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Starship
A Starship prototype in launch configuration:Starship spacecraft S24stacked onSuper Heavy B7.
FunctionGeneral purposeSuper-heavy lift launch vehicle
Manufacturer
Country of origin
  • United States
Project costAt least US$5 billion[1]
Cost per launch$100 million (expendable)[2]
Size
Height121.3 m (398 ft)
Diameter9 m (30 ft)
Mass5,000,000 kg (11,000,000 lb)
Capacity
Payload toLEO
Mass100,000–150,000 kg (220,000–330,000 lb)
Volume1,000 m3(35,000 cu ft)
Associated rockets
Derivative workStarship HLS
Comparable
Launch history
StatusIn development
Launch sites
Total launches4
Success(es)2 (IFT-3[a],IFT-4)
Failure(s)2 (IFT-1,IFT-2)
First flight20 April 2023;14 months ago(2023-04-20)
Last flight6 June 2024;40 days ago(2024-06-06)
First stage –Super Heavy
Height71 m (233 ft)
Diameter9 m (30 ft)
Empty mass200,000 kg (440,000 lb)
Gross mass3,600,000 kg (7,900,000 lb)
Propellant mass3,400,000 kg (7,500,000 lb)
Powered by33 ×Raptorengines
Maximum thrust74,400 kN (16,700,000 lbf)
Specific impulseSL:327 s (3.21 km/s)
PropellantCH4/LOX
Second stage –Starship
Height50.3 m (165 ft)
Diameter9 m (30 ft)
Empty mass~100,000 kg (220,000 lb)[3]
Gross mass1,300,000 kg (2,900,000 lb)[b]
Propellant mass1,200,000 kg (2,600,000 lb)
Powered by3 ×Raptorengines
3 ×Raptor vacuumengines
Maximum thrust12,300 kN (2,800,000 lbf)
Specific impulseSL:327 s (3.21 km/s)
vac:380 s (3.7 km/s)
PropellantCH4/LOX
[edit on Wikidata]

Starshipis a two-stage fullyreusablesuper heavy-lift launch vehicleunder development bySpaceX.As of July 2024, it is the most massive and powerful vehicle to ever fly.[4]SpaceX has developed Starship with the intention of lowering launch costs usingeconomies of scale.[5]SpaceX aims to achieve this byreusing both rocket stages,increasing payload mass to orbit, increasing launch frequency, creating amass-manufacturingpipeline andadapting it to a wide rangeof space missions.[6][7]Starship is the latest project in SpaceX'sreusable launch system development programandplan to colonize Mars.

Starship has two stages: theSuper Heavy boosterand theStarship spacecraft.Both stages are equipped withRaptor engines,the first mass-producedfull flow staged combustion cycleengines, which burnliquid methane(natural gas) andliquid oxygen.Their main structure is made from a specialstainless steelalloy that SpaceX has dubbed "30X".[8]After boosting the spacecraft, Super Heavyseparatesafter the upper stage has ignited its engines. It then performs a boostback burn, which stops all forward velocity and accelerates the booster on a trajectory towards the landing site, and finally completes alanding burnbefore being caught by a pair ofhydraulic actuating armsattached to the launch tower.[9]After completing its mission, the Starship spacecraftreenters the atmosphereat a 60-70 degree pitch angle, once close to the landing site it performs a 'landing flip' maneuver, where the spacecraft turns from a horizontal to a vertical orientation, finally Starship slows to a hover with its engines and is also meant to be caught by the tower arms. Lunar and depot variants do not need to reenter the atmosphere and thus do not have athermal protection system.

As of 2024, Starship is in development with aniterative and incremental approach,involvingtest flights of prototype vehicles.As a successor to SpaceX'sFalcon 9andFalcon Heavyrockets, Starship will perform a wide range of space missions. For missions to further destinations, such asgeosynchronous orbit,theMoon,andMars,Starship will rely onorbital refuelingfrom the tanker variants, a ship-to-ship propellant transfer demonstration is expected to occur in 2025 to prove out this critical capability.[10][11]Starship will deploy SpaceX'ssecond-generationStarlinksatellite constellation, and theStarship HLSvariant will land astronauts on the Moon as part of theArtemis program,starting withArtemis 3in 2026.

Description

When stacked and fully fueled, Starship has a mass of approximately 5,000 t (11,000,000 lb),[c]a diameter of 9 m (30 ft)[13]and a height of 121.3 m (398 ft).[14]The rocket has been designed with the goal of being fullyreusableto reduce launch costs;[15]it consists of theSuper Heavyfirst-stageboosterand theStarship spacecraft[16]which are powered byRaptor and Raptor Vacuum engines.[17]The bodies of both rocket stages are made fromstainless steel[18]and are manufactured by stacking and welding stainless steel cylinders.[19]These cylinders have a diameter of 9 m (30 ft) a height of 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in), a thickness of 4 mm (0.16 in) and a mass of 1,600 kg (3,500 lb) each.[19]Domes inside the spacecraft separate the methane and oxygen tanks.[19]SpaceX has stated that Starship, in its "baseline reuseable design", will have a payload capacity of 100–150 t (220,000–331,000 lb) tolow earth orbitand 27 t (60,000 lb) togeostationary transfer orbit.[20][21]

Super Heavy booster

Main article:SpaceX Super Heavy

The first-stage booster, named Super Heavy, is 71 m (233 ft) tall and 9 m (30 ft) wide.[13]It contains 33 Raptor engines arranged in three concentric rings.[22]The outermost ring of 20 engines lackgimbal actuatorsand onboard startup hardware to save weight.[23]These engines are started using attachments on the launch mount and are not reignited for later burns. At full power, all engines combined produce 74,400 kN (16,700,000 lbf) of thrust, more than double that of theSaturn V first stage.[24]The 33 individual plumes interact to produce giganticshock diamondsin the exhaust.[25]

The booster uses four electrically actuatedgrid finsfor control, each with a mass of 3 t (6,600 lb).[3]The booster is lifted from protrudinghardpoints,which are located between gridfins.[26]Above the grid fins is the vented interstage, used forhot staging;[27]in which the upper stage fires its engines during stage separation rather than after.[28]

