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Space station

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This article is about an outpost in space. For radio broadcasts sent from space, seespace radio station.For stations named "Space", seeSpace (disambiguation).
International Space StationTiangong Space StationMirSkylabTiangong-2Salyut 1Salyut 2Salyut 4Salyut 6Salyut 7
The image above contains clickable links
The image above contains clickable links
Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes.

Aspace station(ororbital station) is aspacecraftwhich remainsin orbitandhosts humansfor extended periods of time. It therefore is anartificial satellitefeaturinghabitation facilities.The purpose of maintaining a space station varies depending on the program. Most often space stations have beenresearch stations,but they have also servedmilitaryorcommercial uses,such as hostingspace tourists.

Space stations have been hosting the only continuouspresence of humans in space.The first space station wasSalyut 1(1971), hosting the first crew, of the ill-fatedSoyuz 11.Consecutively space stations have been operated sinceSkylab(1973) and occupied since 1987 with theSalyutsuccessorMir.Uninterrupted occupation has been sustained since the operational transition from the Mir to theInternational Space Station(ISS), with its first occupation in 2000.

Currently there are two fully operational space stations – the International Space Station (ISS) andChina'sTiangongSpace Station(TSS), which have been occupied since October 2000 withExpedition 1and since June 2022 withShenzhou 14.The highest number of people at the same time on one space station has been 13, first achieved with the eleven day docking to the ISS ofthe 127thSpace Shuttlemission in 2009. The record for most people on all space stations at the same time has been 17, first on May 30, 2023, with 11 people on the ISS and 6 on the TSS.[1]

Space stations are most oftenmodular,featuringdocking ports,through which they are built and maintained, allowing the joining or movement of modules and the docking of other spacecrafts for the exchange of people, supplies and tools. While space stations generally do not leave their orbit, they do featurethrustersforstation keeping.

History

[edit]
See also:List of space stations

Early concepts

[edit]

The first mention of anything resembling a space station occurred inEdward Everett Hale's 1868 "The Brick Moon".[2]The first to give serious, scientifically grounded consideration to space stations wereKonstantin TsiolkovskyandHermann Oberthabout two decades apart in the early 20th century.[3]

First description of arotating space station,inHermann Noordung'sThe Problem of Space Travel(1929).
(Legend:Achs-Körper:axlebody.Aufzugschacht:elevatorshaft.K:electric cable to an external observatory.Kondensatorrohre:condenser pipes.S:airlock.Treppenschacht:stairwell.Verdampfungsrohr:boiler pipe).

In 1929,Herman Potočnik'sThe Problem of Space Travelwas published, the first to envision a "rotating wheel" space station to createartificial gravity.[2]Conceptualized during theSecond World War,the "sun gun"was a theoreticalorbital weaponorbiting Earth at a height of 8,200 kilometres (5,100 mi). No further research was ever conducted.[4]In 1951,Wernher von Braunpublished a concept for arotating wheel space stationinCollier's Weekly,referencing Potočnik's idea. However, development of a rotating station was never begun in the 20th century.[3]

First advances and precursors

[edit]
Further information:Space rendezvous § First docking

The first human flew to space and concluded the first orbit on April 12, 1961, withVostok 1.

TheApollo programhad inits early planninginstead of alunar landinga crewedlunar orbitalflight and an orbital laboratory station in orbit of Earth, at times calledProject Olympus,as two different possible program goals, until theKennedy administrationsped ahead and made the Apollo program focus on what was originally planned to come after it, the lunar landing. The Project Olympus space station, or orbiting laboratory of the Apollo program, was proposed as an in-space unfolded structure with theApollo command and service moduledocking.[5]While never realized, the Apollo command and service module would performdocking maneuversand eventually become a lunar orbiting module which was used for station-like purposes.

But before that theGemini programpaved the way and achieved the firstspace rendezvous(undocked) withGemini 6andGemini 7in 1965. Subsequently in 1966Neil Armstrongperformed onGemini 8the first ever space docking, while in 1967Kosmos 186 and Kosmos 188were the first spacecrafts that docked automatically.

