Somatotype and constitutional psychology
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Somatotypeis a theory proposed in the 1940s by the AmericanpsychologistWilliam Herbert Sheldonto categorize the human physique according to the relative contribution of three fundamental elements which he termedsomatotypes,classified by him asectomorphic,mesomorphic,andendomorphic.He created these terms borrowing from the threegerm layersofembryonic development:Theendoderm(which develops into thedigestive tract), themesoderm(which becomesmuscle,heart,andblood vessels) and theectoderm(which forms the skin andnervous system).[1]Later variations of these categories, developed by his original research assistant Barbara Heath, and later by Lindsay Carter and Rob Rempel, are used by academics today.[2][3]
Constitutional psychologyis a theory developed by Sheldon in the 1940s, which attempted to associate his somatotype classifications with humantemperamenttypes.[4][5]The foundation of these ideas originated withFrancis Galtonandeugenics.[2]Sheldon andEarnest Hootonwere seen as leaders of aschool of thought,popular inanthropologyat the time, which held that the size and shape of a person's body indicatedintelligence,moral worth and future achievement.[2]
In his 1954 book,Atlas of Men,Sheldon categorized all possible body types according to a scale ranging from 1 to 7 for each of the threesomatotypes,where the pureendomorphis 7–1–1, the puremesomorph1–7–1 and the pureectomorphscores 1–1–7.[6][7][8]From type number, an individual's mental characteristics could supposedly be predicted.[7]In a late version of apseudoscientificthread withincriminologyin which criminality is claimed to be an innate characteristic that can be recognized through particularphysiognomicmarkers (as inCesare Lombroso's theory ofphrenology), Sheldon contended that criminals tended to be 'mesomorphic'.[9]The system of somatotyping is still in use in the field ofphysical education.[10]
The three types
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Bodytypes.jpg/300px-Bodytypes.jpg)
Sheldon's "somatotypes" and their associated physical and psychological traits were characterized as follows:[3][8][11]
Somatotype Physical traits Psychological traits Notes Ectomorphic characterized as skinny, weak, and usually tall with low testosterone levels described as intelligent, gentle and calm, but self-conscious, introverted and anxious. [3][6][8][12] Mesomorphic characterized as naturally hard and strong, with even weight distribution, muscular, thick-skinned, and as having good posture with narrow waist described as competitive, extroverted, and tough. [3][6][8] Endomorphic characterized as fat, usually short, and having difficulty losing weight described as outgoing, friendly, happy and laid-back, but also lazy and selfish [3][6][8]
Stereotyping
[edit]There may be some evidence that different physiques carrycultural stereotypes,as some cultures are more prone to certain physiques. According to one study endomorphs are likely to be perceived as slow, sloppy, and lazy. Mesomorphs, in contrast, are typically stereotyped as popular and hardworking, whereas ectomorphs are often viewed as intelligent yet fearful.[13]
Heath–Carter formula
[edit]Sheldon's physical taxonomy is still in use, particularly the Heath–Carter variant of the methodology.[14]This formulaic approach utilises an individual's weight (kg), height (cm), upper arm circumference (cm), maximal calf circumference (cm), femur breadth (cm), humerus breadth (cm), triceps skinfold (mm), subscapular skinfold (mm), supraspinal skinfold (mm), and medial calf skinfold (mm), and remains popular in anthropomorphic research, according to Rempel: "with modifications by Parnell in the late 1950s, and by Heath and Carter in the mid 1960s somatotype has continued to be the best single qualifier of total body shape".[15]
This variant utilizes the following series of equations to assess a subject's traits against each of the three somatotypes, each assessed on a seven-point scale, with 0 indicating no correlation and 7 indicating a very strong correlation:
where:
- Ectomorphy:Calculate the subject'sPonderal Index:
- If,
- If,
- If,
This numerical approach has gone on to be incorporated in the currentsports scienceandphysical educationcurriculums of numerous institutions, ranging from the UK's secondary level GCSE curriculums (14- to 16-year-olds), the Indian UPSC Civil Service exams, to MSc programs worldwide, and has been utilized in numerous academic papers, including:
- Rowing athletes[16]
- Tennis athletes[17]
- Judo athletes[18]
- Volleyball athletes[19]
- Gymnasts[20][21]
- Soccer athletes[22]
- Triathletes[23]
- Han people[24]
- Persons withdiabetes[25][26]
- Taekwondoathletes[27]
- Persons with eating disorders[28]
- Dragon boatparticipants[29]
Criticism
[edit]"The Varieties of Human Physique" by Sheldon et al (1940) classified body types into three categories using data processes that would not be accepted by researchers today.[30]Sheldon's ideas that body type was an indicator of temperament, moral character or potential – while popular in an atmosphere accepting of the theories ofeugenics– were later disputed.[2][31]
A key criticism of Sheldon's constitutional theory is that it was not a theory at all but a general assumption of continuity between structure and behavior and a set of descriptive concepts to measure physique and behavior in a scaled manner.[3]His use of thousands ofphotographs of naked Ivy League undergraduates,obtained without explicit consent from a pre-existing program evaluating student posture, has been strongly criticized.[2][32]
While popular in the 1950s,[32]Sheldon's claims have since been dismissed as "quackery".[3][4][33][34][35] Barbara Honeyman Heath, who was Sheldon's main assistant in compilingAtlas of Men,accused him of falsifying the data he used in writing the book.[2]
See also
[edit]- Biological anthropology
- Biomechanics
- Body mass index
- Body shape
- Eugenics in the United States
- Female body shape
- Kinanthropometry
- Neurobiological effects of physical exercise
- Physiognomy
- Physiology
- Somatology
References
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- ^abcdefVertinsky, P. (2007)."Physique as destiny: William H. Sheldon, Barbara Honeyman Heath, and the struggle for hegemony in the science of somatotyping".Canadian Bulletin of Medical History.24(2): 291–316.doi:10.3138/cbmh.24.2.291.PMID18447308.
