Jump to content

History of the Philippines (1565–1898)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected fromSpanish Philippines)

Part ofa serieson the
History ofthe Philippines
Timeline
Prehistoric period(pre-900)

Events/Artifacts

Precolonial period(900–1565)
Historically documented states/polities

(north to south)

Events/Artifacts

Spanish colonial period(1565–1898)
Events

Artifacts

American colonial period(1898–1946)
Post-independence(1946–1965)
Marcos era(1965–1986)
Contemporary period(1986–present)
By topic
flagPhilippines portal
Part ofa serieson the
History ofNew Spain
Flag of Cross of Burgundy.svg

Thehistory of the Philippinesfrom 1565 to 1898 is known as theSpanish colonial period,during which thePhilippine Islandswere ruled as theCaptaincy General of the Philippineswithin theSpanish East Indies,initially under the Viceroyalty ofNew Spain,based inMexico City,until theindependence of the Mexican Empirefrom Spain in 1821. This resulted indirect Spanish controlduring aperiod of governmental instabilitythere. The Philippines was under direct royal governance from 1821 to 1898.[1]

The first documented European contact with the Philippines was made in 1521 byFerdinand Magellanin hiscircumnavigation expedition,[2]during which he was killed in theBattle of Mactan.Forty-four years later, a Spanish expedition led byMiguel López de Legazpileft modern Mexico and began the Spanish conquest of the Philippines. Legazpi's expedition arrived in the Philippines in 1565, during the reign ofPhilip II of Spain,whose name hasremained attached to the country.Colonization officially began with the surrender ofRajah Tupasand the Treaty of Cebu on June 4, 1565 with Legazpi.[3]

The Spanish colonial period ended with the defeat of Spain by the United States in theSpanish–American Warand theTreaty of Parison December 10, 1898, which marked the beginning of theAmerican colonial eraof Philippine history.

Spanish colonization[edit]

Background[edit]

See also:History of the Philippines (900–1565) § Spanish explorations (1521–1565)

TheSpaniardshad been exploring thePhilippinessince the early 16th century.Ferdinand Magellan,aPortuguesenavigator in charge of a Spanish expedition to circumnavigate the globe, was killed by warriors ofdatuLapulapuat theBattle of Mactan.In 1543,Ruy López de Villalobosarrived at the islands ofLeyteandSamarand named themLas Islas Filipinasin honor ofPhilip II of Spain,at the timePrince of Asturias.[4]Philip becameKing of Spainon January 16, 1556, when his father, Charles I of Spain (who also reigned asCharles V, Holy Roman Emperor), abdicated the Spanish throne. Philip was inBrusselsat the time and his return to Spain was delayed until 1559 because of European politics and wars in northern Europe. Shortly after his return to Spain, Philip ordered an expedition mounted to theSpice Islands,stating that its purpose was "to discover the islands of the west".[5]In reality its task was to conquer the Philippines for Spain.[6]The population ofLuzonand theVisayasat the time of the first Spanish missions is estimated as between 1 and 1.5 million, overall density being low.[7]

Conquest under Philip II[edit]

Pages of theDoctrina Christiana,an early Christian book inSpanishandTagalog.The book containedLatinandBaybayinsuyat scripts. (1593)

Philip II, whose name has remained attached to the islands, ordered and oversaw the conquest and colonization of the Philippines. On November 19 or 20, 1564, a Spanish expedition of a mere 500 men led byMiguel López de LegazpidepartedBarra de Navidad(modern Mexican state ofJalisco) in the Viceroyalty ofNew Spain,arriving offCebuon February 13, 1565, conquering it despiteCebuanoopposition.[8]: 77 [9][10]: 20–23 Approximately 200-400 of these men wereTlaxcallansoldiers, having allied themselves with Spain during theSpanish conquest of Mexico.[11]Some of the Tlaxcallans settled permanently on the islands, and numerousNahuatlwords were absorbed into theFilipino languages.[12]More than 15,000 soldiers arrived from New Spain as new migrants during the 17th century, far outnumbering civilian arrivals. Most of these soldiers were criminals and young boys rather than men of character.[a][13]Hardship for the colonizing soldiers contributed to looting and enslavement, despite the entreaties of representatives of the church who accompanied them. In 1568, the Spanish Crown permitted the establishment of theencomiendasystem that it was abolishing in theNew World,effectively legalizing a more oppressive conquest. Although slavery had beenabolishedin theSpanish Empire,it took around a century for it to befully abolished in the Philippinesdue to the pre-colonialalipinsystem of slavery already existing in the islands.[14][15]

Due to conflict with thePortuguese,whoblockaded Cebu in 1568,and persistent supply shortages,[16]in 1569 Legazpi transferred toPanayand founded a second settlement on the bank of thePanay River.In 1570, Legazpi sent his grandson,Juan de Salcedo,who had arrived fromMexicoin 1567, toMindoroto punish the MuslimMoropirates who had been plundering Panay villages. Salcedo also destroyed forts on the islands ofIlinandLubang,respectively south and northwest of Mindoro.[8]: 79 

In 1570,Martín de Goiti,having been dispatched by Legazpi to Luzon, conqueredMaynila.Legazpi followed with a larger fleet comprising both Spanish and a majorityVisayanforce,[8]: 79-80 taking a month to bring these forces to bear due to slow speed of local ships.[17]This large force caused the surrender of neighboringTondo.An attempt by some local leaders, known as theTondo Conspiracy,to defeat the Spanish was repelled. Legazpi renamed MaynilaNueva Castilla,and declared it the capital of the Philippines,[8]: 80 and thus of the rest of theSpanish East Indies,[18]which also encompassed Spanish territories inAsiaand thePacific.[19][20]Legazpi became the country's first governor-general.

