Spirit possession

Not to be confused withObsession (Spiritism)orMediumship.

Spirit possessionis an unusual or analtered state of consciousnessand associated behaviors which are purportedly caused by the control of a human body and its functions byspirits,ghosts,demons,angels,orgods.The concept of spirit possession exists in many cultures and religions, includingBuddhism,Christianity,Haitian Vodou,Dominican 21 Divisions,Hinduism,Islam,Wicca,andSoutheast Asian,African,andNative Americantraditions. Depending on the cultural context in which it is found, possession may be considered voluntary or involuntary and may be considered to have beneficial or detrimental effects on the host.The experience of spirit possession sometimes serves as evidence in support of belief in the existence of spirits, deities or demons. In a 1969 study funded by theNational Institute of Mental Health,spirit-possession beliefs were found to exist in 74% of a sample of 488 societies in all parts of the world, with the highest numbers of believing societies in Pacific cultures and the lowest incidence amongNative Americansof bothNorthandSouth America.AsPentecostalandCharismaticChristian churchesmove into both African and Oceanic areas, a merger of belief can take place, with demons becoming representative of the "old" indigenous religions, which Christian ministers attempt toexorcise.

Organized religions

Christianity

See also:Baptism with the Holy SpiritandHoly laughter

Further information:Exorcism in Christianity

From the beginning ofChristianity,adherents have held that possession derives from theDevil(i.e.Satan) and demons. In the battle between Satan and Heaven, Satan is believed to engage in "spiritual attacks", including demonic possession, against human beings by the use ofsupernaturalpowers to harm them physically or psychologically.Prayerfor deliverance,blessingsupon the man or woman's house or body,sacraments,andexorcismsare generally used to drive the demon out.

Some theologians, such as Ángel Manuel Rodríguez, say thatmediums,like the ones mentioned inLeviticus 20:27, were possessed by demons. Another possible case of demonic possession in the Old Testament includes thefalse prophetsthat KingAhabrelied upon before re-capturingRamoth-Gileadin1 Kings 22.They were described as being empowered by a deceiving spirit.

TheNew Testamentmentions several episodes in whichJesus drove out demons from persons.Whilst most Christians believe that demonic possession is an involuntary affliction,some biblical verses have been interpreted as indicating that possession can be voluntary. For example, Alfred Plummer writes that when Devil entered intoJudas IscariotinJohn 13:27, this was because Judas had continually agreed to Satan's suggestions to betray Jesus and had wholly submitted to him.

The New Testament indicates that people can be possessed by demons, but that the demons respond and submit to Jesus Christ's authority:

In thesynagogue,there was a man possessed by a demon, an evil spirit. He cried out at the top of his voice, "Ha! What do you want with us, Jesus of Nazareth? Have you come to destroy us? I know who you are—the Holy One of God!" "Be quiet!" Jesus said sternly. "Come out of him!" Then the demon threw the man down before them all and came out without injuring him. All the people were amazed and said to each other, "What is this teaching? With authority and power he gives orders to evil spirits and they come out!" And the news about him spread throughout the surrounding area

— Luke 4:33–35

It also indicates that demons can possess animals as in theexorcism of the Gerasene demoniac.

Catholicism

Main article:Exorcism in the Catholic Church

Roman Catholic doctrinestates thatangelsare non-corporeal, spiritual beingswith intelligence andwill.Fallen angels,ordemons,are able to "demonically possess" individuals without the victim's knowledge or consent, leaving them morally blameless.

TheCatholic Encyclopediasays that there is only one apparent case of demonic possession in the Old Testament, of KingSaulbeing tormented by an "evil spirit" (1 Samuel16:14), but this depends on interpreting the Hebrew word "rûah"as implying a personal influence which it may not, so even this example is described as" not very certain ". In addition, Saul was only described to be tormented, rather than possessed, and he was relieved from these torments by having David play thelyreto him.

Exorcism of the Gerasene Demonaic

Catholic exorcists differentiate between "ordinary" Satanic/demonic activity or influence (mundane everydaytemptations) and "extraordinary" Satanic/demonic activity, which can take six different forms, ranging from complete control by Satan or demons to voluntary submission:

1. Possession, in which Satan or demons take full possession of a person's body without their consent. This possession usually comes as a result of a person's actions; actions that lead to an increased susceptibility to Satan's influence.
2. Obsession, which includes sudden attacks of irrationallyobsessive thoughts,usually culminating insuicidal ideation,and which typically influences dreams.
3. Oppression,in which there is no loss of consciousness or involuntary action, such as in the biblicalBook of Jobin whichJobwas tormented by Satan through a series of misfortunes in business, material possessions, family, and health.
4. External physical pain caused by Satan or demons.
5. Infestation, which affects houses, objects/things, or animals; and
6. Subjection, in which a person voluntarily submits to Satan or demons.