Gemini 8 docking with Agena vehicle

In January 1969Soyuz 4andSoyuz 5performed the first docked, but not internal, crew transfer, and finally in MarchApollo 9performed the first ever internal transfer of astronauts between two docked spaceships.

Salyut, Almaz and Skylab

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Main articles:Salyut,Almaz,andSkylab
Skylab(1973–1974), the first U.S. space station and second overall

In 1971, theSoviet Uniondeveloped and launched the world's first space station,Salyut 1.[6]TheAlmazandSalyut serieswere eventually joined bySkylab,Mir,andTiangong-1andTiangong-2.The hardware developed during the initial Soviet efforts remains in use, with evolved variants comprising a considerable part of the ISS, orbiting today. Each crew member stays aboard the station for weeks or months but rarely more than a year.

Early stations were monolithic designs that were constructed and launched in one piece, generally containing all their supplies and experimental equipment. A crew would then be launched to join the station and perform research. After the supplies had been consumed, the station was abandoned.[6]

The first space station wasSalyut 1,which was launched by theSoviet Unionon April 19, 1971. The early Soviet stations were all designated "Salyut", but among these, there were two distinct types: civilian and military. The military stations,Salyut 2,Salyut 3,andSalyut 5,were also known asAlmazstations.[7]

The civilian stationsSalyut 6andSalyut 7were built with two docking ports, which allowed a second crew to visit, bringing a new spacecraft with them; theSoyuz ferrycould spend 90 days in space, at which point it needed to be replaced by a fresh Soyuz spacecraft.[8]This allowed for a crew to man the station continually. The AmericanSkylab(1973–1979) was also equipped with two docking ports, like second-generation stations, but the extra port was never used. The presence of a second port on the new stations allowedProgresssupply vehicles to be docked to the station, meaning that fresh supplies could be brought to aid long-duration missions. This concept was expanded on Salyut 7, which "hard docked" with aTKS tugshortly before it was abandoned; this served as a proof of concept for the use of modular space stations. The later Salyuts may reasonably be seen as a transition between the two groups.[7]

Mir

[edit]
Main article:Mir
Mirstation seen in 1998

Unlike previous stations, the Soviet space stationMirhad amodular design;a core unit was launched, and additional modules, generally with a specific role, were later added. This method allows for greater flexibility in operation, as well as removing the need for a single immensely powerfullaunch vehicle.Modular stations are also designed from the outset to have their supplies provided by logistical support craft, which allows for a longer lifetime at the cost of requiring regular support launches.[9]

International Space Station

[edit]
Main article:International Space Station
View of theInternational Space Stationin 2021

The ISS is divided into two main sections, theRussian Orbital Segment(ROS) and theUS Orbital Segment(USOS). The first module of the International Space Station,Zarya,was launched in 1998.[10]

The Russian Orbital Segment's "second-generation" modules were able to launch onProton,fly to the correct orbit, and dock themselves without human intervention.[11]Connections are automatically made for power, data, gases, and propellants. The Russian autonomous approach allows the assembly of space stations prior to the launch of crew.

The Russian "second-generation" modules are able to be reconfigured to suit changing needs. As of 2009,RKK Energiawas considering the removal and reuse of some modules of the ROS on theOrbital Piloted Assembly and Experiment Complexafter the end of mission is reached for the ISS.[12]However, in September 2017, the head of Roscosmos said that the technical feasibility of separating the station to form OPSEK had been studied, and there were now no plans to separate the Russian segment from the ISS.[13]

In contrast, the main US modules launched on theSpace Shuttleand were attached to the ISS by crews duringEVAs.Connections for electrical power, data, propulsion, and cooling fluids are also made at this time, resulting in an integrated block of modules that is not designed for disassembly and must be deorbited as one mass.[14]

TheAxiom Orbital Segmentis a planned commercial segment to be added to the ISS starting in the mid-2020s. Axiom Space gained NASA approval for the venture in January 2020. Up to three Axiom modules will attach to the International Space Station. The first module, Hab One, is expected to be launched at the end of 2026[15]and will be docked to the forward port ofHarmony,requiring relocation of thePMA-2.Axiom Space plans to attach up to two additional modules to its first core module, and send private astronauts to inhabit the modules. The modules would later detach into theAxiom Stationin a manner similar to Russia's proposed OPSEK.[16]