Though the fledgling Legazpi-led administration was initially small and vulnerable to elimination by Portuguese andChineseinvaders, the merging of the Spanish and Portuguese crowns under theIberian Unionof 1580-1640 helped make permanent the mutual recognition of Spanish claim to the Philippines as well as Portugal's claim to theSpice Islands (Moluccas).[21]

Tomb ofMiguel López de Legazpi,founder ofManilaas the capital city of the Philippine islands, located in Manila at theSan Agustin Churchinside the historic walled city ofIntramuros

In 1573, Japan expanded its trade in northern Luzon.[22][failed verification]In 1580, theJapaneselord Tay Fusa established the independentwokouTay Fusa state in non-colonialCagayan.[23]When the Spanish arrived in the area, they subjugated the settlement, resulting in the1582 Cagayan battles.[24]With time, Cebu's importance fell as power shifted north to Luzon.[citation needed]In the late 16th century the population of Manila grew even as the population of Spanish settlements in the Visayas decreased.[25]

In time, the Spanish successfully took over the different local statesone by one.[26]Under Spanish rule, disparatebarangayswere deliberatelyconsolidated into towns,whereCatholic missionarieswere more easily able to convert the inhabitants toChristianity.[27][28]The missionaries converted most of the lowland inhabitants to Christianity.[29]They also founded schools, a university, hospitals, and churches.[30]To defend their settlements, the Spaniards constructed and manned a network ofmilitary fortressesacross the archipelago.[31]Slavery was also abolished. As a result of these policies the Philippine population increased exponentially.[32][better source needed][33]

Spanish rule brought most of what is now the Philippines into a single unified administration.[34][35]From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as part of the Mexico-based Viceroyalty of New Spain, later administered fromMadridfollowing theMexican War of Independence.[36]For at least some period, administration of the Philippine islands were considered a drain on the economy of New Spain,[37]and there were debates about abandoning it or trading it for some other territory. However, this was opposed for a number of reasons, including economic potential, security, and the desire to continue religious conversion in the islands and the surrounding region.[38][39]The colonial administration of the Philippines survived on an annual subsidy provided by the Spanish Crown in Mexico City.[37]which averaged 250,000 pesos[40]and was usually paid through the provision of 75 tons of silver bullion being sent fromSpanish Americaon theManila galleons.[41]Financial constraints meant the 200-year-old fortifications in Manila did not see significant change after being first built by the early Spanish colonizers.[42]

Peninsulares,Criollo,Native Filipinos (Indios) andAetas,detail fromCarta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas(1734)

Some Japanese ships visited the Philippines in the 1570s in order to export Japanesesilverand import Philippinegold.Later, increasing imports of silver from New World sources resulted in Japanese exports to the Philippines shifting from silver to consumer goods. In the 1570s, the Spanish traders were troubled to some extent by Japanese pirates, but peaceful trading relations were established between the Philippines and Japan by 1590.[43]Japan'skampaku(regent)Toyotomi Hideyoshi,demanded unsuccessfully on several occasions that the Philippines submit to Japan'ssuzerainty.[44]

On February 8, 1597, Philip II, near the end of his 42-year reign, issued aRoyal CedulainstructingFrancisco de Tello de Guzmán,thenGovernor-General of the Philippinesto fulfill the laws of tributes and to provide for restitution of ill-gotten taxes taken from indigenousFilipinos.The decree was published in Manila on August 5, 1598. King Philip died on September 13, just forty days after the publication of the decree, but his death was not known in the Philippines until middle of 1599, by which time a referendum by which indigenous Filipinos would acknowledge Spanish rule was underway. With the completion of the Philippine referendum of 1599, Spain could be said to have established legitimate sovereignty over the Philippines.[45]

ThePrincipaliaof a rural parish in colonial Philippines, joining the Holy Week procession. Illustration,c. 1870

During the initial period of colonialization, Manila was settled by 1,200 Spanish families.[46]InCebu City,at the Visayas, the settlement received a total of 2,100 soldier-settlers from New Spain, beginningMexican settlement in the Philippines.[47]Spanish forces included soldiers from elsewhere in New Spain.[48][49][50][51][52][53] However, according to genetic studies, the Philippines remained largely unaffected by admixture with Europeans.[54]Latin Americans outnumbered Europeans, the Spanish in general, and the majority of Filipinos are native Austronesians.[55] Spain maintained in towns and cities.[56]At the immediate south of Manila, Mexicans were present atErmita[57]and atCavite,[58]where they were stationed as sentries. In addition, men conscripted fromPeru,were also sent to settleZamboanga CityinMindanao,to wage war upon Muslim defenders.[59]

There were also communities of Spanish-Mestizosthat developed inIloilo,[60]Negros,[61]andVigan.[62]Interactions betweenindigenous Filipinosand immigrant Spaniards along with Latin Americans eventually caused the formation of a new language,Chavacano,a creole ofMexican Spanish.They depended on thegalleon tradefor a living. In the later years of the 18th century, Governor-GeneralJosé Bascointroduced economic reforms that gave the colony its first significant internal source income from the production oftobaccoand other agricultural exports. In this later period, agriculture was finally opened to the European population, which before was reserved only for indigenous Filipinos. During its rule, Spain quelledvarious indigenous revolts,[63]as well as defending against external military challenges.[37][64][failed verification]

The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims inSoutheast Asiaan extension of theReconquista.[65]War against the Dutchfrom the west, in the 17th century, together with conflict with the Muslims in the south nearly bankrupted the colonial treasury.[66]Moros from western Mindanao and theSulu Archipelagoalso raided the coastal Christian areas of Luzon and the Visayas. Settlers had to fight off theChinesepirates (who lay siege to Manila, the most famous of which wasLimahongin 1573).

Dutch attacks[edit]

The two merchant galleons,EncarnacionandRosario,which were hastily converted to warships to meet the superior Dutch armada of 18 vessels during thebattles of La Naval de Manilain 1646 (artist's conception)

There were three naval actions fought betweenDutchcorsairs and Spanish forces in 1610, 1617 and 1624, known as the First, Second and ThirdBattles of Playa Honda.The second battle is the most famous and celebrated of the three, with nearly even forces (10 ships vs 10 ships), resulting in the Dutch losing their flagship and retreating. Only the third battle of 1624 resulted in a Dutch naval victory.

In 1646, a series of five naval actions known as the Battles of La Naval de Manila was fought between the forces of Spain and theDutch Republic,as part of theEighty Years' War.Although the Spanish forces consisted of just two Manila galleons and agalleywith crews composed mainly of Filipino volunteers, against three separate Dutch squadrons, totaling eighteen ships, the Dutch squadrons were severely defeated in all fronts by the Spanish-Filipino forces, forcing the Dutch to abandon their plans for an invasion of the Philippines.