Starship spacecraft

Main article:SpaceX Starship (spacecraft)

The Starship spacecraft is 50.3 m (165 ft) tall and 9 m (30 ft) in diameter. It uses 6Raptorengines, three of which are optimized for use in vacuum.[13][29]The engines produce 14,700 kN (3,300,000 lbf) of thrust.[24]The vehicle's payload bay is planned to measure 17 m (56 ft) tall and 8 m (26 ft) in diameter with an internal volume of 1,000 m3(35,000 cu ft); slightly larger than theISS's pressurized volume.[30]Starship has a total propellant capacity of 1,200 t (2,600,000 lb)[12]across its main tanks and header tanks.[31]According to Elon Musk in 2019, the header tanks are better insulated due to their position and are reserved for use to flip and land the spacecraft followingreentry.[32]A set ofreaction control thrusters,which use the pressure in the fuel tank, control attitude while in space.[33]

Diagram of a V1 Starship's internal structure. Not shown in this diagram are the flaps: the aft flaps are placed at the bottom (or left in this orientation), and the forward flaps are placed at the top (here, right) portion of the spaceship.

The spacecraft has four body flaps to control the spacecraft's orientation and help dissipate energy duringatmospheric entry,composed of two forward flaps and two aft flaps.[34]According to SpaceX, the flaps replace the need for wings ortailplane,and reduce the fuel needed for landing.[35]: 1 Under the forward flaps, hardpoints are used for lifting and catching the spacecraft via mechanical arms.[26]The flap's hinges are sealed inaero-coversbecause otherwise, they would be easily damaged during reentry.[3]

Starship is planned to be able to be refueled by docking with separately launched Starshippropellant tanker spacecraftin orbit. Doing so could allow it to reach higher-energy targets,[d]such asgeosynchronous orbit,the Moon, and Mars.[36]A propellant depot could store methane and oxygen on-orbit, and could be used by Starship HLS to replenish its fuel tanks.[37]

Heat shield

Starship'sheat shieldis composed of eighteen thousand[38][39]hexagonal black tiles that can withstand temperatures of 1,400 °C (2,600 °F).[40][41]It is designed to protect the vehicle duringatmospheric entryand to be used multiple times with minimal maintenance between flights.[15]Thesilica-based tiles[42]are attached to Starship with pins[41]and have small gaps in between to allow forheat expansion.[3]After IFT-4, SpaceX added a secondary ablative layer under the primary heat shield.[43]

Variants

Forsatellite launch,Starship is planned to have a large cargo door that will open to release payloads, similar to NASA'sSpace Shuttle,and close upon reentry, instead of using ajettisonablefairing.Instead of acleanroom,payloads would be integrated directly into Starship'spayloadbay, which requires purging the payload bay with temperature-controlledISO class 8clean air.[20]To deployStarlink satellites,the cargo door is to be replaced with a slot and dispenser rack, whose mechanism has been compared to aPezcandy dispenser.[44]

Starship HLS

Main article:Starship HLS

Starship Human Landing System(HLS) is a crewed lunar lander variant of the Starship vehicle under development that would be modified for landing, operation, and takeoff from the lunar surface.[45]HLS features landing legs, a body-mountedsolar array,[46]a set of thrusters mounted mid-body to assist with final landing and takeoff,[46]twoairlocks,[45]and an elevator to lower crew and cargo onto the lunar surface.[47]

In 2021, Musk said that between "four and eight" launches would be required to fully fuel HLS.[48]The same year, the Government Accountability Office said that SpaceX would "require 16 launches overall",[48]and in 2023, a NASA official estimated the number of Starship launches required for one lunar landing to be "in the high teens".[48]In 2024, SpaceX vice president of customer operations estimated that the number of launches would be "10-ish", though this number is subject to change.[49]These launches will reportedly have to be in "rapid succession" in order to manage schedule constraints and cryogenic fuel boil-off.[48]When fully fueled, Starship HLS is designed to land 100 t (220,000 lb) of payload on the Moon.[50][51][52]

Raptor engine

Main article:SpaceX Raptor
A rocket engine with nozzle and intricate plumbing
Sea level-optimized Raptor 1 engine, May 2020

Raptor is a family of rocket engines developed by SpaceX for use inStarshipandSuper Heavyvehicles. It burnsliquid oxygenandmethanein an efficient and complexfull-flow staged combustionpower cycle. The Raptor engine uses methane as fuel rather than kerosene because methane gives higher performance and prevents the build-up of deposits in the engine fromcoking.[53][54]Methane can also be produced from carbon dioxide and water using theSabatier reaction.[55]The engines are designed to be reused many times with little maintenance.[56]

Raptor operates with anoxygen-to-methane mixture ratioof about3.6:1,lower than thestoichiometricmixture ratio of4:1necessary for complete combustion, since operating a higher temperatures would melt the engine.[3]The propellants leave thepre-burnersand get injected into the main combustion chamber as hot gases instead of liquid droplets allowing a higher power density as the propellants mix rapidly viadiffusion.[53]The methane and oxygen are at high enough temperatures and pressures that theyignite on contact,eliminating the need for igniters in the main combustion chamber.[57]The engine structure itself is mostly aluminum, copper, and steel; oxidizer-side turbopumps and manifolds subject to corrosive oxygen-rich flames are made of anInconel-likeSX500 superalloy.[57]Some components are3D printed.[58]

Atsea level,the standard Raptor engine produces 2.3MN(520,000 lbf) at aspecific impulseof 327 seconds (3.21 km/s) at sea level and 350 seconds (3.4 km/s) in a vacuum.[57]Raptor Vacuum,used on the Starship upper stage, is modified with a regeneratively coolednozzle extensionmade of brazed steel tubes, increasing its expansion ratio to about 90 and its specific impulse in vacuum to 380 seconds (3.7 km/s).[3]The maincombustion chamberoperates at a pressure of 350 bar (5,100 psi) exceeding that of any prior operational rocket engine.[53]The Raptor'sgimbalingrange is 15°, higher than theRS-25's 12.5° and the Merlin's 5°. SpaceX has stated they aim to achieve a per unit production cost of US$250,000 upon starting mass-production.[57]

