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Sputnik 1
Replica of Sputnik 1 in the Museum of Space and Missile Technology (Saint Petersburg)
NamesСпутник 1
Object PS (Prosteishiy Sputnik)
Простейший Спутник-1
Elementary Satellite-1
Mission typeTechnology demonstration
OperatorOKB-1
Harvard designation1957 Alpha 2[1]
COSPAR ID1957-001BEdit this at Wikidata
SATCATno.2[2](The launch rocket has SATCAT no.1)
Mission duration22 days (achieved)
Orbits completed1440[3]
Spacecraft properties
SpacecraftSputnik-1
ManufacturerOKB-1
Ministry of Radiotechnical Industry
Launch mass83.6 kg (184 lb)
Dimensions58 cm (23 in) diameter
Power1watt
Start of mission
Launch date4 October 1957;66 years ago(4 October 1957),19:28:34UTC
RocketSputnik 8K71PS[4]
Launch siteBaikonur Cosmodrome Site 1/5[4]
ContractorOKB-1
End of mission
DisposalAtmospheric entry
Last contact26 October 1957
Decay date4 January 1958[4]
Orbital parameters
Reference systemGeocentric orbit[5]
RegimeLow Earth orbit
Semi-major axis6,955.2 km
Eccentricity0.05201
Perigee altitude215 km (134 mi)
Apogee altitude939 km (583 mi)
Inclination65.10°
Period96.20 minutes
Instruments
Radio transmitter
20.005 and 40.002MHz

Sputnik 1(/ˈspʌtnɪk,ˈspʊtnɪk/,Russian:Спутник-1,Satellite 1) was the first artificial Earthsatellite.It was launched into an ellipticallow Earth orbitby theSoviet Unionon 4 October 1957 as part of theSoviet space program.It sent a radio signal back to Earth for three weeks before its three silver-zinc batteries became depleted. Aerodynamic drag caused it to fall back into the atmosphere on 4 January 1958. The world's first observation was made at the school observatory inRodewisch(Saxony).[6]

It was a polished metal sphere 58 cm (23 in) in diameter with four external radio antennas to broadcast radio pulses. Its radio signal was easily detectable by amateur radio operators,[7]and the 65°orbital inclinationmade its flight path cover virtually the entire inhabited Earth.

The satellite's success was unanticipated by the United States. This precipitated the AmericanSputnik crisisand triggered theSpace Race,part of theCold War.The launch was the beginning of a new era of political, military, technological and scientific developments.[8]The wordsputnikis Russian forsatellitewhen interpreted in an astronomical context;[9]its other meanings arespouseortraveling companion.[10][11]

Tracking and studying Sputnik 1 from Earth provided scientists with valuable information. The density of the upper atmosphere could be deduced from its drag on the orbit, and the propagation of its radio signals gave data about theionosphere.

Sputnik 1 was launched during theInternational Geophysical YearfromSite No.1/5,at the 5thTyuratamrange, inKazakh SSR(now known as theBaikonur Cosmodrome). The satellite traveled at a peak speed of about 8 km/s (18,000 mph), taking 96.20 minutes to complete each orbit. It transmitted on 20.005 and 40.002 MHz,[12]which were monitored by radio operators throughout the world. The signals continued for 22 days until the transmitter batteries depleted on 26 October 1957. On 4 January 1958, after three months in orbit, Sputnik 1 burned up whilereentering Earth's atmosphere,having completed 1,440 orbits of the Earth,[3]and travelling a distance of approximately 70,000,000 km (43,000,000 mi).[13]

Etymology

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Спутник-1,romanized asSputnik-Odin(pronounced[ˈsputnʲɪk.ɐˈdʲin]), means 'Satellite-One'. The Russian word for satellite,sputnik,was coined in the 18th century by combining theprefixs-('fellow') andputnik('traveler'), thereby meaning 'fellow-traveler', a meaning corresponding to theLatin rootsatelles('guard, attendant or companion'), which is the origin of Englishsatellite.[14]

In English, 'Sputnik' is widely recognized as a proper name; however, this is not the case in Russian. In the Russian language,sputnikis the general term for theartificial satellitesof any country and thenatural satellitesof any planet.[14]The incorrect attribution of 'Sputnik' as a proper name can be traced back to an article released byThe New York Timeson October 6, 1957, titled "Soviet 'Sputnik' Means A Traveler's Traveler". In the referenced article, the term 'Sputnik' was portrayed as bearing a poetic connotation arising from its linguistic origins. This connotation incorrectly indicated that it was bestowed with the specific proper name 'Fellow-Traveler-One', rather than being designated by the general term 'Satellite-One'. In Russian-language references, Sputnik 1 is recognized by the technical name of 'Satellite-One'.[14]