On June 6, 1647, Dutch vessels were sighted near Mariveles Island. In spite of the preparations, the Spanish had only one galleon (theSan Diego) and two galleys ready to engage the enemy. The Dutch had twelve major vessels.

On June 12, the armada attacked the Spanish port of Cavite. The battle lasted eight hours, and the Spanish believed they had done much damage to the enemy flagship and the other vessels. The Spanish ships were not badly damaged and casualties were low. However, nearly every roof in the Spanish settlement was damaged by cannon fire, which particularly concentrated on the cathedral. On June 19, the armada was split, with six ships sailing for the shipyard of Mindoro and the other six remaining inManila Bay.The Dutch next attackedPampanga,where they captured the fortified monastery, taking prisoners and executing almost 200 Filipino defenders. The governor ordered solemn funeral rites for the dead and payments to their widows and orphans.[67][68][69]

There was an expedition the following year that arrived inJoloin July. The Dutch had formed an alliance with an anti-Spanish king, Salicala. The Spanish garrison on the island was small, but survived a Dutch bombardment. The Dutch finally withdrew, and the Spanish made peace with the Joloans, and then also withdrew.[67][68][69]

There was also an unsuccessful attack onZamboangain 1648. That year the Dutch promised the natives of Mindanao that they would return in 1649 with aid in support of a revolt against the Spanish. Several revolts did break out, the most serious being in the village of Lindáo. There most of the Spaniards were killed, and the survivors were forced to flee in a small river boat toButuán.However, Dutch aid did not materialize or have objects to provide them. The authorities from Manila issued a general pardon, and many of the Filipinos in the mountains surrendered.[67][68][69]

The demands of these wars has been regarded as a potential cause of population decline.[70]

British occupation of Manila[edit]

Luzon island( Lữ Tống Quốc ) delegates inBeijing,China,in 1761.Vạn quốc tới triều đồ
Main article:British occupation of Manila

In August 1759,Charles IIIascended the Spanish throne. At the time,Great BritainandFrancewere at war, in what was later called theSeven Years' War.

Britishforces occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764, however they were unable to extend their conquest outside of Manila as the Filipinos stayed loyal to the remaining Spanish community outside Manila.[10]: 81–83 Spanish colonial forces kept the British confined to Manila. Catholic ArchbishopManuel Rojo,who had been captured by the British, executed a document of surrender on October 30, 1762, giving the British confidence in eventual victory.[71][72]

The surrender by Archbishop Rojo was rejected as illegal by DonSimón de Anda y Salazar,who claimed the title of Governor-General under the statutes of theCouncil of the Indies.He led Spanish-Filipino forces that kept the British confined to Manila and sabotaged or crushed British-fomented revolts, such as the revolt byDiego Silang.Anda intercepted and redirected the Manila galleon trade to prevent further captures by the British. The failure of the British to consolidate their position led to troop desertions and a breakdown of command unity which left the British forces paralysed and in an increasingly precarious position.[73]

The Seven Years' War was ended by thePeace of Parissigned on February 10, 1763. At the time of signing the treaty, the signatories were not aware that Manila was under British occupation and was being administered as a British colony. Consequently, no specific provision was made for the Philippines. Instead they fell under the general provision that all other lands not otherwise provided for be returned to the Spanish Crown.[74]

The opening of the Philippines to world trade[edit]

The visit of Gov.-General Narciso Claveria y Zaldua at Nueva Caceres on Feb. 16, 1845

As industrialization spread throughout Europe and North America in the 19th century, demands for raw materials increased. Although the Philippines had been prohibited from trading with nations other than Spain, the demand led Spain, under Governor-General José Basco, to open the ports to international trade as both as a source of raw materials and as a market for manufactured goods.

Following the opening of Philippine ports to world trade in 1834,[75]shifts started occurring within Filipino society.[76][77]The decline of the Manila Galleon trade contributed to shifts in the domestic economy. Communal land became privatized to meet international demand for agricultural products, which led to the formal opening of the ports of Manila,Iloilo,and Cebu to international trade.[78]

Rise of Filipino nationalism[edit]

Main article:Filipino nationalism
The opening of Philippine trade to the world gave rise to business and imposing edifices that made Manila the 'Paris of Asia'. La Insular Cigar Factory is one of the most popular.

The development of the Philippines as a source of raw materials and as a market for European manufactures created much local wealth. Many Filipinos prospered. Everyday Filipinos also benefited from the new economy with the rapid increase in demand for labor and availability of business opportunities. Some Europeans immigrated to the Philippines to join the wealth wagon, among them Jacobo Zobel, patriarch of today'sZobel de Ayala familyand prominent figure in the rise of Filipino nationalism. Their scions studied in the best universities of Europe where they learned the ideals of liberty from the French and American Revolutions. The new economy gave rise to a new middle class in the Philippines.

In the mid-19th century, theSuez Canalwas opened which made the Philippines easier to reach from Spain. The small increase ofPeninsularesfrom theIberian Peninsulathreatened the secularization of thePhilippine churches.In state affairs, theCriollos,known locally asInsulares(lit. "islanders" ), were displaced from government positions by thePeninsulares,whom theInsularesregarded as foreigners.

TheSpanish American wars of independenceand renewed immigration led to shifts in social identity, with the termFilipinoshifting from referring to Spaniards born in the Iberian Peninsula andin the Philippinesto a term encompassing all people in the archipelago. This identity shift was driven by wealthy families of mixed ancestry, for which it developed into a national identity.[79][80]This was compounded by a Mexican of Filipino descent,Isidoro Montes de Oca,becoming captain-general to the revolutionary leaderVicente Guerreroduring the Mexican War of Independence.[81][82][83]

TheInsulareshad become increasingly Filipino and called themselvesLos hijos del país(lit. "sons of the country" ). Among the early proponents of Filipino nationalism were theInsularesPadrePedro Peláez,who fought for the secularization of Philippine churches and expulsion of the friars, Padre José Burgos whose execution influenced the national heroJosé Rizal,and Joaquín Pardo de Tavera who fought for retention of government positions by natives, regardless of race. In retaliation to the rise of Filipino nationalism, the friars called theIndios(possibly referring toInsularesandmestizosas well) indolent and unfit for government and church positions. In response, theInsularescame out withIndios agraviados,a manifesto defending the Filipino against discriminatory remarks.