Versions

Performance[59]
Starship metrics v1 v2 v3
Payload to Orbit (t) N/A 100+ 200+
Booster Prop Load (t) 3300 3650 4050
Ship Prop Load (t) 1200 1500 2300
Booster Liftoff Thrust (tf) 7130 8240 10000
Ship Initial Thrust (tf) 1250 1600 2700
Ship SL Engines 3 3 3
Ship VAC Engines 3 3 6
Booster Height (m) 71 72.3 80.2
Ship Height (m) 50.3 52.1 69.8
Total Height (m) 121.3 124.4 150

On 4 April 2024,Elon Muskprovided an update on Starship atStarbase,where two new versions of Starship were announced, Starship V2 and Starship V3.[60][61]

Version 1

As of 6 June 2024, Starship version 1 has been used for all 4Integrated Flight Tests.[62][63]

Version 2

As of April 2024, exact specifications are not known for the version 2 vehicle; however, the V2 ships will feature a thinner forward flap design, a 25% increase in propellant capacity, integrated vented interstage, and an increase in thrust.[64][65]The vehicle will be a total of 3.1 m (10 ft) taller than the previous V1 vehicle, and is planned to have a payload capacity of at least 100 tons to orbit when reused.[64]Additionally, the engine type will switch toRaptor 3,which removes the need for secondary engine shielding.[66]The capacity to manufacture version 2 became possible as a large portion of the Starfactory was commissioned in 2024.[67]

Version 3

As of June 2024, the V3 Starship final configuration is unknown. The most recent configuration, as described in regulatory filings submitted to the FAA, has a height of 150 m (490 ft).[68]The Starship second stage will feature 9 raptor engines, while the super heavy booster will have a total of 35.[68]It is planned to have a payload capacity of at least 200 tons to orbit when reused.[69]

Planned launch and landing profile

Animation of Super Heavy's integration to the launch mount, using mechanical arms.

Payloads are planned to be integrated into Starship at a separate facility and then rolled out to thelaunch site.[70]Super HeavyandStarshipare then to be stacked onto their launch mount and loaded with fuel via the ship quick disconnect (SQD) arm and booster quick disconnect (BQD).[26]The SQD and BQD retract, all thirty-three engines of Super Heavy ignite, and the rocket lifts-off.[26]

A short animation of Super Heavy's landing on mechanical arms. The actual landing speed is a few times slower.

At approximately 159 seconds after launch[71]at an altitude of roughly 64 km (40 mi), Super Heavy cuts off all but three of its center gimbaling rocket engines.[72]: 58 Starship then ignites its engines while still attached to the booster, and separates.[28]During hot-staging, the booster throttles down its engines.[28]The booster then rotates, before igniting an additional ten engines for the boostback burn.[73]After the boostback burn is complete, the booster's engines shut off with Super Heavy on a trajectory for a controlled descent to the launch site using its grid fins for minor course corrections. After six minutes, shortly before landing,[74]it ignites its inner 13 engines, then shuts off all but the inner 3,[75]to slow sufficiently to be caught by two mechanical arms attached to the tower.[76]

Meanwhile, the Starship spacecraft continues to accelerate to orbital velocity with its six raptor engines.[77]Once in orbit, the spacecraft is planned to be able to be refueled by another Starship tanker variant.[78]Musk has estimated that 8 launches would be needed to completely refuel a Starship in low Earth orbit.[79]NASA has estimated that 16 launches in short succession (due to cryogenic propellant boil-off) would be needed to partially refuel Starship for one lunar landing.[48]To land on bodies without an atmosphere, such as the Moon, Starship will fire its engines to slow down.[80]To land on bodies with an atmosphere such as the Earth and Mars, Starship first slows by entering the atmosphere via aheat shield.[15]The spacecraft would then perform a "belly-flop" maneuver by diving back through the atmosphere body at a 60° angle to the ground,[81]controlling its fall using four flaps at the front and aft sides of the spacecraft.[33]Shortly before landing, the Raptor engines fire,[33]using fuel from the header tanks,[32]and the spacecraft resumes vertical orientation, with the Raptor engines'gimbalinghelping to maneuver the craft.[33]

If Starship's second stage lands on a pad, a mobile hydraulic lift will move it to a transporter vehicle. If it lands on afloating platform,it will be transported by abargeto a port and then transported by road. The recovered Starship will either be positioned on the launch mount for another launch or refurbished at aSpaceX facility.[70]: 22 

Development

See also:SpaceX Starship flight tests

Early design concepts (2012–2019)

Main article:SpaceX Starship design history

In November 2005,[82]before SpaceX had launched its first rocket theFalcon 1,[83]CEOElon Muskfirst mentioned a high-capacity rocket concept able to launch 100 t (220,000 lb) tolow Earth orbit,dubbed theBFR.[82]Later in 2012, Elon Musk first publicly announced plans to develop a rocket surpassing the capabilities of their existingFalcon 9.[84]SpaceX called it theMars Colonial Transporter,as the rocket was to transport humans to Mars and back.[85]In 2016, the name was changed toInterplanetary Transport System,as the rocket was planned to travel beyond Mars as well.[86]The design called for acarbon fiberstructure,[87]a mass in excess of 10,000 t (22,000,000 lb) when fully fueled, a payload of 300 t (660,000 lb) to low Earth orbit while being fully reusable.[87]By 2017, the concept was temporarily re-dubbed theBFR.[88]