In theRoman Ritual,true demonic or Satanic possession has been characterized since theMiddle Ages,by the following four typical characteristics:

1. Manifestation ofsuperhuman strength.
2. Speaking in tonguesor languages that the victim cannot know.
3. Revelationofknowledge,distant or hidden, that the victim cannot know.
4. Blasphemousrage,obscene hand gestures,usingprofanityand anaversionto holy symbols, names,relicsor places.

TheNew Catholic Encyclopediastates, "Ecclesiastical authorities are reluctant to admit diabolical possession in most cases, because many can be explained by physical or mental illness alone. Therefore, medical and psychological examinations are necessary before the performance of majorexorcism.The standard that must be met is that of moral certitude (De exorcismis,16). For an exorcist to be morally certain, or beyond reasonable doubt, that he is dealing with a genuine case of demonic possession, there must be no other reasonable explanation for the phenomena in question ".

OfficialCatholicdoctrine affirms that demonic possession can occur as distinguished frommental illness,but stresses that cases of mental illness should not be misdiagnosed as demonic influence. Catholic exorcisms can occur only under the authority of abishopand in accordance with strict rules; a simple exorcism also occurs duringbaptism.

Anglican

The infliction of demonic torment upon an individual has been chronicled in premodern Protestant literature. In 1597,King Jamesdiscussed four methods of daemonic influence upon an individual in his bookDaemonologie:

1. Spectra, being the haunting and troubling of certain houses or solitary places.
2. Obsession, the following and outwardly torment of an individual at diverse hours to either weaken or cast diseases upon the body, as in theBook of Job.
3. Possession, the entrance inwardly into an individual to beget uncontrollable fits, induce blasphemies,
4. Faerie, being the influence those who voluntarily submit to consort, prophesy, or servitude.

King James attested that the symptoms derived from demonic possession could be discernible from natural diseases. He rejected the symptoms and signs prescribed by the Catholic church as vain (e.g. rage begotten fromHoly Water,fear of theCross,etc.) and found theexorcismrites to be troublesome and ineffective to recite. TheRites of the Catholic Churchto remedy the torment of demonic spirits were rejected as counterfeit since few possessed could be cured by them. In James' view: "It is easy then to understand that the casting out of Devils, is by virtue of fasting and prayer, and in-calling of the name of God, suppose many imperfections be in the person that is the instrument, as CHRIST himself teaches us (Mat. 7) of the power that false Prophets all have cast out devils".

In medieval Great Britain, the Christian church had offered suggestions on safeguarding one's home. Suggestions ranged from dousing a household withholy water,placing wax and herbs on thresholds to "ward off witches occult", and avoiding certain areas of townships known to be frequented by witches and Devil worshippers after dark.Afflicted persons were restricted from entering the church, but might share the shelter of theporchwithlepersand persons of offensive life. After the prayers, if quiet, they might come in to receive the bishop's blessing and listen to thesermon.They were fed daily and prayed over by the exorcists and, in case of recovery, after a fast of from 20 to 40 days, were admitted to theEucharist,and their names and cures entered in the church records.In 1603, the Church of England forbade its clergy from performing exorcisms because of numerous fraudulent cases of demonic possession.

Baptist

In May 2021, the Baptist Deliverance Study Group of theBaptist Union of Great Britain,aChristian denomination,issued a "warning against occult spirituality following the rise in people trying to communicate with the dead". The commission reported that "becoming involved in activities such as Spiritualism can open up a doorway to great spiritual oppression which requires a Christian rite to set that person free".

In September 2023, Pastor Rick Morrow of Beulah Church inRichland, Missourigave a sermon in which he presented the cause ofautismas, "the devil's attacked them, he's brought this infirmity upon them, he's got them where he wants them". He asserted that the cure for theneurodevelopmental disorderwas prayer by claiming to "know a minister who has seen lots of kids that are autistic, that he cast that demon out, and they were healed, and then he had to pray and their brain was rewired and they were fixed." Members of the pastor's community found his comment to be "derogatory toward individuals with certain disabilities." Their public outcry led to Morrow's resignation from the school board on which he was a member.

Evangelical

In bothcharismaticandevangelicalChristianity, exorcisms of demons are often carried out by individuals or groups belong to thedeliverance ministriesmovement.According to these groups, symptoms of such possessions can includechronic fatigue syndrome,homosexuality,addiction topornography,andalcoholism.The New Testament's description of people who had evil spirits includes a knowledge of future events (Acts 16:16) and great strength (Act 19:13–16),among others, and shows that those with evil spirits can speak of Christ (Mark 3:7–11).Some Evangelical denominations believe that demonic possession is not possible if one has already professed their faith in Christ, because theHoly Spiritalready occupies the body and a demon cannot enter.

Islam

Various types of creatures, such asjinn,shayatin,ʻafarit,found withinIslamicculture, are often held to be responsible for spirit possession. Spirit possession appears in bothIslamic theologyand wider cultural tradition.