The tension between theInsularesandPeninsulareserupted into the failed revolts ofNovalesand theCavite mutinyof 1872, which resulted in the deportation of prominent Filipino nationalists to theMarianasandEurope,who would continue the fight for liberty through thePropaganda Movement.The Cavite Mutiny implicated the priestsMariano Gomez,José Burgos,andJacinto Zamora(seeGomburza), whose executions would influence the subversive activities of the next generation of Filipino nationalists, among them José Rizal, who then dedicated his novelEl filibusterismoto these priests.

A nationalpublic school systemwas introduced in 1863.[84][85][86]

Rise of Spanish liberalism[edit]

See also:Liberalism and radicalism in Spain
FilipinoIlustradosin Spain

After the Liberals won theSpanish Revolution of 1868,Carlos María de la Torrewas sent to the Philippines to serve as governor-general (1869–1871). He was one of the most loved governors-general in the Philippines because of the reforms he implemented.[citation needed]At one time, his supporters, including Padre Burgos and Joaquín Pardo de Tavera, serenaded him in front of theMalacañan Palace.[citation needed]Following theBourbon Restorationin Spain and the removal of the Liberals from power, de la Torre was recalled and replaced by Governor-GeneralIzquierdo,who vowed to rule with an iron fist.[citation needed]

Ilustrados, Rizal, and the Katipunan[edit]

Revolutionary sentiments were stoked in 1872 after three activist Catholic priests were executed on weak pretences.[87][88][89]This would inspire apropaganda movementin Spain, organized byMarcelo H. del Pilar,José Rizal, andMariano Ponce,lobbying for political reforms in the Philippines.[citation needed]

The mass deportation of nationalists to the Marianas and Europe in 1872 led to a Filipino expatriate community of reformers in Europe. The community grew with the next generation ofIlustradosstudying in European universities. They allied themselves with Spanish liberals, notably Spanish senator Miguel Morayta Sagrario, and founded the newspaperLa Solidaridad.[citation needed]During this time, Spain institutionalized the business ofhuman zoosagainst Filipinos, adding flame to the call of revolution, as indigenous Filipinos were taken by the Spanish and displayed as animals for white audiences.[90][91]

Among the reformers was José Rizal, who wrote two novels while in Europe. His novels were considered[by whom?]the most influential of the Illustrados' writings, causing further unrest in the islands, particularly the founding of theKatipunan.A rivalry developed between himself and Marcelo Hilario del Pilar for the leadership ofLa Solidaridadand the reform movement in Europe. Majority of the expatriates supported the leadership of del Pilar.[citation needed]

Rizal then returned to the Philippines to organizeLa Liga Filipinaand bring the reform movement to Philippine soil. He was arrested just a few days after founding the league.[citation needed]Rizal was eventually executed on December 30, 1896, on charges of rebellion. This radicalized many who had previously been loyal to Spain.[92]As attempts at reform met with resistance,[93]in 1892, Radical members of the La Liga Filipina, which includedAndrés BonifacioandDeodato Arellano,founded theKataastaasan Kagalanggalang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan(KKK), called simply the Katipunan, which had the objective of the Philippines seceding from the Spanish Empire.

Philippine Revolution[edit]

Main article:Philippine Revolution
Emilio Aguinaldo,the first Philippine president

By 1896, the Katipunan had a membership by the thousands. That same year, the existence of the Katipunan was discovered by the colonial authorities. In late August, Katipuneros gathered inCaloocanand declared the start of the revolution. The event is now known as theCry of Balintawakor theCry of Pugad Lawin,due to conflicting historical traditions and official government positions.[94]Andrés Bonifacio called for a general offensive on Manila[95][96]and was defeated in battle at the town ofSan Juan del Monte.He regrouped his forces and was able to briefly capture the towns ofMarikina,San Mateo andMontalbán.Spanish counterattacks drove him back and he retreated to the heights of Balara and Morong and from there engaged inguerrilla warfare.[97]By August 30, the revolt had spread to eight provinces. On that date, Governor-GeneralRamón Blancodeclared astate of warin these provinces and placed them undermartial law.These were Manila,Bulacan,Cavite, Pampanga,Tarlac,Laguna,Batangas,andNueva Ecija.They would later be represented in the eight rays of the sun in theFilipino flag.[98][failed verification]Emilio Aguinaldoand the Katipuneros ofCavitewere the most successful of the rebels[99]and they controlled most of their province by September–October. They defended their territories withtrenchesdesigned byEdilberto Evangelista.[97]

Many of the educatedilustradoclass such asAntonio LunaandApolinario Mabinidid not initially favor an armed revolution. José Rizal himself, whom the rebels took inspiration from and had consulted beforehand, disapproved of a premature revolution. He was arrested, tried and executed for treason, sedition and conspiracy on December 30, 1896. Before his arrest he had issued a statement disavowing the revolution, but in his farewell poemMi último adióshe wrote that dying in battle for the sake of one's country was just as patriotic as his own impending death.[100][page needed]

While the revolution spread throughout the provinces, Aguinaldo's Katipuneros declared the existence of an insurgent government in October regardless of Bonifacio's Katipunan,[101]which he had already converted into an insurgent government with him as president in August.[102][103]Bonifacio was invited to Cavite to mediate between Aguinaldo's rebels, theMagdalo,and their rivals theMagdiwang,both chapters of the Katipunan. There he became embroiled in discussions whether to replace the Katipunan with an insurgent government of the Cavite rebels' design.[citation needed]This internal dispute led to theTejeros Conventionand an election in which Bonifacio lost his position and Emilio Aguinaldo was elected as the new leader of the revolution.[104]: 145–147 On March 22, 1897, the convention established the Tejeros Revolutionary Government.[citation needed]Bonifacio refused to recognize this and, with others, concluded theNaic Military Agreement.This led to hisexecutionfor treason in May 1897.[105][106]On November 1, the Tejeros government was supplanted by theRepublic of Biak-na-Bato.[citation needed]

By December 1897, the revolution had resulted in a stalemate between the colonial government and rebels.Pedro Paternomediated between the two sides for the signing of thePact of Biak-na-Bato.The conditions of the armistice included the self-exile of Aguinaldo and his officers in exchange for $MXN 800,000 (about $US 14,400,000 today[b]) to be paid by the colonial government.[citation needed]Aguinaldo then sailed toHong Kongto self exile.[108]

Spanish–American War[edit]

TheBattle of Manila Bay
See also:Spanish–American WarandPhilippine–American War

On April 25, 1898, theSpanish–American Warbegan. On May 1, 1898, in theBattle of Manila Bay,theAsiatic Squadronof theU.S. Navy,led by CommodoreGeorge DeweyaboardUSSOlympia,decisively defeated the Spanish naval forces in the Philippines. With the loss of its naval forces and of control of Manila Bay, Spain lost the ability to defend Manila and therefore the Philippines.