In December 2018, the structural material was changed from carbon composites[89][87]to stainless steel,[90][91]marking the transition from early design concepts of the Starship.[90][81][92]Musk cited numerous reasons for the design change; low cost and ease of manufacture, increased strength of stainless steel atcryogenic temperatures,as well as its ability to withstand high heat.[93][81]In 2019, SpaceX began to refer to the entire vehicle as Starship, with the second stage being calledStarship,and the boosterSuper Heavy.[94][95][96]They also announced that Starship would use reusable heat-shield tiles similar tothose of the Space Shuttle.[97][98]The second-stage design had also settled on six Raptor engines by 2019: threeoptimized for sea-leveland threeoptimized for vacuum.[99][100]In 2019 SpaceX announced a change to the second stage's design, reducing the number of aft flaps from three to two in order to reduce weight.[101]In March 2020 SpaceX released a Starship Users Guide, in which they stated the payload of Starship to LEO would be in excess of 100 t (220,000 lb), with a payload to GTO of 21 t (46,000 lb).[20]

Low-altitude flight tests (2019–2021)

Further information:SpaceX Starship (spacecraft) § Hops (SN3–SN6),andSpaceX Starship (spacecraft) § High-altitude test flights (SN8–SN15)

Starhopperto SN6

Short steel rocket with its fins touching the ground
Starhopper under construction, March 2019
Crane hooking onto a steel vessel body
A crane lifting Starship SN5, August 2020

The first tests started with the construction of the first prototype in 2018,Starhopper,which performed severalstatic firesand two successful low-altitude flights in 2019.[102]SpaceX began constructing the first full-sizeStarship Mk1andMk2upper-stage prototypes before 2019, at the SpaceX facilities inBoca Chica,Texas,andCocoa, Florida,respectively.[103]Neither prototype flew: Mk1 was destroyed in November 2019 during a pressurestress testand Mk2's Florida facility was deconstructed throughout 2020.[104][42]

After the Mk prototypes, SpaceX began naming its new Starship upper-stage prototypes with the prefix "SN", short for "serial number".[105]No prototypes betweenSN1andSN4flew either—SN1 andSN3collapsed during pressure stress tests, and SN4 exploded after its fifth engine firing.[106]

In June 2020, SpaceX started constructing a launch pad for orbital Starship flights.[26]The first flight-capable prototype,SN5,wascylindricalas it had no flaps or nose cone: just one Raptor engine,fueltanks, and amass simulator.[107]On 5 August 2020, SN5 performed a 150 m (500 ft) high flight and successfully landed on a nearby pad.[108]On 3 September 2020, the similar-lookingStarship SN6repeated the hop;[109]later that month, aRaptor Vacuum engineunderwent its first full duration firing atMcGregor, Texas.[110]

SN8 to SN15

SN8 shortly after taking off, December 2020
Computer animation depicting a successful high-altitude flight test

Starship SN8was the first full-sized upper-stage prototype, though it lacked a heat shield.[111]It underwent four preliminary static fire tests between October and November 2020.[106]On 9 December 2020, SN8 flew, slowly turning off its three engines one by one, and reached an altitude of 12.5 km (7.8 mi). After SN8 dove back to the ground, its engines were hampered by low methane header tank pressure during the landing attempt, which led to a hard impact with the landing pad and subsequent explosion of the vehicle.[33]

Because SpaceX had violated itslaunch licenseand ignored warnings of worseningshock wavedamage, theFederal Aviation Administrationinvestigated the incident for two months.[112]During the SN8 launch, SpaceX ignored FAA warnings that the flight profile posed a risk of explosion.[112][113][114]FAA space division chiefWayne Monteithsaid SpaceX's violation was “inconsistent with a strong safety culture", and criticized the company for proceeding with the launch "based on 'impressions' and 'assumptions,' rather than procedural checks and positive affirmations".[112]

On 2 February 2021,Starship SN9launched to 10 km (6.2 mi) in a flight path similar to SN8. The prototype crashed upon landing because one engine did not ignite properly.[115]A month later, on 3 March,Starship SN10launched on the same flight path as SN9.[116]The vehicle landed hard and crushed its landing legs, leaning to one side.[117]A fire was seen at the vehicle's base and it exploded less than ten minutes later,[118]potentially due to a propellant tank rupture.[117]On 30 March,Starship SN11flew into thick fog along the same flight path.[119]The vehicle exploded during descent,[119]possibly due to excess propellant in a Raptor's methane turbopump.[120]

In March 2021, the company disclosed a public construction plan for twosub-orbitallaunch pads, two orbital launch pads, two landing pads, two test stands, and a large propellant tank farm.[121]The company soon proposed developing the surroundingBoca Chica Village, Texas,into acompany townnamedStarbase.[121]Locals raised concerns about SpaceX's authority, power, and a potential threat for eviction througheminent domain.[122]

In early April, the orbital launch pad's fuel storage tanks began mounting.[26]SN12 through SN14 were scrapped before completion;SN15was selected to fly instead,[123]due to improvedavionics,structure, and engines.[118]On 5 May 2021, SN15 launched, completed the same maneuvers as older prototypes, and landed safely.[123]SN15 had a fire in the engine area after landing but it was extinguished.[118]According to a later report by SpaceX, SN15 experienced several issues while landing, including the loss of tank pressure and an engine.[35]: 2 

Integrated flight tests (2023–)

First integrated flight test

Main article:SpaceX Starship integrated flight test 1
Starship during thefirst integrated flight attempt;notice the multiple engine failures on the first stage.