Although opposed by some Muslim scholars, sleeping near a graveyard or a tomb is believed to enable contact with theghostsof the dead, who visit the sleeper in dreams and provide hidden knowledge.Possession byʻafarit(a vengeful ghost) are said to grant the possessed some supernatural powers, but it drives them insane as well.

Jinnare much more physical than spirits.Due to theirsubtle bodies,which are composed of fire and air (marijin min nar), they are purported to be able to possess the bodies of humans. Such physical intrusion of the jinn is conceptually different from the whisperings of the devils.Sincejinnare not necessarily evil, they are distinguished from cultural concepts of possession by devils/demons.

Since suchjinnare said to havefree will,they can have their own reasons to possess humans and are not necessarily harmful. There are various reasons given as to why ajinnmight seek to possess an individual, such as falling in love with them, taking revenge for hurting them or their relatives, or other undefined reasons.At an intended possession, the covenant with thejinnmust be renewed.Soothsayers (kāhinpl.kuhhān), would use such possession to gain hidden knowledge. Inspirations from jinn by poets requires neither possession nor obedience to the jinn. Their relationship is rather described as mutual.

The concept of jinn-possession is alien to the Quran and derives from pagan notions.It is widespread among Muslims and also accepted by most Islamic scholars.It is part of theaqida(theological doctrines) in the tradition ofAshari,and theAtharis,such asibn Taimiyyaandibn Qayyim.AmongMaturiditesit is debated, as some accept it, but it has been challenged since the early years by Maturidite scholars such asal-Rustughfanī.TheMu'tazilaare associated with substituting jinn-possession by devilish-whisperings, denying bodily possession altogether.

In contrast tojinn,the devils (shayatin) are inherently evil.Iblis,the father of the devils, dwells in the fires of hell, although not suffering wherein, he and his children try to draw people into damnation of hell.Devils don't physically possess people, they only tempt humans into sin by following their lowernafs.Hadithssuggest that the devils whisper from within the human body, within or next to theheart,and so "devilish whisperings" (Arabic:waswāsوَسْوَاس) are sometimes thought of as a kind of possession.Unlike possession byjinn,the whispering of devils affects the soul instead of the body.

Demons (also known asdiv), though part of the human conception, get stronger through acts of sin.By acts of obedience (to God), they get weaker. Although a human might find pleasure in obeying the demons first, according to Islamic thought, the human soul can only be free if the demons are bound by the spirit (ruh).Sufi literature, as in the writings ofRumiandAttar of Nishapur,pay a lot of attention to how to bind the inner demons. Attar of Nishapur writes: "If you bind thediv,you will set out for the royal pavilion with Solomon "and" You have no command over your self's kingdom [body and mind], for in your case thedivis in the place of Solomon ".He further links the demons to the story alluded in the Quran (38:34) that a demon replaced the prophet Solomon: one must behave like a triumphant 'Solomon' and chain the demons of thenafsor lower self, locking the demon-prince into a 'rock', before therūḥ(soul) can make the first steps to the Divine.

Judaism

Main articles:Shedim,Shade (mythology),andDybbuk

Although forbidden in theHebrew Bible,magic was widely practiced in the lateSecond Temple Periodand well documented in the period following the destruction of the Temple into the 3rd, 4th, and 5th centuries C.E.Jewish magical papyriwere inscriptions onamulets,ostracaandincantation bowlsused in Jewish magical practices againstshedimand otherunclean spirits.According to theCatholic Encyclopedia,Jewish methods of exorcism were described in theBook of Tobias.

In the16th century,Isaac Luria,a Jewishmystic,wrote about thetransmigration of soulsseeking perfection. His disciples took his idea a step further, creating the idea of adybbuk,a soul inhabiting a victim until it had accomplished its task or atoned for its sin.Thedybbukappears in Jewish folklore and literature, as well as in chronicles of Jewish life.InJewish folklore,adybbukis a disembodied spirit that wanders restlessly until it inhabits the body of a living person. TheBaal Shemcould expel a harmfuldybbukthroughexorcism.

African traditions

Central Africa

Democratic Republic of the Congo

Zebolais a women's spirit possession dance ritual practised by certain ethnic groups of theDemocratic Republic of the Congo.It is believed to have therapeutic qualities and has been noted in the West as a traditional form ofpsychotherapy.

It originated among theMongo peoplebut is also practised among various ethnic groups inKinshasa.

Horn of Africa

Ethiopia

Among theGurage peopleof Ethiopia, spirit possession is a common belief. William A. Shack postulated that it is caused by Gurage cultural attitudes about food and hunger, while they have a plentiful food supply, cultural pressures that force the Gurage to either share it to meet social obligations, or hoard it and eat it secretly cause feelings of anxiety. Distinctions are drawn between spirits that strictly possess men, spirits that possess women, and spirits that possess victims of either sex. A ritual illness that only affects men is believed to be caused by a spirit calledawre.This affliction presents itself by loss of appetite, nausea, and attacks from severe stomach pains. If it persists, the victim may enter a trance-like stupor, in which he sometimes regains consciousness long enough to take food and water. Breathing is often labored. Seizures and trembling overcome the patient, and in extreme cases, partial paralysis of the extremities.