On May 19, Emilio Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines aboard a U.S. Navy ship, and on May 24, took command of Filipino forces. Filipino forces had liberated much of the country from the Spanish.[citation needed]On June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo issued thePhilippine Declaration of Independencedeclaring independence from Spain.[108]Filipino forces then laid siege to Manila, as had American forces.

In August 1898, the Spanish governor-general covertly agreed with American commanders to surrender Manila to the Americans following a mock battle.[citation needed]On August 13, 1898, during theBattle of Manila,Americans took control of the city.[citation needed]In December 1898, theTreaty of Pariswas signed, ending the Spanish–American War and selling the Philippines to the United States for$20 million. With this treaty, Spanish rule in the Philippines formally ended.[109][110]

On January 23, 1899, Aguinaldo established theFirst Philippine RepublicinMalolos.[111]

As it became increasingly clear that the United States would not recognize the First Philippine Republic, thePhilippine–American Warbroke out[112]on February 4, 1899, with theBattle of Manila.

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^This is according to statements in 1626 by GovernorsFernando de Silvaand in 1650 byDiego Fajardo Chacón.[13]
  2. ^The Mexican dollar at the time was worth about 50 US cents, equivalent to about $18.31 today.[107]Thepeso fuerteand the Mexican dollar were interchangeable at par.

References[edit]