In July 2021,Super Heavy BN3conducted its first full-duration static firing and lit three engines.[124]Around this time, SpaceX changed their naming scheme from "SN" to "Ship" for Starship crafts,[125]and from "BN" to "Booster" forSuper Heavy boosters.[126]A month later, usingcranes,Ship 20was stacked atopBooster 4to form the full launch vehicle for the first time; Ship 20 was also the first craft to have a body-tall heat shield.[39]In October 2021, the catching mechanical arms, also known as "chopsticks", were installed onto the integration tower and the first tank farm's construction was completed.[26]

In June 2022, theFederal Aviation Administrationdetermined that SpaceX must address more than 75 issues identified in the preliminary environmental assessment.[127]In July,Booster 7tested the liquid oxygenturbopumpson all thirty-three Raptor engines, resulting in an explosion at the vehicle's base, which destroyed a pressure pipe and caused minor damage to the launchpad.[128]By the end of November, Ship 24 had performed 2- and full 6-engine static test fires,[129]: 20 while Booster 7 had performed static fires with 1, 3, 7, 14, 11 engines[130][129]: 20 and finally on 9 February 2023, a static fire with 31 engines at 50% throttle.[131]In January 2023, the whole Starship stack underwent a fullwet dress rehearsal.[132]

After a launch attempt aborted on 17 April 2023,[133]Booster 7andShip 24lifted off on 20 April at 13:33 UTC in the first orbital flight test.[134]Three engines were disabled during the launch sequence and several more failed during the flight.[135]The booster later lostthrust vectoringcontrol of the Raptor engines, which led to the rocket spinning out of control.[135]The vehicle reached a maximum altitude of 24 mi (39 km).[136]Approximately 3 minutes after lift-off the rocket's autonomousflight termination systemwas activated, though the vehicle tumbled for another 40 seconds before disintegrating.[137][138][139]The first flight test blasted large amounts of sand and soil in the air, reaching communities within a 10.7 km (6.6 mi) radius.[140][141][142]A brushfire on nearby state parkland also occurred, burning 3.5 acres of state parkland.[143]

Second integrated flight test

Main article:SpaceX Starship integrated flight test 2
Starship during thesecond integrated flight attempt

After the first test flight, SpaceX began work on the launch mount to repair the damage it sustained during the test and to prevent future issues. The foundation of the launch tower was reinforced and a water poweredflame deflectorwas built under the launch mount.[144]Ship 25andBooster 9were rolled to the suborbital and orbital launch sites in May to undergo multiple tests.[145][146]

In August, SpaceX submitted to the FAA the 63 corrective actions they had to take before another launch could take place.[147]Following SpaceX's final report, the FAA closed the investigation on 8 September 2023.[148][149]By 31 October 2023, the FAA had concluded the safety review portion of the launch license.[150]

On 18 November 2023, Booster 9 and Ship 25 lifted off the pad.[151]All 33 engines continued to function until staging, where the second stage separated by pushing itself away from the first stage using ahot-stagingtechnique.[73]Following separation, the Super Heavy booster completed its flip maneuver and initiated the boostback burn before exploding following multiple successive engine failures.[73][152][153]Three and a half minutes into the flight at an altitude of ~90 km over the Gulf of Mexico, blockage in a liquid oxygen filter caused one of the engines to fail in a way that resulted in the destruction of the booster.[154]

The second stage continued until it reached an altitude of ~149 kilometres (93 mi), after over eight minutes of flight; prior to engine cutoff, telemetry was lost on the second stage.[73]SpaceX said that a safe command based on flight performance data triggered the flight termination system and destroyed the second stage,[73]prior to achieving its planned orbit or attempting re-entry.[155]It appeared to re-enter a few hundred miles north of theVirgin Islands,according toNOAAweather radar data.[156]

Third integrated flight test

Main article:SpaceX Starship integrated flight test 3
Video of Starship during thethird integrated flight attempt

Following the second flight test (which saw the loss of both stages), significant changes were implemented, including upgrading Starship's thrust vector control system to electricthrust vector control(TVC)[157]and measures to delayliquid oxygen(LOX)[157]venting until after Starship engine cutoff (SECO) has taken place.

IFT-3 launched from theSpaceX Starbasefacility along theSouth Texascoast around 8:25 CDT on 14 March 2024, coincidentally the 22nd anniversary of its founding.[158][159]Like IFT-2, all 33 engines on the booster ignited and stage separation was successful.[160]B10 conducted aboostback burn,however, the plannedlandingin theGulf of Mexicowas not successful, as it exploded at 462 m (1,516 ft) above the surface.[75]

The Starship spacecraft itself – after reaching space and orbital velocity – conducted several tests after engine cutoff, including initiating apropellanttransfer demo and payload dispenser test.[161][162]It attempted tore-enter the atmosphere,[75][163]and at an altitude of around 65 km (40 mi), all telemetry from Ship 28 stopped, indicating a loss of the vehicle.[164]This flight test demonstrated a cryogenic propellant transfer, by transferring propellant from the Ship's header tanks into its main tanks while in space, a technology which is required for Starship HLS to exitlow earth orbit(LEO). The result of this test was declared successful by NASA and SpaceX. Additional data analysis is occurring on thefluid dynamicssuch as slosh and boil-off of the propellant.[165][166][167]

Fourth integrated flight test

Main article:SpaceX Starship integrated flight test 4

The fourth integrated flight test of the full Starship configuration launched on 6 June 2024, at 7:50 AM CDT.[168]The goals for the test flight were for the Super Heavy booster to land on a 'virtual tower' in the ocean, and for the Ship to survive peak heating during atmospheric reentry.[169]The flight test was successful in both regards, with Super Heavy achieving a soft splashdown and Ship surviving atmospheric reentry and a controlled splashdown.[170]

Fifth integrated flight test

Main article:SpaceX Starship integrated flight test 5

In April 2024 Musk stated one of the goals was to attempt a booster tower landing based on successful booster performance in flight 4. Vehicle testing commenced in May 2024.[171]As of July 2024, IFT-5 is expected to occur in August.[172]A tower catch of the Super Heavy booster is planned for this flight.[173]

Sixth integrated flight test

Main article:SpaceX Starship integrated flight test 6

Vehicle testing commenced in May 2024, and in July Ship 31, slated for flight 6, completed a successful cryogenic test.[174]

Cost and funding

SpaceX develops the Starship primarily withprivate funding.[175][96][1]SpaceX Chief Financial Officer Bret Johnsen disclosed in court that SpaceX has invested more than $3 billion into theStarbase facilityand Starship systems from July 2014 to May 2023.[1]Elon Musk stated in April 2023 that SpaceX expected to spend about $2 billion on Starship development in 2023.[176][177]