If the victim does not recover naturally, a traditional healer, orsagwara,is summoned. Once thesagwarahas determined the spirit's name through the use of divination, he prescribes a routine formula to exorcise the spirit. This is not a permanent cure, it merely allows the victim to form a relationship with the spirit while subject to chronic repossession, which is treated by repeating the formula. This formula involves the preparation and consumption of a dish ofensete,butter, and red pepper. During this ritual, the victim's head is covered with a drape, and he eats theenseteravenously while other ritual participants participate by chanting. The ritual ends when the possessing spirit announces that it is satisfied. Shack notes that the victims are overwhelmingly poor men, and that women are not as food-deprived as men, due to ritual activities that involve food redistribution and consumption. Shack postulates that theawreserves to bring the possessed man to the center of social attention, and to relieve his anxieties over his inability to gain prestige from redistributing food, which is the primary way in which Gurage men gain status in their society.

The belief in spirit possession is part of the native culture of theSidama peopleof southwestEthiopia.AnthropologistsIrene and John Hamer postulated that it is a form of compensation for being deprived within Sidama society, although they do not draw from I.M. Lewis (see Cultural anthropology section under Scientific views). The majority of the possessed are women whose spirits demand luxury goods to alleviate their condition, but men can be possessed as well. Possessed individuals of both sexes can become healers due to their condition. Hamer and Hamer suggest that this is a form of compensation among deprived men in the deeply competitive society of the Sidama, for if a man cannot gain prestige as anorator,warrior, or farmer, he may still gain prestige as a spirit healer. Women are sometimes accused of faking possession, but men never are.

East Africa

Kenya

See also:Saka

• TheDigo peopleofKenyarefer to the spirits that supposedly possess them asshaitani.Theseshaitanitypically demand luxury items to make the patient well again. Despite the fact that men sometimes accuse women of faking the possessions in order to get luxury items, attention, and sympathy, they do generally regard spirit possession as a genuine condition and view victims of it as being ill through no fault of their own. Other men suspect women of actively colluding with spirits in order to be possessed.
• TheGiriama peopleof coastal Kenya believe in spirit possession.

Mayote

• InMayotte,approximately 25% of the adult population, and five times as many women as men, enter trance states in which they are supposedly possessed by certain identifiable spirits who maintain stable and coherent identities from one possession to the next.

Mozambique

• InMozambique,a new belief in spirit possession appeared after theMozambican Civil War.These spirits, calledgamba,are said to be identified as dead soldiers, and allegedly overwhelmingly possess women. Prior to the war, spirit possession was limited to certain families and was less common.

Uganda

• InUganda,a woman namedAlice Aumawas reportedly possessed by the spirit of a male Italian soldier named Lakwena ('messenger'). She ultimately led a failed insurrection against governmental forces.

Tanzania

• TheSukuma peopleofTanzaniabelieve in spirit possession.
• A now-extinct spirit possession cult existed among theHadimuwomen ofZanzibar,revering a spirit calledkitimiri.This cult was described in an 1869 account by a French missionary. The cult faded by the 1920s and was virtually unknown by the 1960s.

Southern Africa

See also:Amafufunyana

• A belief in spirit possession appears among theXesibe,aXhosa-speaking people fromTranskei,South Africa.The majority of the supposedly possessed are married women. The condition of spirit possession among them is calledintwaso.Those who develop the condition ofintwasoare regarded as having a special calling to divine the future. They are first treated with sympathy, and then with respect as they allegedly develop their abilities to foretell the future.

West Africa

• One religion amongHausa peopleof West Africa is that ofHausa animism,in which belief in spirit possession is prevalent.

African diasporic traditions

In many of theAfrican diaspora religionspossessing spirits are not necessarily harmful or evil, but are rather seeking to rebuke misconduct in the living.Possession by a spirit in the African diaspora and traditional African religions can result in healing for the person possessed and information gained from possession as the spirit provides knowledge to the one they possessed.

Haitian Vodou

InHaitian Vodouand related African diaspora religions, one way that those who participate or practice can have a spiritual experience is by being possessed by theLoa(orlwa). When theLoadescends upon a practitioner, the practitioner's body is being used by the spirit, according to the tradition. Some spirits are believed to be able to give prophecies of upcoming events or situations pertaining to the possessed one, also called aChwalor the "Horse of the Spirit". Practitioners describe this as a beautiful but very tiring experience. Most people who are possessed by the spirit describe the onset as a feeling of blackness or energy flowing through their body.

Umbanda

The concept of spirit possession is also found inUmbanda,anAfro-Brazilianfolk religion.According to tradition, one such possessing spirit isPomba Gira,who possesses both women and males.