- ^abcdefgRoeckelein, Jon E. (1998)."Sheldon's type theory".Dictionary of Theories, Laws, and Concepts in Psychology.Greenwood.pp. 427–428.ISBN9780313304606.
- ^abRafter, N. (2008). "Somatotyping, antimodernism, and the production of criminological knowledge".Criminology.45(4): 805–33.doi:10.1111/j.1745-9125.2007.00092.x.
- ^"Constitutional Theory".The Penguin Dictionary of Psychology.Penguin Books. 2009.ISBN9780141030241– viaCredo Reference.
- ^abcdMull, Amanda (2018-11-06)."Americans can't escape long-disproven body stereotypes".The Atlantic.Retrieved2018-12-31.
- ^abSheldon, W.H.(1954).Atlas of Men: A guide for somatotyping the adult male at all ages.New York:Harper.
- ^abcdeKamlesh, M.L. (2011)."Ch. 15: Personality and sport § Sheldon's constitutional typology".Psychology in the Physical Education and Sport.Pinnacle Technology.ISBN9781618202482.[permanent dead link]
- ^di Cristina, Bruce; Gottschalk, Martin; Mayzer, Roni (2014)."Four currents of criminological thought".In Bruce Arrigo; Heather Bersot (eds.).The Routledge Handbook of International Crime and Justice Studies.Routledge. pp. 13–15.ISBN978-1-136-86850-4.
- ^Kathirgamam, Vijayakumar; Ambike, Mandar; Bokan, Raju; Bharambe, Vaishaly; Prasad, Arun (2020-04-15)."Analyzing the effects of exercise prescribed based on health-related fitness assessment among different somatotypes".Journal of Health Sciences.10(1): 83–89.doi:10.17532/jhsci.2020.876.ISSN1986-8049.S2CID218816659.
- ^Timmermans, Floyd; Jansen, Britt; Mokken, Sterre; Heer, Merel; Veen, Kevin; Bouman, Mark-Bram; Mullender, Margriet; Grift, Tim (2021-02-17)."The ideal location of the male nipple-areolar complex: A pinpointing algorithm".International Journal of Transgender Health.22(4): 403–411.doi:10.1080/26895269.2021.1884926.hdl:1765/135046.PMC10561627.PMID37818394.S2CID233928744.
- ^ "What is your body type?".2014-04-24.Retrieved2018-12-31.
- ^ Ryckman, R.M.; Robbins, M.A.; Kaczor, L.M.; Gold, J.A. (1989). "Male and female raters' stereotyping of male and female physiques".Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.15(2): 244–251.doi:10.1177/0146167289152011.S2CID145753602.
- ^Norton, Kevin; Olds, Tim (1996).Anthropometrica: A Textbook of Body Measurement for Sports and Health Courses.Australian Sports Commission; UNSW Press.ISBN978-0868402239.
- ^Rempel, R (1994).A Modified Somatotype Assessment Methodology.Simon Fraser University.ISBN978-0-612-06785-1.
- ^Kerr, D; Ross, WD; Norton, K; Hume, P; Kagawa, Masaharu (2007)."Olympic Lightweight and Open Rowers possess distinctive physical and proportionality characteristics for selecting elite athletes"(PDF).Journal of Sports Sciences.25(1): 43–53.doi:10.1080/02640410600812179.PMID17127580.S2CID19851908.
- ^Sánchez-Muñoz, C; Sanz, D; Mikel Zabala, M (November 2007)."Anthropometric characteristics, body composition and somatotype of elite junior tennis players".Br J Sports Med.41(11): 793–799.doi:10.1136/bjsm.2007.037119.PMC2465306.PMID17957016.
- ^Lewandowska, J; Buśko, K; Pastuszak, A; Boguszewska, K (2011)."Somatotype Variables Related to Muscle Torque and Power in Judoists".Journal of Human Kinetics.30(2011): 21–28.doi:10.2478/v10078-011-0069-y(inactive 2024-08-27).PMC3588646.PMID23487284.
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:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2024 (link) - ^Papadopoulou, S (January 2003). de Ridder, H.; Olds, T. (eds.). "Anthropometric characteristics and body composition of Greek elite women volleyball players".Kinanthropometry VII(7 ed.). Pochefstroom University for CHE: 93–110.
