep recess lay a quartzite lid which was to be slid into place over the coffin and then locked into place by a stone slab blocking it. The builders had all exposed surfaces painted red and added lines of black paint. A causeway leading to the pyramid was built of mudbrick, which must have been used by the workers. Though the burial place had been constructed, no burial was interred at the site.[88][89]A place calledSekhemSobekneferuis mentioned on a papyrus found atHaragehwhich may be the name of her pyramid.[90][91]On a funerary stela from Abydos, now in Marseille, there is mention of a storeroom administrator of Sobekneferu named Heby. The stela dates to the 13th Dynasty and attests to an ongoing funerary cult.[92][93]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^Proposed dates for the reign of Sobekeneferu: c. 1805–1802 BC,[3][4]c. 1790–1786 BC,[5][6]c. 1790–1785 BC,[7]c. 1787–1783 BC,[8]c. 1785–1782 BC,[9]c. 1785–1781 BC,[10]c. 1777–1773 BC,[11][12]c. 1763–1760 BC,[2]c. 1760–1755 BC.[13]

References[edit]

  1. ^Schneider 2006,p. 174.
  2. ^abKrauss & Warburton 2006,pp. 480 & 492.
  3. ^Keller 2005,p. 294.
  4. ^Oppenheim et al. 2015,p. xix.
  5. ^abcdefgGillam 2001,p. 301.
  6. ^Redford 2001,Egyptian King List.
  7. ^Grimal 1992,p. 391.
  8. ^Lehner 2008,p. 8.
  9. ^Clayton 1994,p. 84.
  10. ^Dodson & Hilton 2004,p. 289.
  11. ^Shaw 2003,p. 483.
  12. ^Cooney 2018,p. 6.
  13. ^Wilkinson 2010,p. xv.
  14. ^abcdeLeprohon 2013,p. 60.
  15. ^Cooney 2018,p. 87.
  16. ^Cooney 2018,p. 88.
  17. ^The British Museum n.d.,Description.
  18. ^Dodson & Hilton 2004,pp. 92 & 95.
  19. ^abZecchi 2010,p. 84.
  20. ^Dodson & Hilton 2004,pp. 93, 95–96 & 99.
  21. ^Dodson & Hilton 2004,p. 98.
  22. ^Dodson & Hilton 2004,pp. 92, 95–98.
  23. ^Dodson & Hilton 2004,p. 95.
  24. ^abcCallender 2003,p. 158.
  25. ^Dodson & Hilton 2004,pp. 102 & 104.
  26. ^Ryholt 1997,p. 294.
  27. ^Cooney 2018,pp. 12 & 14.
  28. ^Wilkinson 2010,pp. 128–129.
  29. ^Robins 2001,p. 108.
  30. ^Zecchi 2010,pp. 84–85.
  31. ^Cooney 2018,pp. 9–13.
  32. ^Cooney 2018,p. 30.
  33. ^abRoth 2005,p. 12.
  34. ^abRyholt 2000,p. 92.
  35. ^abCooney 2018,pp. 9–10.
  36. ^Ryholt 2000,pp. 92–93.
  37. ^abcdGrimal 1992,p. 171.
  38. ^Callender 2003,pp. 154–158.
  39. ^Grimal 1992,pp. 166–170.
  40. ^Grimal 1992,p. 166.
  41. ^Callender 2003,p. 154.
  42. ^Callender 2003,pp. 154–155.
  43. ^Grimal 1992,p. 168.
  44. ^Callender 2003,p. 156.
  45. ^Schneider 2006,p. 172.
  46. ^Callender 2003,pp. 156–157.
  47. ^Grimal 1992,p. 170.
  48. ^Callender 2003,pp. 157–158.
  49. ^abcSchneider 2006,p. 173.
  50. ^abcdefghijCallender 2003,p. 159.
  51. ^Gillam 2001,p. 403.
  52. ^Simpson 2001,p. 456.
  53. ^Grimal 1992,p. 182.
  54. ^Ryholt 1997,p. 2.
  55. ^Dodson & Hilton 2004,pp. 100&102.
  56. ^Callender 2003,pp. 159–160.
  57. ^abWilkinson 2010,p. 131.
  58. ^abQuirke 2001,p. 394.
  59. ^abGrimal 1992,p. 183.
  60. ^Ryholt 1997,p. 75.
  61. ^Schneider 2006,p. 177.
  62. ^Almásy & Kiss 2010,pp. 174–175.
  63. ^The British Museum & n.d. b,description.
  64. ^The British Museum & n.d. b,materials, technique & dimensions.
  65. ^abcBerman & Letellier 1996,pp. 46–47.
  66. ^Bietak 1999,p. 950.
  67. ^Cooney 2018,p. 338.
  68. ^abHabachi 1954,pp. 458–460.
  69. ^Fay et al. 2015,pp. 89–91.
  70. ^abCooney 2018,p. 339.
  71. ^MFA n.d.
  72. ^MMA n.d.
  73. ^abRyholt 1997,p. 213.
  74. ^Weinstein 1974,pp. 51–53.
  75. ^Naville 1887,p. 21.
  76. ^Arnold 1996,p. 46.
  77. ^Uphill 2010,p. 34.
  78. ^Petrie 1890,p. Pl. XI.
  79. ^Zecchi 2010,p. 85.
  80. ^Petrie 1917,p. pl. XIV.
  81. ^Louvre n.d.,Chambre des Ancêtres.
  82. ^Hawass 2010,pp. 154–157.
  83. ^abThe British Museum n.d.,curator's comments.
  84. ^Ryholt 1997,p. 15.
  85. ^Malék 1982,p. 97, fig. 2, col. 10, row. 2.
  86. ^Waddell, Manetho & Ptolemy 1964,p. 69.
  87. ^Lehner 2008,p. 184.
  88. ^abVerner 2001,p. 433.
  89. ^abLehner 2008,p. 185.
  90. ^Cooney 2018,p. 96.
  91. ^The Petrie Museum n.d.
  92. ^Siesse 2019,p. 130.
  93. ^Ilin-Tomich n.d.

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Royal titulary[edit]

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