  1. ^Hedman, Eva-Lotta E.; Sidel, John T. (2000).Philippine Politics and Society in the Twentieth Century: Colonial Legacies, Post-Colonial Trajectories.Routledge. pp.6-7.ISBN9780415147903.
  2. ^Suaraz, Thomas (1999).Early Mapping of Southeast Asia: The Epic Story of Seafarers, Adventurers, and Cartographers Who First Mapped the Regions Between China and India.Periplus Editions (HK) Limited. p. 138.ISBN9789625934709.
  3. ^ Scott, William Henry (1992),Looking for the Prehispanic Filipino: and other essays in Philippine history,New Day Publishers,ISBN978-971-10-0524-5.
  4. ^Scott 1985,p. 51.
  5. ^Williams 2009,p.14
  6. ^Williams 2009,pp.13–33
  7. ^Newson 2009,p. 4.
  8. ^abcdHalili, Maria Christine N. (2004).Philippine History.Manila: Rex Bookstore, Inc.ISBN978-971-23-3934-9.
  9. ^Education, United States. Office of (1961).Bulletin.U.S. Government Printing Office. p.7.
  10. ^abde Borja, Marciano R. (2005).Basques In The Philippines.University of Nevada Press.ISBN9780874175905.Archived fromthe originalon March 26, 2022.RetrievedFebruary 19,2021.
  11. ^"When Tlaxcalan Natives Went to War in the Philippines".LATINO BOOK REVIEW.RetrievedMarch 17,2024.
  12. ^"When Tlaxcalan Natives Went to War in the Philippines".LATINO BOOK REVIEW.RetrievedApril 1,2024.
  13. ^abMawson, Stephanie J. (August 2016)."Convicts or" Conquistadores? "Spanish Soldiers in the Seventeent2h-Century Pacific".Past & Present.232(232). Oxford University Press on behalf of The Past and Present Society: 87–125.doi:10.1093/pastj/gtw008.JSTOR44015364.{{cite journal}}:CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  14. ^Newson 2009,pp. 5–7.
  15. ^Seijas, Tatiana (2014).Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico: From Chinos to Indians cover.Cambridge University Press. pp. 36–37.ISBN9781107477841.
  16. ^Newson 2009,p. 61.
  17. ^Newson 2009,p. 20.
  18. ^Fernando A. Santiago Jr. (2006)."Isang Maikling Kasaysayan ng Pandacan, Maynila 1589–1898".Malay.19(2): 70–87.RetrievedJuly 18,2008.
  19. ^Manuel L. Quezon III (June 12, 2017)."The Philippines Isn't What It Used to Be".SPOT.PH.RetrievedOctober 24,2020.
  20. ^Andrade, Tonio(2005)."La Isla Hermosa: The Rise of the Spanish Colony in Northern Taiwan".How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish and Han colonialization in the Seventeenth Century.Columbia University Press.
  21. ^Barrows, David P."A History of the Philippines".Gutenberg.org.RetrievedMarch 8,2022.
  22. ^"조선왕조실록".Sillok.history.go.kr.RetrievedFebruary 23,2019.
  23. ^Barreveld, Dirk J. (February 23, 2019).The Dutch Discovery of Japan: The True Story Behind James Clavell's Famous Novel Shogun.iUniverse.ISBN9780595192618.RetrievedFebruary 23,2019– via Google Books.
  24. ^Borao, José Eugenio (2005), p.2
  25. ^Newson 2009,p. 120.
  26. ^Guillermo, Artemio (2012) [2012].Historical Dictionary of the Philippines.The Scarecrow Press Inc. p. 374.ISBN9780810875111.RetrievedSeptember 11,2020.To pursue their mission of conquest, the Spaniards dealt individually with each settlement or village and with each province or island until the entire Philippine archipelago was brought under imperial control. They saw to it that the people remained divided or compartmentalized and with the minimum of contact or communication. The Spaniards adopted the policy of divide et impera (divide and conquer).
  27. ^Abinales & Amoroso 2005,pp.53,68
  28. ^Constantino, Renato; Constantino, Letizia R. (1975).A History of the Philippines.NYU Press. pp. 58–59.ISBN978-0-85345-394-9.RetrievedJanuary 12,2021.
  29. ^Russell, S.D. (1999)"Christianity in the Philippines".RetrievedApril 2,2013.[full citation needed]
  30. ^"The City of God: Churches, Convents and Monasteries".Discovering Philippines. Retrieved on July 6, 2011.[full citation needed]
  31. ^Javellana, Rene, S.J. (1997)."Fortress of Empire".{{cite web}}:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)[full citation needed]
  32. ^Lahmeyer, Jan (1996)."The Philippines: historical demographic data of the whole country".Archived fromthe originalon March 3, 2016.RetrievedJuly 19,2003.
  33. ^"Censos de Cúba, Puerto Rico, Filipinas y España. Estudio de su relación".Voz de Galicia. 1898.RetrievedDecember 12,2010.[verification needed]
  34. ^Llobet, Ruth de (June 23, 2015)."The Philippines. A mountain of difference: The Lumad in early colonial Mindanao By Oona Paredes Ithaca: Southeast Asia Program Publications, Cornell University, 2013. Pp. 195. Maps, Appendices, Notes, Bibliography, Index".Journal of Southeast Asian Studies.46(2): 332–334.doi:10.1017/S0022463415000211– via Cambridge University Press.
  35. ^Acabado, Stephen (March 1, 2017)."The Archaeology of Pericolonialism: Responses of the" Unconquered "to Spanish Conquest and Colonialism in Ifugao, Philippines".International Journal of Historical Archaeology.21(1): 1–26.doi:10.1007/s10761-016-0342-9.S2CID147472482– via Springer Link.
  36. ^Gutierrez, Pedro Luengo."Dissolution of Manila-Mexico Architectural Connections between 1784 and 1810".Transpacific Exchanges:62–63.
  37. ^abcOoi, Keat Gin (2004).Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor.ABC-CLIO. p. 1077.ISBN978-1-57607-770-2.RetrievedJanuary 29,2021.Because local resources did not yield enough money to maintain the colonial administration, the government was constantly running a deficit and had to be supported with an annual subsidy from the Spanish government in Mexico, the situado.
  38. ^Newson 2009,pp. 7–8.
  39. ^Crossley, John Newsome (July 28, 2013).Hernando de los Ríos Coronel and the Spanish Philippines in the Golden Age.Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 168–169.ISBN9781409482420.
  40. ^Newson 2009,p. 8.
  41. ^Cole, Jeffrey A. (1985).The Potosí mita, 1573–1700: compulsory Indian labor in the Andes.Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. p. 20.ISBN978-0-8047-1256-9.
  42. ^Tracy 1995,pp. 12, 55[citation not found]
  43. ^Schottenhammer 2008,p.151
  44. ^Yu-Jose 1999,p.https://books.google /books?id=kbWv-pZy5H0C&pg=PA11
  45. ^Villarroel 2009,pp.93–133
  46. ^Barrows, David (2014)."A History of the Philippines".Guttenburg Free Online E-books.1:179.Within the walls, there were some six hundred houses of a private nature, most of them built of stone and tile, and an equal number outside in the suburbs, or "arrabales," all occupied by Spaniards ( "todos son vivienda y poblacion de los Españoles" ). This gives some twelve hundred Spanish families or establishments, exclusive of the religious, who in Manila numbered at least one hundred and fifty, the garrison, at certain times, about four hundred trained Spanish soldiers who had seen service in Holland and the Low Countries, and the official classes.
  47. ^"Spanish Expeditions to the Philippines".philippine-history.org. 2005.
  48. ^Mehl, Eva Maria (2016). "Chapter 6 – Unruly Mexicans in Manila".Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World From Mexico to the Philippines, 1765–1811.Cambridge University Press.doi:10.1017/CBO9781316480120.007.ISBN9781316480120.In Governor Anda y Salazar's opinion, an important part of the problem of vagrancy was the fact that Mexicans and Spanish disbanded after finishing their military or prison terms "all over the islands, even the most distant, looking for subsistence.~CSIC riel 208 leg.14