Musk has theorized that a Starship orbital launch might eventually cost SpaceX only $1 million to launch.[178]Eurospace's director of research Pierre Lionnet stated in 2022 that Starship's launch price to customers would likely be higher because of the rocket's development cost.[36]

As part of the development of theHuman Landing Systemfor theArtemis program,SpaceX was awarded in April 2021 a $2.89 billion fixed-price contract from NASA to develop theStarship lunar landerforArtemis III.[179][180]Blue Origin,a bidding competitor to SpaceX, disputed the decision andbegan a legal case against NASA and SpaceXin August 2021, causing NASA to suspend the contract for three months until the case was dismissed in theCourt of Federal Claims.[181][182][183]Two years later Blue Origin was awarded a $3.4 billion fixed-price contract fortheir lunar lander.[184]

In 2022, NASA awarded SpaceX a $1.15 billion fixed-price contract for a second lunar lander forArtemis 4.[180]The same year, SpaceX was awarded a $102 million five-year contract to develop theRocket Cargoprogram for theUnited States Space Force.[185]

Potential missions

Starlink

SpaceX plans to use Starship to launch the second generation of satellites for SpaceX'sStarlinksystem, which currently delivers high-speed internet to over 70 countries.[186]An analyst at financial services companyMorgan Stanleystated development of Starship and Starlink are intertwined, with Starship's planned launch capacity enabling cheaper Starlink launches, and Starlink's profits financing Starship's development costs.[187]In deficit from its inception until the end of 2022,[188]Starlink was first reported to be cash flow positive in the first quarter of 2023,[189][190]though Elon Musk said that Starlink had only reached "break-even cashflow" in 2023.[191]In December 2023, theFCCissued a final denial of a $885MStarlinksubsidy because of Starlink's "continuing inability to successfully launch on the Starship rocket".[192]

See caption and article
Artemis 3launch profile of a human landing on the Moon, involving Starship HLS, Starship tanker variants, andOrion spacecraft

Artemis Program

Starship HLSwas initially chosen by NASA as the sole lunarHuman Landing Systemfor the plannedArtemis 3andArtemis 4crewed missions, as part of theArtemis program.[45][193]Starship HLS is to be launched into a low Earth orbit, and refueled by multiple Starship tanker spacecraft.[37]: 4, 5 Once fueled, it would perform a trans lunar injection burn and enter anear-rectilinear halo orbit[194]around the Moon, with aperiluneof 1,500 km (930 mi) occurring over the north pole and anapoluneof 70,000 km (43,000 mi) occurring over the south pole.[194][37]: 4, 5 TheOrion spacecraftwould then dock with Starship HLS and two of its four crew would transfer into Starship HLS.[195][37]: 4, 5 Starship HLS would then use its engines to make a powered descent and land near thelunar south pole.[37]: 4, 5 After the crew performs the surface portion of their mission, the HLS would ascend with the crew.[37]: 4, 5 The crew would then transfer into the Orion spacecraft and return to Earth.[37]: 4, 5 

Astronomy

Astronomers have called to consider Starship's larger mass to orbit and wider cargo bay for proposed space telescopes such asLUVOIR,and to develop larger telescopes to take advantage of these capabilities.[196][197]Starship's 9 m (30 ft) fairing width could hold an 8 m (26 ft) wide space telescope mirror in a single piece,[196]alleviating the need for complex unfolding such as that of theJWST's 6.5 m (21 ft) mirror, which added cost and delays.[197]Ariane 5 imposed a ~6,500 kg limit on the telescope's weight.[198]Whereas Starship's low launch cost could also allow probes to use heavier, more common, cheaper materials, such as glass instead ofberylliumfor large telescope mirrors.[197][36]With a 5 t (11,000 lb) mirror built using similar methods to theHubble Space Telescope's mirror, the JWST would represent only 10% of the mass deliverable by a (refueled) Starship to the Sun–EarthL2point, and therefore minimizing the weight of the telescope would not have been a dominant design consideration.[197]

TheNational Academies of Science's2020 surveyrecommended theHabitable Worlds Observatory(HWO); the space observatory, requiring a super heavy launcher, will search forsigns of lifeonexoplanets.[198]The HWO's team hope for the success of big launchers due to their critical importance to the HWO's mission.[198]Lee Feinberg, NASA HWO lead architect[198]and JWST manager[199],stays in communication with SpaceX to track Starship's progress and has visited them in 2024 for that same purpose.[198]The NASA Habitable Worlds Observatory will have a 6-8 meter mirror for now, but its design should be flexible to leverage launchers with potentially double the mass and volume by the time it launches in the 2040s.[198]Former NASAJPLarchitect Casey Handmer believes the HWO to be far too conservative compared to what is possible with Starship.[198]Handmer argues that Starship enables telescopes to scale up to the point of surface-levelexoplanet imaging,perhaps big enough to detect seasonalmigration patterns.[198]

Rocket cargo

Main article:Rocket Cargo

In January 2022, SpaceX was awarded a $102 million five-year contract to develop theRocket Cargoprogram for theUnited States Space Force.[185]The five-year contract is intended to "determine exactly what a rocket can achieve when used for cargo transport",[200]and will see the Air Force Research Laboratory collect data during commercial launches of Starship.[200]The contract includes an eventual demonstration mission with the launch and landing of a cargo-laden Starship in a point-to-point flight.