Tiangongprogram

[edit]
Main articles:Tiangong space stationandTiangong program
Rendering of the completed Tiangong Space Station in November 2022
Rendering of the completed Tiangong Space Station in November 2022

China's first space laboratory,Tiangong-1was launched in September 2011.[17]The uncrewedShenzhou 8then successfully performed an automatic rendezvous and docking in November 2011. The crewedShenzhou 9then docked with Tiangong-1 in June 2012, followed by the crewedShenzhou 10in 2013.[citation needed]

According to theChina Manned Space Engineering Office,Tiangong-1reenteredover the SouthPacific Ocean,northwest ofTahiti,on 2 April 2018 at 00:15 UTC.[18][19]

A second space laboratoryTiangong-2was launched in September 2016, while a plan forTiangong-3was merged with Tiangong-2.[20]The station made a controlled reentry on 19 July 2019 and burned up over the South Pacific Ocean.[21]

TheTiangongSpace Station(Chinese:Thiên cung;pinyin:Tiāngōng;lit.'Heavenly Palace'), the first module of which was launched on 29 April 2021,[22]is in low Earth orbit, 340 to 450 kilometres above the Earth at an orbital inclination of 42° to 43°. Its planned construction via 11 total launches across 2021–2022 is intended to extend the core module with two laboratory modules, capable of hosting up to six crew.[23][24]

Planned projects

[edit]
This section is an excerpt fromList of space stations § Planned and proposed.[edit]

These space stations have been announced by their host entity and are currently in planning, development or production. The launch date listed here may change as more information becomes available.

Name Entity Program Crew size Launch date Remarks
Lunar Gateway United StatesNASA
ESA
CanadaCSA
JapanJAXA 		Artemis
4
 2025[25] Intended to serve as a science platform and as a staging area for the lunar landings ofNASA'sArtemis programand follow-onhuman mission to Mars.
Axiom Station United StatesAxiom Space
 International Space Station programme
TBD
 Late 2026[26] Eventually will detach from the ISS in the early 2030s and form a private, free flying space station for commercial tourism and science activities.
Russian Orbital Service Station
 RussiaRoscosmos Russia's next generation space station.
TBD
 2027[27] With Russia leaving the ISS programme sometime after 2024, Roscosmos announced this new space station in April 2021 as the replacement for that program.
Starlab United StatesNanoRacks
United StatesVoyager Space
NetherlandsAirbus

CanadaMDA SpaceJapanMitsubishi Corporation

Private
4
 2028[28] "Commercial platform supporting a business designed to enable science, research, and manufacturing for customers around the world."

While originallyLockheed Martinwas included in the project, as of 2024, it appears their primary role has been filled byAirbus,to provide the main habitat for the station.[29]As of 2024, they are no longer listed as a partner on Starlab's website.[30]

StarMax United StatesGravitics Private
TBD
 2026[31] "The StarMax module provides up to 400 cubic meters of usable habitable volume - nearly half the volume of the International Space Station in one module."
Orbital Reef United StatesBlue Origin
United StatesSierra Space 		Private
10
 second half 2020s[32] "Commercial station in LEO for research, industrial, international, and commercial customers."
Bharatiya Antariksha Station[33] IndiaISRO Indian Human Spaceflight Programme
3
 ~2035[34][35][36][37][38] ISRO chairmanK. Sivanannounced in 2019 that India will not join theInternational Space Station,but will instead build a space station of its own.[39]of 52 Tonne Mass[40]It is intended to be built 5–7 years after the conclusion of theGaganyaanprogram.[41]
Lunar Orbital Station[42]
 RussiaRoscosmos
TBD
 after 2030[43]
Haven-1 United StatesVast Private
4
 2025[44] "Scheduled to be the world's first commercial space station, Haven-1 and subsequent human spaceflight missions will accelerate access to space exploration"[45]
LIFEPathfinder United StatesSierra Space Private
TBD
 2026 "Before offering LIFE for Orbital Reef, though, the company is proposing to launch a standalone “pathfinder” version of LIFE as soon as the end of 2026 ".[46]