Hoodoo

The culture ofHoodoowas created by African-Americans. There are regional styles to this tradition, and as African-Americans traveled, the tradition of Hoodoo changed according to African-Americans' environment. Hoodoo includesreverence to ancestral spirits,African-Americanquilt making,herbal healing,BakongoandIgbo burial practices,Holy Ghostshouting,praise houses,snake reverence,African-American churches,spirit possession, someNkisi practices,Black Spiritual churches,Black theology,thering shout,theKongo cosmogram,Simbiwater spirits, graveyardconjuring,thecrossroads spirit,makingconjure canes,incorporating animal parts, pouring oflibations,Bible conjuring,and conjuring in the African-American tradition. In Hoodoo, people become possessed by the Holy Ghost. Spirit possession in Hoodoo was influenced byWest African Vodunspirit possession. As Africans were enslaved in the United States, the Holy Spirit (Holy Ghost) replaced the African gods during possession."Spirit possession was reinterpreted in Christian terms."In African-American churches this is called being filled with theHoly Ghost."Walter Pitts (1993) has demonstrated the modern importance of 'possession' within African- American Baptist ritual, tracing the origins of the ecstatic state (often referred to as 'getting the spirit') to African possessions."Church members in Black Spiritual churches become possessed by spirits of deceased family members, the Holy Spirit, Christian saints, and otherbiblical figuresfrom the Old and New Testament of the Bible. It is believed when people become possessed by these spirits they gain knowledge and wisdom and act as intercessors between people and God.William Edward Burghardt Du Bois(W. E. B. Du Bois) studied African-American churches in the early twentieth century. Du Bois asserts that the early years of the Black church during slavery on plantations was influenced by Voodooism.

The Kongo cosmogram inspired the ring shout, a sacred dance in Hoodoo performed to become possessed by the Holy Spirit or ancestral spirits.

Through counterclockwise circle dancing, ring shouters built up spiritual energy that resulted in the communication with ancestral spirits, and led to spirit possession. Enslaved African Americans performed the counterclockwise circle dance until someone was pulled into the center of the ring by the spiritual vortex at the center. The spiritual vortex at the center of the ring shout was a sacred spiritual realm. The center of the ring shout is where the ancestors and the Holy Spirit reside at the center.The Ring Shout (a sacred dance in Hoodoo) in Black churches results in spirit possession. The Ring Shout is a counterclockwise circle dance with singing and clapping that results in possession by the Holy Spirit. It is believed when people become possessed by the Holy Spirit their hearts become filled with the Holy Ghost which purifies their heart and soul from evil and replace it with joy.The Ring Shout in Hoodoo was influenced by theKongo cosmograma sacred symbol of theBantu-Kongopeople in Central Africa. It symbolizes the cyclical nature of life of birth, life, death, and rebirth (reincarnation of the soul). The Kongo cosmogram also symbolizes the rising and setting of the sun, the sun rising in the east and setting in the west that is counterclockwise, which is why ring shouters dance in a circle counterclockwise to invoke the spirit.

Asian traditions

Yahwism

There are indications that trance-related practices might have played a role in the prophetic experiences of adherents ofYahwism.According toMartti Nissinen,Yahwist prophets may have received messages from the different gods and goddesses in theYahwist Pantheonthrough a state of trance possession. This theory can be reconstructed fromSumerian Mythology,a similar theology to that of Yahwism, where the standard prophetic designations in theAkkadian language,muḫḫûm/muḫḫūtum (masc./fem., Old Babylonian) and maḫḫû/maḫḫūtu (masc./fem., Neo-Assyrian), are derived from the Akkadian verb maḫû "to become crazy, to go into a frenzy."According to bible scholar Simon B. Parker, trance rituals may have occurred such as nudity or a less extreme alternative, a trance where the person to enter trance receives the god or spirit into their body.

Further according to Nissinen, theHebrew Bible,may contain evidence that trance-related practices may have been the origins of the Jewish traditions ofprophetic messages.

Nissinen also recorded that music was an essential part to these trance-ceremonies in the Ancient Near-East and so it can be reconstructed it could have been found in Yahwism.Instruments such as the tambourine, harps, lyres, and flutes may have been utilized, as those were common instruments in Ancient Israel.Along with music, incense may have also been used, either as an offering, or to be used as anentheogen,or possibly as both.

Exorcismswere also common. They can be reconstructed from both Medieval Jewish texts and texts from neighboring ancient cultures that practiced exorcisms. Exorcists acting almost like shamans would do rituals to exorcise one of a "demon" or evil spirit. According to Gina Konstantopoulos, a figure named an "Āshipu" acted as an exorcist in Mesopotamia and were trained in many fields of occultism, priesthood and herbalism.As amulets (called teraphim) were also used in Yahwism to ward off evil spirits, it may also be reconstructed that there were people in Ancient Israel who acted as exorcists or shamans who would do specific rituals to ward off evil spirits. As mentioned previously, these may have included music, incense, prayers, and trance-rituals. According to Reimund Leicht, formulae was used ward off the evil, along with ritualistic sacrifices.