TheDepartment of Defensehas planned a test with Starship as part of their program to demonstrate the ability to rapidly deploy up to 100 tons of cargo and supplies, a capability it calls point to point delivery (P2PD). The test is envisioned to take place in FY25 or FY26.[201]

Mars Sample Return

In 2024, theNASA-ESA Mars Sample Returnproject, one ofNASA's highest priority flagship projects, suffered a setback when an independent review board assigned to assess the feasibility of the project came to the conclusion that the project would not be able to completed under the then mission profile. In April 2024, theAdministrator of NASAthen announced that a new mission profile would be needed for the project and that NASA would turn to industry for proposals, with responses due in Fall 2024, and high emphasis on lower total cost and lower risk.[202]Starship has been widely seen as a leading candidate to serve as a central component of the new mission profile architecture.[203][204][205]

Other missions

One future payload is theSuperbird-9communication satellite, which was Starship's first contract for externally made commercial satellites.[206]Another planned payload is theStarlab space station,which Starship will launch in a single piece.[207]

In the future, the spacecraft's crewed version could be used forspace tourism—for example, for the third flight of thePolaris program.[208]

Research conducted byProject Lyradetermined that with refueling in LEO, a Starship could send a spacecraft toOumuamuawith a journey taking 20 years.[209]A gravity assist would be required at Jupiter.[209]

Potential use cases

Space science

Opinions differ on how Starship's planned low launch cost could affect the cost of space science. According toWaleed Abdalati,formerNASA Chief Scientist,the planned low launch cost could reduce the cost of satellite replacement and enable more ambitious missions for budget-limited programs due to the higher percentage of the total budget taken up by launch costs for lower budget missions.[210]According to Lionnet, low launch cost might not reduce the overall cost of a science mission significantly: of theRosettaspace probeandPhilaelander's mission cost of $1.7 billion, the cost of launch (by the expendableAriane 5) only made up ten percent.[210]Similarly the Juno mission had a total budget of $1.13 billion,[211]with launch cost of $190 million[212]making up only seventeen percent of the budget.

A fully refueled Starship could launch 100 t (220,000 lb) observatories to the Moon and the Sun–Earth L2 Lagrange point.[197]A fully refueled Starship might also be capable of launching probes toNeptune,Jupiter's moonIo,or largesample-return missions.[78]Astrophysicists have noted Starship could deploy multiple antennae up to 30 m (98 ft) in length, opening upradio astronomyto frequencies below 30 MHz and wavelengths greater than 10 m (33 ft).[197]This would give the ability to study theUniverse's Dark Ages,unfeasible on Earth due to the atmosphere and human radio background.[197]

Speculative transportation

One possible future use of Starship that SpaceX has proposed ispoint-to-point flights(called "Earth to Earth" flights by SpaceX), traveling anywhere on Earth in under an hour.[213][200]Musk stated that SpaceX would complete hundreds of cargo flights before launching with human passengers.[214]

Space colonization

Further information:SpaceX ambition of colonizing Mars

According to SpaceX, Starship is intended to be able to land crews on Mars,[215]: 120 though SpaceX has not published technical plans or designs about Starship'slife support systems,radiation protection,docking system, or in-orbit refueling system for Mars.[216][217]The spacecraft would be launched to low Earth orbit and refueled in orbit before heading to Mars.[218]After landing on Mars, theSabatier reactioncould be used to synthesize liquid methane and liquid oxygen, Starship's fuel, in apower-to-gasplant.[219]The plant'sraw resourceswould beMartian waterandMartian carbon dioxide.[55]On Earth, similar technologies could be used to makecarbon-neutral propellantfor the rocket.[220]To date, there has been one proof of concept experiment (MOXIE) demonstrating the extraction of oxygen from Martian carbon dioxide, withGeorge Dvorskywriting forGizmodocommenting that we are not "remotely close" to turning this "into something practical".[46]

SpaceX and Musk have statedtheir goal of colonizing Marsto ensure thelong-term survival of humanity,[36][221]with an ambition of having sent one million people to Mars by 2050.[222]In March 2022, he estimated that the first crewed Mars landing could occur in 2029.[223]This timeline has been criticized as unrealistic by Kevin Olsen, a physicist at theUniversity of Oxfordwho has said that "colony needs to become a factory" to produce air, fuel and water as it is "fundamentally impossible to create a completely closed environment in space", and that the technology to do so is "far, far behind the technology of space flight and habitation construction".[224]Serkan Saydam, a mining engineering professor from theUniversity of New South Walesstated that humanity currently lacks the necessary technology to establish a Martian colony, and will likely lack the capacity to establish a Martian city with one million people by 2050.[224]

Facilities

Further information:SpaceX StarbaseandSpaceX facilities

Testing and manufacturing

Various spacecraft constructed inside bays
Ship 27,Ship 26andBooster 10forward section under construction in Starbase build site, March 2023

Starbaseconsists of a manufacturing facility and launch site,[225]and is located at Boca Chica, Texas. Both facilities operate twenty-four hours a day.[19]A maximum of 450 full-time employees may be onsite.[70]: 28 The site is planned to consist of two launch sites, one payload processing facility, one seven-acresolar farm,and other facilities.[70]: 34–36 The company leases Starbase's land for theSTARGATEresearch facility, owned by theUniversity of Texas Rio Grande Valley.It uses part of it for Starship development.[226]

Raptor engines are tested at theRocket Development facilityin McGregor, Texas. The facility has two main test stands: one horizontal stand for both engine types and one vertical stand for sea-level-optimized rocket engines.[227]In the future, a nearby factory, which as of September 2021was under construction, will make the new generation of sea-level Raptors while SpaceX's headquarters in California will continue building the Raptor Vacuum and test new designs.[227]

At Florida, a facility at Cocoa purifiessilicafor Starship heat-shield tiles, producing aslurrythat is then shipped to a facility at Cape Canaveral. In the past, workers constructed theStarship Mk2prototype in competition with Starbase's crews.[42]TheKennedy Space Center,also in Florida, is planned to host other Starship facilities, such as a Starship launch site atLaunch Complex 39Aand a production facility at Roberts Road. This production facility is being expanded from "Hangar X", the Falcon rocket boosters' storage and maintenance facility. It will include a 30,000 m2(320,000 sq ft) building,loading dock,and a place for constructing integration tower sections.[228]Adjacent to the Kennedy Space Center will be an additional launch site atCape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 37,likely to service missions for the complex owner, theUnited States Space Force.