  49. ^Garcıa de los Arcos, "Grupos etnicos," ´ 65–66Garcia de los Arcos, Maria Fernanda (1999)."Grupos éthnicos y Clases sociales en las Filipinas de Finales del Siglo XVIII".Archipel.57(2): 55–71.doi:10.3406/arch.1999.3515.RetrievedAugust 19,2020.
  50. ^Mehl, Eva Maria (2016)."Chapter 1 – Intertwined Histories in the Pacific".Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World From Mexico to the Philippines, 1765–1811.Cambridge University Press. p. 246.doi:10.1017/CBO9781316480120.007.ISBN9781316480120.The military organization of Manila might have depended to some degree on non-European groups, but colonial authorities measured a successful imperial policy of defense on the amount of European and American recruits that could be accounted for in the military forces.~CSIC ser. Consultas riel 301 leg.8 (1794)
  51. ^"Filipino-Mexican-Central-and-South American Connection, Tales of Two Sisters: Manila and Mexico".June 21, 1997.RetrievedJanuary 1,2021.Tomás de Comyn, general manager of the Compañia Real de Filipinas, in 1810 estimated that out of a total population of 2,515,406, "the European Spaniards, and Spanish creoles and mestizos do not exceed 4,000 persons of both sexes and all ages, and the distinct castes or modifications known in America under the name of mulatto, quarteroons, etc., although found in the Philippine Islands, are generally confounded in the three classes of pure Indians, Chinese mestizos and Chinese."
  52. ^(Page 10)Pérez, Marilola (2015).Cavite Chabacano Philippine Creole Spanish: Description and Typology(PDF)(PhD). University of California, Berkeley. Archived fromthe originalon January 14, 2021.The galleon activities also attracted a great number of Mexican men that arrived from the Mexican Pacific coast as ships' crewmembers (Grant 2009: 230). Mexicans were administrators, priests and soldiers (guachinangos or hombres de pueblo) (Bernal 1964: 188) many though, integrated into the peasant society, even becoming tulisanes 'bandits' who in the late 18th century "infested" Cavite and led peasant revolts (Medina 2002: 66). Meanwhile, in the Spanish garrisons, Spanish was used among administrators and priests. Nonetheless, there is not enough historical information on the social role of these men. In fact some of the few references point to a quick integration into the local society: "los hombres del pueblo, los soldados y marinos, anónimos, olvidados, absorbidos en su totalidad por la población Filipina." (Bernal 1964: 188). In addition to the Manila-Acapulco galleon, a complex commercial maritime system circulated European and Asian commodities including slaves. During the 17th century, Portuguese vessels traded with the ports of Manila and Cavite, even after the prohibition of 1644 (Seijas 2008: 21). Crucially, the commercial activities included the smuggling and trade of slaves: "from the Moluccas, and Malacca, and India… with the monsoon winds" carrying "clove spice, cinnamon, and pepper and black slaves, and Kafir [slaves]" (Antonio de Morga cf Seijas 2008: 21). "Though there is no data on the numbers of slaves in Cavite, the numbers in Manila suggest a significant fraction of the population had been brought in as slaves by the Portuguese vessels. By 1621, slaves in Manila numbered 1,970 out of a population of 6,110. This influx of slaves continued until late in the 17th century; according to contemporary cargo records in 1690, 200 slaves departed from Malacca to Manila (Seijas 2008: 21). Different ethnicities were favored for different labor; Africans were brought to work on the agricultural production, and skilled slaves from India served as caulkers and carpenters.
  53. ^Abinales & Amoroso 2005,p.98
  54. ^https:// pnas.org/content/118/13/e2026132118[bare URL]
  55. ^Maximilian Larena; Federico Sanchez-Quinto; Per Sjödin; Mattias Jakobsson (March 22, 2021)."Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years".Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.118(13).Bibcode:2021PNAS..11826132L.doi:10.1073/pnas.2026132118.PMC8020671.PMID33753512.S2CID232323746.
  56. ^Tatiana Seijas (2014)."The Diversity and Reach of the Manila Slave Market".Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico.Cambridge University Press. p. 36.ISBN978-1-107-06312-9.
  57. ^"Living in the Philippines: Living, Retiring, Travelling and Doing Business".Archived fromthe originalon December 6, 2016.RetrievedApril 22,2017.
  58. ^Barrows, David (2014)."A History of the Philippines".Guttenburg Free Online E-books.1:229.Reforms under General Arandía.—The demoralization and misery with which Obando's rule closed were relieved somewhat by the capable government of Arandía, who succeeded him. Arandía was one of the few men of talent, energy, and integrity who stood at the head of affairs in these islands during two centuries. He reformed the greatly disorganized military force, establishing what was known as the "Regiment of the King,"made up very largely of Mexican soldiers.He also formed a corps of artillerists composed of Filipinos. These were regular troops, who received from Arandía sufficient pay to enable them to live decently and like an army.
  59. ^"SECOND BOOK OF THE SECOND PART OF THE CONQUESTS OF THE FILIPINAS ISLANDS, AND CHRONICLE OF THE RELIGIOUS OF OUR FATHER, ST. AUGUSTINE"(Zamboanga City History) "He (Governor Don Sebastían Hurtado de Corcuera) brought a great reënforcements of soldiers, many of them fromPeru,as he made his voyage toAcapulcofrom that kingdom. "
  60. ^Quinze Ans de Voyage Autor de Monde Vol. II ( 1840)ArchivedOctober 9, 2014, at theWayback Machine.Retrieved July 25, 2014 fromInstitute for Research of Iloilo Official Website
  61. ^"The Philippine Archipelago" By Yves Boquet Page 262
  62. ^De la Torre, Visitacion (2006).The Ilocos Heritage.Makati City: Tower Book House. p. 2.ISBN978-971-91030-9-7.
  63. ^Halili, Maria Christine N. (2004).Philippine History.Rex Bookstore. pp. 111–122.ISBN978-971-23-3934-9.
  64. ^Iaccarino, Ubaldo (October 2017).""The Centre of a Circle": Manila's Trade with East and Southeast Asia at the Turn of the Sixteenth Century "(PDF).Crossroads.16.OSTASIEN Verlag.ISSN2190-8796.
  65. ^Hawkley, Ethan (2014)."Reviving the Reconquista in Southeast Asia: Moros and the Making of the Philippines, 1565–1662".Journal of World History.25(2–3). University of Hawai'i Press: 288.doi:10.1353/jwh.2014.0014.S2CID143692647.The early modern revival of the Reconquista in the Philippines had a profound effect on the islands, one that is still being felt today. As described above, the Spanish Reconquista served to unify Christians against a common Moro enemy, helping to bring together Castilian, Catalan, Galician, and Basque peoples into a single political unit: Spain. In precolonial times, the Philippine islands were a divided and unspecified part of the Malay archipelago, one inhabited by dozens of ethnolinguistic groups, residing in countless independent villages, strewn across thousands of islands. By the end of the seventeenth century, however, a dramatic change had happened in the archipelago. A multiethnic community had come together to form the colonial beginnings of a someday nation: the Philippines. The powerful influence of Christian-Moro antagonisms on the formation of the early Philippines remains evident more than four hundred years later, as the Philippine national government continues to grapple with Moro separatists groups, even in 2013.