Buddhism

According to the Indian medical literature andTantric Buddhistscriptures, most of the "seizers", or those that threaten the lives of young children, appear in animal form: cow, lion, fox, monkey, horse, dog, pig, cat, crow, pheasant, owl, and snake. Apart from these "nightmare shapes", the impersonation or incarnation of animals can in some circumstances also be highly beneficial, according to Michel Strickmann.

Ch'i Chung-fu, a Chinese gynecologist writing early in the 13th century, wrote that in addition to five sorts of falling frenzy classified according to their causative factors, there were also four types of other frenzies distinguished by the sounds and movements given off by the victim during his seizure: cow, horse, pig, and dog frenzies.

Buddha, resisting the demons of Mara

InBuddhism,amāra,sometimes translated as "demon", can either be a being suffering in thehell realmor a delusion.Before Siddhartha becameGautama Buddha,He was challenged byMara,the embodiment of temptation, and overcame it.In traditional Buddhism, four forms ofmāraare enumerated:

• Kleśa-māra,ormāraas the embodiment of allunskillful emotions,such as greed, hate, and delusion.
• Mṛtyu-māra,ormāraasdeath.
• Skandha-māra,ormāraasmetaphorfor the entirety of conditioned existence.
• Devaputra-māra,thedevaof the sensuous realm, who tried to prevent Gautama Buddha from attaining liberation from thecycle of rebirthon the night of the Buddha's enlightenment.

It is believed that amārawill depart to a different realm once it is appeased.

East Asia

See also:East Asian religions

Certain sects ofTaoism,Korean shamanism,Shinto,someJapanese new religious movements,and other East Asian religions feature the idea of spirit possession. Some sects featureshamanswho supposedly become possessed;mediumswho allegedly channel beings' supernatural power; orenchantersare said to imbue or foster spirits within objects, likesamurai swords.The Hong Kong filmSuper Normal II(Đại mê tín,1993) shows the true famous story of a young lady inTaiwanwho possesses the dead body of a married woman to live her pre-determined remaining life.She is still serving in the Zhen Tian Temple inYunlin County.

China

Main article:Chinese spirit possession

Background

China is a country where 73.56% of the population is defined asChinese folk religion/unaffiliated (nonreligion). Therefore, the Chinese population's knowledge of spirit possession is not majorly obtained from religion. Instead, the concept is spread through fairy tales/folk tales and literary works of its traditional culture. In essence, the concept of soul possession has penetrated into all aspects of Chinese life, from people's superstitions, folk taboos, and funeral rituals, to various ghost-themed literary works, and has continued to spread to people's lives today.

Development

Spirit possession in China was prominent until the Communist takeover in the 1950s and most of the data gathered on this topic will be from the late 18th century. Some Chinese believe that illnesses to man is due to the possession of an evil yin spirit (kuei). These evil spirits become such when the deceased are not worshiped by the family, they have died unexpectedly, or did not follow Confucius's ideals of filial piety and ancestral reverence accordingly. These evil spirits cause unexplainable disasters, agricultural shocks and possessions. Disease is the cause of the supernatural where they do not have control over. Usually in the writings about this, the healers are the ones being described with detail, not so much the patient. Magical practices are sometimes what spirit possession is referred to as. It is very hard to distinguish between the religion, magic and local traditions. This is because many times, all three are fused together, so sometimes trying to distinguish between them is hard.

Shaman

Another type of spirit possession works through ashaman,a prophet, healer and religious figure with the power to partially control spirits and communicate for them. Messages, remedies and even oracles are delivered through the shaman. This is sometimes used by people who would like to become important figures. Usually, shamans give guidance that reflects the customer's existing values.

Yin-yang theory

The yin-yang theory is one of the most important bases and components of Chinese traditional culture. The yin-yang theory has penetrated into various traditional Chinese cultural things including calendar, astronomy, meteorology, Chinese medicine, martial arts, calligraphy, architecture, religion, feng shui, divination, etc. The yin-yang theory also applies to spirit possession. In general, one is considered to be "weak", when the yin and yang in the body are imbalanced, especially when the yin is on the dominant side. The spirits, which are categorized as the yin side, will then take control of these individuals with the imbalanced and yin-dominant situation more easily.

• Shi(Chinese ancestor veneration)
• Shamanism of the Solon People(Inner Mongolia)
• Tangki

Japan

• Misaki

India

Ayurveda

Bhūtavidyā,the exorcism of possessing spirits, is traditionally one of theeight limbs of Ayurveda.