Launch sites

Starbase

The orbital launch mount under construction in Starbase, August 2021

Starbase is planned to host two launch sites, named Pad A and Pad B.[70]: 34 A launch site at Starbase has large facilities, such as atank farm,an orbital launch mount, and an integration tower.[70]Smaller facilities are present at the launch site: tanks surrounding the area containing methane, oxygen, nitrogen, helium,hydraulic fluid,etc.;[70]: 161 subcoolersnear the tank farm cool propellant using liquid nitrogen; and various pipes are installed at large facilities.[26]Each tank farm consists of eight tanks, enough to support one orbital launch.[26]The current launch mount on Pad A has a water-poweredflame diverter,twenty clamps holding the booster, and a quick disconnect mount providing liquid fuel and electricity to the Super Heavy booster before it lifts off.[26]

The integration tower orlaunch towerconsists ofsteel trusssections, alightning rodon top,[229]and a pair of mechanical arms that can lift, catch and recover the booster.[26]The decision to catch the booster with the arms rather than landing with landing legs was made to enable flights and reduce the rocket's mass and part count.[35]: 2 The mechanical arms are attached to a carriage and controlled by apulleyat the top of the tower.[26]The pulley is linked to awinchandspoolat the base of the tower using a cable.[26]Using the winch and the carriage, the mechanical arms can move vertically, with support frombearingsattached at the sides of the carriage.[26]A linearhydraulic actuatormoves the arms horizontally. Tracks are mounted on top of arms, which are used to position the booster or spacecraft.[26]The tower is mounted with a quick disconnect arm extending to and contracting from the Starship spacecraft; its functions are similar to the quick disconnect mount that powers the booster.[26]

Florida

Starship launch tower construction can be seen (right) at LC-39A in January 2024 as Falcon 9 launches continue to take place

SpaceX has been constructing a Starship launch pad atKennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A(LC-39A) since 2021. The site was leased to the company in 2014 and is used to launchFalcon 9rockets.[228][230]In 2024, theFederal Aviation Administrationbegan the process of preparing anenvironmental impact statement(EIS) evaluating the potential impacts of the new infrastructure and a higher launch cadence of up to 44 per year at LC-39A.[231]

In June 2024, Blue Origin andUnited Launch Alliance(ULA) provided comments as part of the EIS process, both objecting to the impact that Starship launch operations may have on their own activities at the site.[232]Blue Origin suggested several mitigations, including allowing other operators to object to a Starship launch that would conflict with one of its own, limiting Starship operations to particular times, or expanding the number of launchpads in the area to reduce the impact of conflicting launches.[233]ULA's suggested regulators prevent Starship to launch from Florida altogether because a fully fueled Starship would require an evacuation zone so large that it would prevent other operators from using their facilities, and the noise generated by repetitive launches could be injurious to those who live or work nearby.[234][235]Elon Musk suggested that the two company's comments were disingenuous and that their true motivation was to impede SpaceX’s progress bylawfare.[232]

The company has also proposed building another Starship launch pad at the nearbyCape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 37(SLC-37) which became vacant in 2024 after the retirement of theDelta IVrocket. In 2024, theUnited States Space Forcebegan the process of preparing an EIS evaluating the potential impacts of new infrastructure and a launch cadence of up to 76 times per year at SLC-37.[235][236][237]

Both EIS processes must be complete before SpaceX will be cleared to launch Starship from Florida, which likely won't occur until late 2025.[232]The towers and mechanical arms at the sites should be similar to the one at Starbase, with improvements gained from the experience at Boca Chica.[228]

Responses to Starship development

Further information:SpaceX Starbase § Impact

In order to compete with SpaceX and close their technological gap with the company, theChina Aerospace Science and Tech Corpand other aerospace actors in China have reportedly been working on their own equivalent of Starship – theLong March 9super-heavy lift rocket,[238]which is also designed to eventually be fully reusable.[239]In 2021, theChina Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology(CALT) showed a rendered video of a rocket noted to be "strikingly" similar to Starship in appearance and function.[240]In a 2022 event organized by theInternational Astronautical Federationand theChinese Society of Astronautics,the CALT communicated performing research on a crewed launch vehicle powered by LOX-methane propellant, with a second stage that was very similar to Starship's.[241]

SpaceNewsnoted that the Chinese start-upSpace Epochand engine makerJiuzhou Yun gianwere developing a smaller Starship-like rocket with a methane-LOX engine similar to Raptor, stainless steel tanks and an iterative design.[242]Starship's reusability and stainless-steel construction might also have inspiredProject Jarvis,a reusable upper stage forBlue Origin'sNew Glennheavy-lift launch vehicle intended to replace New Glenn's expendable upper stage in the future.[243]

In 2021, members of Congress voiced concerns about the FAA's response to SpaceX's launch license violations following the explosion of SN8, calling on the FAA to "resist any potential undue influence on launch safety decision-making".[114]In 2023, prior toStarship's second orbital test flight,SpaceX's vice president and ex-NASA engineerBill Gerstenmaiermade statements at the U.S. Senate on the importance of innovation in light of "strategic competition from state actors like China".[244][245][246]He said SpaceX was under a contract with NASA to use Starship to land American astronauts on the moon before China does,[247][244]and that the Starship test flights campaign was being held up by "regulatory headwinds and unnecessary bureaucracy" unrelated to public safety.[245][248]

Following the second integrated flight test of Starship, theGovernment Accountability Office(GAO) made recommendations to the FAA to "improve its mishap investigation process", finding that historically they have allowed the launch operator to conduct their own investigation with the FAA supervising.[249]

Several environmental groups have filed lawsuits against the FAA and SpaceX, claiming that environmental reviews were bypassed due to Musk's political and financial influence.[250]

Notes

  1. ^While the upper stage burned up during reentry, IFT-3 was a successful suborbital launch
  2. ^Gross mass is the total of the propellant mass (1,200tonnes) and approximate empty mass (100 tonnes).
  3. ^Super Heavydry mass:200 t (440,000 lb); Starship dry mass: 100 t (220,000 lb); Super Heavy propellant mass: 3,400 t (7,500,000 lb);[3]Starship propellant mass: 1,200 t (2,600,000 lb).[12]The total of these masses is about 5,000 t (11,000,000 lb).
  4. ^Synonymous with increasing thedelta-vbudgetof the spacecraft

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