  66. ^Dolan 1991,The Early Spanish Period.
  67. ^abcDe Jesus, Luis & De Santa Theresa, Diego (1905). "Recollect Missions, 1646–1660". InBlair, Emma Helen&Robertson, James Alexander(eds.).The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898.Vol. 36 of 55 (1649–1666). Translated byHenry B. Lathrop.Cleveland, Ohio:Arthur H. Clark Company.pp. 126 ff.
  68. ^abcFayol, Joseph (1905). "Affairs in Filipinas, 1644–47". InBlair, Emma Helen&Robertson, James Alexander(eds.).The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898.Vol. 35 of 55. Cleveland, Ohio:Arthur H. Clark Company.p. 267.
  69. ^abcMaarten Gerritszoon Vries; Cornelis Janszoon Coen; Pieter Arend Leupe; Philipp Franz von Siebold (1858).Reize van Maarten Gerritsz: Vries in 1643 naar het noorden en oosten van Japan.The Hague: Instituut voor de taal-, land- en volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indië.
  70. ^Newson 2009,p. 3.
  71. ^Tracy 1995,p. 54
  72. ^(F.R.G.S.), John Foreman (1906).The Philippine Islands: A Political, Geographical, Ethnographical, Social and Commercial History of the Philippine Archipelago, Embracing the Whole Period of Spanish Rule, with an Account of the Succeeding American Insular Government.Unwin. pp.89–90.
  73. ^Fish 2003,p. 158
  74. ^Tracy 1995,p. 109
  75. ^Wataru Kusaka (2017).Moral Politics in the Philippines: Inequality, Democracy and the Urban Poor.National University of Singapore Press. p. 23.ISBN9789814722384.
  76. ^Hall, Daniel George Edward (1981).History of South East Asia.Macmillan International Higher Education. p. 757.ISBN978-1-349-16521-6.RetrievedJuly 30,2020.[permanent dead link]
  77. ^Bacareza, Hermógenes E. (2003).The German Connection: A Modern History.Hermogenes E. Bacareza. p. 10.ISBN9789719309543.RetrievedJuly 30,2020.
  78. ^Cullinane, Michael (2003).Ilustrado Politics: Filipino Elite Responses to American Rule, 1898-1908.Ateneo University Press. p. 11.ISBN9789715504393.
  79. ^Hedman, Eva-Lotta; Sidel, John (2005).Philippine Politics and Society in the Twentieth Century: Colonial Legacies, Post-Colonial Trajectories.Routledge. p. 71.ISBN978-1-134-75421-2.RetrievedJuly 30,2020.
  80. ^Steinberg, David Joel (2018). "Chapter – 3 A Singular and a Plural Folk".The Philippines A Singular and a Plural Place.Routledge. p. 47.doi:10.4324/9780429494383.ISBN978-0-8133-3755-5.The cultural identity of the mestizos was challenged as they became increasingly aware that they were true members of neither the indio nor the Chinese community. Increasingly powerful but adrift, they linked with the Spanish mestizos, who were also being challenged because after the Latin American revolutions broke the Spanish Empire, many of the settlers from the New World, Caucasian Creoles born in Mexico or Peru, became suspect in the eyes of the Iberian Spanish. The Spanish Empire had lost its universality.
  81. ^Mercene, Floro L. (January 28, 2005)."Filipinos in Mexican history".ezilon infobase.Archived fromthe originalon December 9, 2012.RetrievedAugust 13,2019.
  82. ^Delgado de Cantú, Gloria M. (2006). Historia de México. México, D. F.: Pearson Educación.ISBN970-26-0797-3.[full citation needed]
  83. ^González Davíla Amado. Geografía del Estado de Guerrero y síntesis histórica 1959. México D.F.; ed. Quetzalcóatl.[full citation needed]
  84. ^Dolan 1991,Education.[full citation needed]
  85. ^Cenoz, Jasone; Genesee, Fred (January 1998).Beyond Bilingualism: Multilingualism and Multilingual Education.Multilingual Matters. p. 192.ISBN978-1-85359-420-5.RetrievedJanuary 12,2021.
  86. ^Weinberg, Meyer (December 6, 2012)."5; Philippines".Asian-american Education: Historical Background and Current Realities.Routledge.ISBN978-1-136-49835-0.RetrievedJanuary 12,2021.
  87. ^Schumacher, John N. (1997).The Propaganda Movement, 1880–1895.Ateneo University Press. pp. 8–9.ISBN9789715502092.
  88. ^Schumacher, John N. (1998).Revolutionary Clergy: The Filipino Clergy and the Nationalist Movement, 1850–1903.Ateneo University Press. pp. 23–30.ISBN9789715501217.
  89. ^Nuguid, Nati. (1972)."The Cavite Mutiny".in Mary R. Tagle.12 Events that Have Influenced Philippine History.[Manila]: National Media Production Center. Retrieved December 20, 2009 fromStuartXchange Website.
  90. ^Arcilla, Jose S. (1991). "The Enlightenment and the Philippine Revolution".Philippine Studies.39(3): 358–373.JSTOR42633263.
  91. ^Limos, M. A. (2020). The Story Behind Spain's Infamous Zoo That Featured Philippine Animals... And Then Filipinos. Esquire Publications.
  92. ^Ocampo, Ambeth(1999).Rizal Without the Overcoat(expanded ed.). Pasig: Anvil Publishing, Inc.ISBN978-971-27-0920-3.[page needed]
  93. ^Halili, Maria Christine N. (2004).Philippine History.Rex Bookstore, Inc. p. 137.ISBN978-971-23-3934-9.RetrievedJuly 29,2020.
  94. ^Agoncillo 1990,p. 166
  95. ^Salazar, Zeus (1994).Agosto 29–30, 1896: Ang pagsalakay ni Bonifacio sa Maynila.Quezon City: Miranda Bookstore. p. 107.
  96. ^Borromeo-Buehler, Soledad (1998).The Cry of Balintawak: A Contrived Controversy.Ateneo University Press. p. 7.ISBN9789715502788.
  97. ^abGuerrero & Schumacher 1998,pp. 175–176.[failed verification]
  98. ^Agoncillo 1990,p. 173.
  99. ^Constantino 1975,p. 179
  100. ^Quibuyen 2008
  101. ^Constantino 1975,pp. 178–181
  102. ^Guerrero & Schumacher 1998,pp. 166–167Guerrero & Schumacher 1998,pp. 175–176.[citation needed]
  103. ^Agoncillo 1990,p. 152
  104. ^Duka, Cecilio D. (2008).Struggle for Freedom.Rex Bookstore, Inc.ISBN9789712350450.
  105. ^Constantino 1975,p. 191
  106. ^Agoncillo 1990,pp. 180–181.
  107. ^Halstead, Murat (1898). "XII. The American Army in Manila".The Story of the Philippines and Our New Possessions.p. 126.
  108. ^abAbinales & Amoroso 2005,p.112-113
  109. ^Draper, Andrew Sloan (1899).The Rescue of Cuba: An Episode in the Growth of Free Government.Silver, Burdett. pp. 170–172.ISBN9780722278932.RetrievedJanuary 29,2021.
  110. ^Fantina, Robert (2006).Desertion and the American Soldier, 1776–2006.Algora Publishing. p. 83.ISBN978-0-87586-454-9.RetrievedJanuary 29,2021.
  111. ^Starr, J. Barton (September 1988).The United States Constitution: Its Birth, Growth, and Influence in Asia.Hong Kong University Press. p. 260.ISBN978-962-209-201-3.RetrievedJanuary 15,2021.
  112. ^Linn, Brian McAllister(2000).The Philippine War, 1899–1902.University Press of Kansas. pp. 75–76.ISBN978-0-7006-1225-3.

Sources[edit]

External links[edit]

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Philippines_(1565–1898)&oldid=1229348253"