Rajasthan

The concept of spirit possession exists in the culture of modernRajasthan.Some of the spirits allegedly possessing Rajasthanis are seen as good and beneficial, while others are seen as malevolent. The good spirits are said to include murdered royalty, the underworld godBhaironji,andMuslimsaints and fakirs. Bad spirits are believed to include perpetual debtors who die in debt, stillborn infants, deceased widows, and foreign tourists. The supposedly possessed individual is referred to as aghorala,or "mount". Possession, even if by a benign spirit, is regarded as undesirable, as it is seen to entail loss of self-control, and violent emotional outbursts.

Tamil Nadu

See also:Buta Kola

Tamilwomen in India are said to experience possession bypeyespirits. According to tradition, these spirits overwhelmingly possess new brides, are usually identified as the ghosts of young men who died while romantically or sexually frustrated, and are ritually exorcised.

Sri Lanka

TheCoast Veddas,a social group within the minority group ofSri Lankan Tamil peopleinEastern Province, Sri Lanka,enter trances during religious festivals in which they are regarded as being possessed by a spirit. Although they speak a dialect ofTamil,during trances they will sometimes use a mixed language that contains words from theVedda language.

Southeast Asia

Indonesia

In Bali, the animist traditions of the island include a practice calledsanghyang,induction of voluntary possession trance states for specific purposes. Roughly similar to voluntary possession inVaudon(Voodoo),sanghyangis considered a sacred state in whichhyangs(deities) or helpful spirits temporarily inhabit the bodies of participants. The purpose of sanghyang is believed to be to cleanse people and places of evil influences and restore spiritual balance. Thus, it is often referred to as an exorcism ceremony.In Sulawesi, the women of theBonerate peopleofSulawesipractice a possession-trance ritual in which they smother glowing embers with their bare feet at the climax. The fact that they are not burned in the process is considered proof of the authenticity of the possession.

Influenced by the religion of Islam, among the several spirits in Indonesian belief are demons (setan), composed of fire, prone to anger and passion. They envy humans for their physical body, and try to gain control of it. When they assault a human, they would intrude their mind, trying to displace the human spirit. The human's mind would adapt to the passions of anger, violence, irrationality and greed, the intruding demon is composed of. The demon is believed to alter the person, giving him supernatural attributes, like strength of many men, ability to appear in more than one place, or assume the form of an animal, such as a tiger or a pig, or to kill without touching. Others become lunatics, resembling epilepsy. In extreme cases, the presence of the demon may alter the condition of the body, matching its own spiritual qualities, turning into araksasha.

Malaysia

Female workers inMalaysianfactories have allegedly become possessed by spirits, and factory owners generally regard it asmass hysteriaand an intrusion of irrational and archaic beliefs into a modern setting. AnthropologistAihwa Ongnoted that spirit possession beliefs in Malaysia were typically held by older, married women, whereas the female factory workers are typically young and unmarried. She connects this to the rapid industrialization and modernization of Malaysia. Ong argued that spirit possession is a traditional way of rebelling against authority without punishment, and suggests that it is a means of protesting the untenable working conditions and sexual harassment that the women were compelled to endure.

The Americas and Caribbean

Indo-Caribbean Shaktism

InIndo-Caribbean Madrasi Religion,a state of trance-possession known as "Sami Aduthal" in Tamil and as a "manifestation" in English occurs whence a devotee enters a trance state after praying. It is an essential part to Indo-Caribbean Shakti ceremonies, being accompanied by Tappu drumming, the singing of devotional songs, and the drumming ofUdukaidrums.

Ceremonies called Pujas often include the drumming of three to fivetapputo invoke the deity to the space.Then, the head pujari receives the God or Goddess into their body, acting as a medium. A mixture of water,turmericpowder, andneemleaves are poured onto the medium, as it is believed that the God's energy heats up the body while the water and turmeric with the neem leaves cools it down again.Puja services are often held once a week.

Oceanic traditions

Melanesia

TheUrapmin peopleof theNew Guinea Highlandspractice a form of group possession known as the "spirit disco" (Tok Pisin:spirit disko).Men and women gather in church buildings, dancing in circles and jumping up and down while women sing Christian songs; this is called "pulling the [Holy] spirit" (Tok Pisin:pulim spirit,Urap:Sinik dagamin).The songs' melodies are borrowed from traditional women's songs sung at drum dances (Urap:wat dalamin), and the lyrics are typically in Telefol or otherMountain Ok languages.If successful, some dancers will "get the spirit" (Tok Pisin:kisim spirit), flailing wildly and careening about the dance floor.After an hour or more, those possessed will collapse, the singing will end, and the spirit disco will end with a prayer and, if there is time, a Bible reading and sermon.The body is believed to normally be "heavy" (ilum) with sin, and possession is the process of the Holy Spirit throwing the sins from one's body, making the person "light" (fong) again.This is a completely new ritual for the Urapmin, who have no indigenous tradition of spirit-possession.

Micronesia

The concept of spirit possession appears inChuuk State,one of the four states ofFederated States of Micronesia.Although Chuuk is an overwhelmingly Christian society, traditional beliefs in spirit possession by the dead still exist, usually held by women, and "events" are usually brought on by family conflicts. The supposed spirits, speaking through the women, typically admonish family members to treat each other better.