- ^Purenović-Ivanović, T; Popović, R (April 2014)."Somatotype of Top-Level Serbian Rhythmic Gymnasts".Journal of Human Kinetics.40(1): 181–187.doi:10.2478/hukin-2014-0020(inactive 2024-08-27).ISSN1899-7562.PMC4096098.PMID25031686.
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:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2024 (link) - ^Irurtia Amigó, Alfredo (2009). "Height, weight, somatotype and body composition in elite Spanish gymnasts from childhood to adulthood".Apunts Med Esport.61:18–28.
- ^Petroski (2013). "Anthropometric, morphological and somatotype characteristics of athletes of the Brazilian Men's volleyball team: an 11-year descriptive study".Brazilian Journal of Kineanthropometry & Human Performance.15(2): 184.
- ^Leake, Christopher N.; Carter, JE (1991). "Comparison of body composition and somatotype of trained female triathletes".Journal of Sports Sciences.9(2): 125–135.doi:10.1080/02640419108729874.PMID1895351.
- ^Yang, LT (2015). "Study on the adult physique with the Heath-Carter anthropometric somatotype in the Han of Xi'an, China".Anat Sci Int.91(2): 180–7.doi:10.1007/s12565-015-0283-0.PMID25940679.S2CID29933361.
- ^Baltadjiev, AG (2013). "Somatotype characteristics of female patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus".Folia Med (Plovdiv).55(1): 64–9.doi:10.2478/folmed-2013-0007(inactive 2024-08-27).PMID23905489.S2CID45784636.
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:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2024 (link) - ^Baltadjiev, AG (2012). "Somatotype characteristics of male patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus".Folia Med (Plovdiv).54(2): 40–5.doi:10.2478/v10153-011-0087-5(inactive 2024-08-27).PMID23101284.S2CID3618307.
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:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2024 (link) - ^Noh; et al. (2013). "Somatotype analysis of elite Taekwondo athletes compared to non-athletes for sports health sciences".Toxicology and Environmental Health Sciences.5(4): 189–196.Bibcode:2013TxEHS...5..189N.doi:10.1007/s13530-013-0178-1.S2CID16963270.
- ^Stewarta; et al. (2014). "Somatotype: a more sophisticated approach to body image work with eating disorder sufferers".Advances in Eating Disorders: Theory, Research and Practice.2(2): 125–135.doi:10.1080/21662630.2013.874665.S2CID145547027.
- ^Pourbehzadi; et al. (2012). "The Relationship between Posture and Somatotype and Certain Biomechanical Parameters of Iran Women's National Dragon Boat Team".Annals of Biological Research.3(7): 3657–3662.
- ^Maddan, Sean; Walker, Jeffery T.; Miller, J. Mitchell (2009). "The BMI as a somatotypic measure of physique:A rejoinder to Jeremy E.C. Genovese".The Social Science Journal.46(2): 394–401.doi:10.1016/j.soscij.2009.04.006.S2CID144994945.
- ^Vertinsky (2007)."Body type".In Reynolds, Cecil R.; Fletcher-Janzen, Elaine (eds.).Encyclopedia of Special Education: A reference for the education of children, adolescents, and adults with disabilities and other exceptional individuals(3rd ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley.ISBN9780471678021.Retrieved2014-11-20– viaCredo Reference.
- ^abRosenbaum, Ron (15 January 1995)."The great ivy league nude posture photo scandal".The New York Times.Retrieved2 December2011.
- ^Zentner, Marcel; Shiner, Rebecca L. (2012).Handbook of Tempermaent.Guilford Press.p.6.ISBN9781462506514– via Google Books.
- ^Ryckman, Richard M. (2007).Theories of Personality(9th ed.).Cengage Learning.pp.260–261.ISBN9780495099086– via Google Books.
- ^"Nude photos are sealed at Smithsonian".The New York Times.21 January 1995.Retrieved1 December2011.
Sources
[edit]- Gerrig, Richard; Zimbardo, Phillip G. (2002).Psychology and Life(16th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.ISBN0-205-33511-X.
- Hartl, Emil M.; Monnelly, Edward P.; Elderkin, Roland D. (1982).Physique and Delinquent Behavior (A Thirty-year Follow-up of William H. Sheldon's Varieties of Delinquent Youth).New York: Academic Press.ISBN0-12-328480-5.
Further reading
[edit]- Sheldon, William H. (1942).The Varieties of Temperament.New York; London:Harper & Brothers.Archived fromthe originalon 2012-02-24 – viaUniversity of Delhi.
- Carter, J.E. Lindsay; Heath, Barbara Honeyman (1990).Somatotyping-development and Applications.Cambridge University Press.ISBN0521351170.
- Arraj, Tyra; Arraj, James (January 1988)."Ch. 4:William Sheldon's Body and Temperament Types".Tracking the Elusive Human.Vol. I. Midland, OR: Inner Growth.ISBN0914073168– via innerexplorations.
- Coughlan, Robert (June 25, 1951)."What manner of morph are you?".Life.Vol. 30, no. 26. pp. 65–79 – viaGoogle Books.