Architecture

[edit]

Two types of space stations have been flown: monolithic and modular. Monolithic stations consist of a single vehicle and are launched by one rocket. Modular stations consist of two or more separate vehicles that are launched independently and docked on orbit. Modular stations are currently preferred due to lower costs and greater flexibility.[47][48]

A space station is a complex vehicle that must incorporate many interrelated subsystems, including structure, electrical power, thermal control,attitude determination and control,orbital navigation and propulsion, automation and robotics, computing and communications, environmental and life support, crew facilities, and crew and cargo transportation. Stations must serve a useful role, which drives the capabilities required.[citation needed]

Orbit and purpose

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Materials

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Main article:Manufacturing of the International Space Station
See also:Bigelow Expandable Activity Module

Space stations are made from durable materials that have to weatherspace radiation,internal pressure,micrometeoroids,thermal effects of the sun and cold temperatures for very long periods of time. They are typically made fromstainless steel,titaniumand high-qualityaluminum alloys,with layers of insulation such asKevlaras a ballistics shield protection.[49]

The International Space Station has a single inflatable module, theBigelow Expandable Activity Module,which was installed in April2016 after being delivered to the ISS on theSpaceX CRS-8resupply mission.[50][51]This module, based on NASA research in the 1990s, weighed 1,400 kilograms (3,100 lb) and was transported while compressed before being attached to the ISS by the space station arm and inflated to provide a 16 cubic metres (21 cu yd) volume. Whilst it was initially designed for a 2year lifetime it was still attached and being used for storage in August 2022.[52][53]

Construction

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Habitability

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Main article:Effect of spaceflight on the human body

The space station environment presents a variety of challenges to human habitability, including short-term problems such as the limited supplies of air, water, and food and the need to managewaste heat,and long-term ones such asweightlessnessand relatively high levels ofionizing radiation.These conditions can create long-term health problems for space-station inhabitants, includingmuscle atrophy,bone deterioration,balance disorders,eyesight disorders,and elevated risk ofcancer.[54]

Futurespace habitatsmay attempt to address these issues, and could be designed for occupation beyond the weeks or months that current missions typically last. Possible solutions include the creation ofartificial gravityby arotating structure,the inclusion ofradiation shielding,and the development of on-site agricultural ecosystems. Some designs might even accommodate large numbers of people, becoming essentially "cities in space" where people would reside semi-permanently.[55]

Molds that develop aboard space stations can produce acids that degrade metal, glass, and rubber. Despite an expanding array of molecular approaches for detecting microorganisms, rapid and robust means of assessing the differential viability of the microbial cells, as a function of phylogenetic lineage, remain elusive.[56]

Power

[edit]
Main article:Solar panels on spacecraft
See also:Electrical system of the International Space StationandRoll Out Solar Array

Like uncrewed spacecraft close to the Sun, space stations in the innerSolar Systemgenerally rely onsolar panelsto obtain power.[57]

Life support

[edit]
Main articles:Environmental Control and Life Support SystemandVika oxygen generator

Space station air and water is brought up in spacecraft from Earth before being recycled. Supplementaloxygencan be supplied by asolid fuel oxygen generator.[58]

Communications

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Main articles:Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System,Lira (ISS),andAmateur Radio on the International Space Station
See also:Interplanetary Internet,InterPlaNet,andOptical Payload for Lasercomm Science

Military

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The last military-use space station was theSovietSalyut 5,which was launched under theAlmazprogram and orbited between 1976 and 1977.[59][60][61]

Occupation

[edit]

Space stations have harboured so far the only long-duration direct human presence in space. After the first station,Salyut 1(1971), and its tragicSoyuz 11crew, space stations have been operated consecutively sinceSkylab(1973–1974), having allowed a progression of long-duration direct human presence in space. Long-duration resident crews have been joined by visiting crews since 1977 (Salyut 6), and stations have been occupied by consecutive crews since 1987 with theSalyutsuccessorMir.Uninterrupted occupation of stations has been achieved since the operational transition from the Mir to theISS,with its first occupation in 2000. The ISS has hosted the highest number of people in orbit at the same time, reaching 13 for the first time during the eleven day docking ofSTS-127in 2009.[62]

Theduration record for a single spaceflightis 437.75 days, set byValeri PolyakovaboardMirfrom 1994 to 1995.[63]As of 2021,four cosmonauts have completed single missions of over a year, all aboardMir.