European traditions

Ancient Greece

Further information:Nympholepsy

Italian folk magic

In traditional Italian folk magic spirit possessions are not uncommon. It is known in this culture that a person may be possessed by multiple entities at once. The way to be rid of the spirit(s) would be to call for acuratore, guaritoreorpraticowhich all translate to healer or knowledgeable one from Italian. These healers would perform sacred rituals to be rid of the spirits; the rituals are passed down through generations and vary based on the region in Italy. It is said that for many Italian rituals specifically those to be rid of negative spirits, that the information may only be shared on Christmas Eve (specifically foril malocchio). If the family is religious they may even call in a priest to perform a traditional catholic exorcism on the spirit(s).

Shamanic traditions

Further information:Shamanism § Beliefs

Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a practitioner who is believed to interact with a spirit world throughaltered states of consciousness,such astrance.The goal of this is usually to direct these spirits or spiritual energies into the physical world, for healing or another purpose.

New religious movements

Wicca

Wiccansbelieve in voluntary possession by theGoddess,connected with the sacred ceremony ofDrawing Down the Moon.The high priestess solicits the Goddess to possess her and speak through her.

Scientific views

Cultural anthropology

The works ofJean Rouch,Germaine Dieterlen,andMarcel Griaulehave been extensively cited in research studies on possession inWestern Africathat extended toBraziland North America due to theslave trade.

The anthropologist I.M. Lewis noted that women are more likely to be involved in spirit possession cults than men are, and postulated that such cults act as a means of compensation for their exclusion from other spheres within their respective cultures.

Physical anthropology

AnthropologistsAlice B. Kehoeand Dody H. Giletti argued that the reason that women are more commonly seen inAfro-Eurasianspirit possession cults is because of deficiencies inthiamine,tryptophan-niacin,calcium,andvitamin D.They argued that a combination of poverty and diet cause this problem, and that it is exacerbated by the strains of pregnancy and lactation. They postulated that the involuntary symptoms of these deficiencies affecting their nervous systems have been institutionalized as spirit possession.

Medicine and psychology

See also:Culture-bound syndromeandBicameral mentality

Spirit possession of any kind, including demonic, is just onepsychiatricor medical diagnosis recognized by theDSM-5or theICD-10:"F44.3 Trance and possession disorders".In clinical psychiatry, trance and possession disorders are defined as "states involving a temporary loss of the sense of personal identity and full awareness of the surroundings" and generally classed as a type of dissociative disorder.

People alleged to be possessed by spirits sometimes exhibit symptoms similar to those associated withmental illnessessuch aspsychosis,catatonia,mania,Tourette's syndrome,epilepsy,schizophrenia,ordissociative identity disorder,including involuntary, uncensored behavior, and an extra-human, extra-social aspect to the individual's actions.It is not uncommon to ascribe the experience ofsleep paralysisto demonic possession, although it's not a physical or mental illness.Studies have found that alleged demonic possessions can be related to trauma.

In entry article ondissociative identity disorder,theDSM-5states, "possession-form identities in dissociative identity disorder typically manifest as behaviors that appear as if a 'spirit,' supernatural being, or outside person has taken control such that the individual begins speaking or acting in a distinctly different manner".The symptoms vary across cultures.The DSM-5 indicates that personality states of dissociative identity disorder may be interpreted as possession in some cultures, and instances of spirit possession are often related to traumatic experiences—suggesting that possession experiences may be caused by mental distress.In cases of dissociative identity disorder in which thealterpersonality is questioned as to its identity, 29 percent are reported to identify themselves as demons.A 19th century term for a mental disorder in which the patient believes that they are possessed by demons or evil spirits is demonomania or cacodemonomanis.

Some have expressed concern that belief in demonic possession can limit access to health care for the mentally ill.

Notable examples

Purported demonic possessions

In chronological order:

• Martha Brossier(1578)
• Aix-en-Provence possessions(1611)
• Mademoiselle Elizabeth de Ranfaing(1621)
• Loudun possessions(1634)
• Dorothy Talbye trial(1639)
• Louviers possessions(1647)
• The Possession of Elizabeth Knapp(1671)
• George Lukins(1788)
• Gottliebin Dittus(1842)
• Antoine Gay(1871)
• Johann Blumhardt(1842)
• Clara Germana Cele(1906)
• Exorcism of Roland Doe(1940)
• Anneliese Michel(1968)
• Michael Taylor(1974)
• Arne Cheyenne Johnson(1981)
• Tanacu exorcism(2005)

See also

• Automatic writing
• Body hopping
• Demonology
• Divine madness
• Enthusiasm
• Jamaican Maroon spirit-possession language
• List of exorcists
• Necromancy
• Sexuality in Christian demonology
• Spirit spouse
• Spiritualist Church
• The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner
• Unclean spirit
• Walk-in

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