Operations

[edit]

Resupply and crew vehicles

[edit]
Main articles:List of crewed spacecraftandComparison of space station cargo vehicles
See also:Commercial Resupply Services

Many spacecraft are used to dock with the space stations. Soyuz flightT-15in March to July 1986 was the first and as of 2016, only spacecraft to visit two different space stations,MirandSalyut 7.[64]

International Space Station

[edit]
Main articles:List of human spaceflights to the International Space StationandUncrewed spaceflights to the International Space Station

TheInternational Space Stationhas been supported by many different spacecraft.

Tiangong space station

[edit]
Main article:Tiangong space station

TheTiangong space stationis supported by the following spacecraft:

Tiangong program

[edit]
Main article:Tiangong program

TheTiangong programrelied on the following spacecraft.

Mir

[edit]
Main articles:List of human spaceflights to MirandList of uncrewed spaceflights to Mir

TheMirspace station was in orbit from 1986 to 2001 and was supported and visited by the following spacecraft:

Skylab

[edit]
Main article:Skylab

Salyut programme

[edit]
Main article:Salyut programme

Docking and berthing

[edit]
Main article:Docking and berthing of spacecraft
See also:International Docking System StandardandChinese Docking Mechanism

Maintenance

[edit]

Research

[edit]
Main article:Scientific research on the International Space Station

Research conducted on the Mir included the first long term space based ESA research project EUROMIR95 which lasted 179days and included 35 scientific experiments.[103]

During the first 20 years of operation of the International Space Station, there were around 3,000 scientific experiments in the areas of biology and biotech, technology development, educational activities, human research, physical science, and Earth and space science.[104][105]

Materials research

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Space stations provide a useful platform to test the performance, stability, and survivability of materials in space. This research follows on from previous experiments such as theLong Duration Exposure Facility,a free flying experimental platform which flew from April1984 until January1990.[106][107]

Human research

[edit]
Main articles:Effect of spaceflight on the human bodyandBioastronautics
See also:ISS year-long mission

Botany

[edit]
Main article:Astrobotany

Space tourism

[edit]
Main article:Orbital space tourism

On theInternational Space Station,guests sometimes pay $50 million to spend the week living as anastronaut.Later,space tourismis slated to expand once launch costs are lowered sufficiently. By the end of the 2020s,space hotelsmay become relatively common.[citation needed]

Finance

[edit]

As it currently costs on average $10,000 to $25,000 per kilogram to launch anything into orbit, space stations remain the exclusive province of government space agencies, which are primarily funded bytaxation.In the case of theInternational Space Station,space tourismmakes up a small portion of money to run it.

Legacy

[edit]

Technology spinoffs

[edit]
See also:NASA spinoff technologies

International cooperation and economy

[edit]

Cultural impact

[edit]
This section is an excerpt fromSpace stations and habitats in fiction.[edit]
"The Brick Moon"– an 1869 serial byEdward Everett Hale– was the first fictional space station or habitat.
The concepts of space stations andspace habitatsfeature inscience fiction.The difference between the two is that habitats are larger and more complex structures intended as permanent homes for substantial populations (thoughgeneration shipsalso fit this description, they are usually not considered space habitats as they are heading for a destination[112]), but the line between the two is fuzzy with significant overlap and the term space station is sometimes used for both concepts.[113][114]The first such artificial satellite in fiction wasEdward Everett Hale's "The Brick Moon"in 1869,[113][115]a sphere of bricks 61 meters across accidentally launched into orbit around the Earth with people still onboard.[112][116]

Space settlement

[edit]
Main article:Space settlement
See also:MoonbaseandMars habitat

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
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Bibliography

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Further reading

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