Before the launch

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Satellite construction project

[edit]

On 17 December 1954, chief Soviet rocket scientistSergei Korolevproposed a developmental plan for an artificial satellite to the Minister of the Defense Industry,Dimitri Ustinov.Korolev forwarded a report byMikhail Tikhonravov,with an overview of similar projects abroad.[15]Tikhonravov had emphasized that the launch of an orbital satellite was an inevitable stage in the development of rocket technology.[16]

On 29 July 1955, U.S. PresidentDwight D. Eisenhowerannounced through his press secretary that, during theInternational Geophysical Year(IGY), the United States would launch an artificial satellite.[17]Four days later,Leonid Sedov,a leading Soviet physicist, announced that they too would launch an artificial satellite. On 8 August, thePolitburo of the Communist Party of the Soviet Unionapproved the proposal to create an artificial satellite.[18]On 30 August Vasily Ryabikov—the head of the State Commission on theR-7 rockettest launches—held a meeting where Korolev presented calculation data for a spaceflight trajectory to the Moon. They decided to develop a three-stage version of the R-7 rocket for satellite launches.[19]

Last remaining piece of Sputnik 1: metal arming key which prevented contact between batteries and transmitter prior to launch; on display at theSmithsonianNational Air and Space Museum[20]

On 30 January 1956 theCouncil of Ministersapproved practical work on an artificial Earth-orbiting satellite. This satellite, namedObject D,was planned to be completed in 1957–58; it would have a mass of 1,000 to 1,400 kg (2,200 to 3,100 lb) and would carry 200 to 300 kg (440 to 660 lb) of scientific instruments.[21]The first test launch of "Object D" was scheduled for 1957.[16]Work on the satellite was to be divided among institutions as follows:[22]

  • TheUSSR Academy of Scienceswas responsible for the general scientific leadership and the supply of research instruments.
  • The Ministry of the Defense Industry and its primary design bureau,OKB-1,were assigned the task of building the satellite.
  • The Ministry of the Radio technical Industry would develop the control system, radio/technical instruments, and thetelemetrysystem.
  • The Ministry of the Ship Building Industry would developgyroscopedevices.
  • The Ministry of the Machine Building would develop ground launching, refueling and transportation means.
  • The Ministry of the Defense was responsible for conducting launches.

Preliminary design work was completed in July 1956 and the scientific tasks to be carried out by the satellite were defined. These included measuring the density of the atmosphere and itsioncomposition, thesolar wind,magnetic fields,andcosmic rays.This data would be valuable in the creation of future artificial satellites; a system of ground stations was to be developed to collect data transmitted by the satellite, observe the satellite's orbit, and transmit commands to the satellite. Because of the limited time frame, observations were planned for only 7 to 10 days and orbit calculations were not expected to be extremely accurate.[23]

By the end of 1956 it became clear that the complexity of the ambitious design meant that 'Object D' could not be launched in time because of difficulties creating scientific instruments and the lowspecific impulseproduced by the completed R-7 engines (304 sec instead of the planned 309 to 310 sec). Consequently, the government rescheduled the launch for April 1958.[16]Object D would later fly asSputnik 3.[24]

Fearing the U.S. would launch a satellite before the USSR, OKB-1 suggested the creation and launch of a satellite in April–May 1957, before the IGY began in July 1957. The new satellite would be simple, light (100 kg or 220 lb), and easy to construct, forgoing the complex, heavy scientific equipment in favour of a simple radio transmitter. On 15 February 1957 the Council of Ministers of the USSR approved this simple satellite, designated 'Object PS', PS meaning"prosteishiy sputnik",or "elementary satellite".[25]This version allowed the satellite to be tracked visually by Earth-based observers, and it could transmit tracking signals to ground-based receiving stations.[25]The launch of two satellites, PS-1 and PS-2, with two R-7 rockets (8K71), was approved, provided that the R-7 completed at least two successful test flights.[25]

Launch vehicle preparation and launch site selection

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R-7 Semyorka ICBM
Sputnik 8K71PS
30 kopekUSSRstampdepicting Sputnik 1 orbiting the Earth, the Earth orbiting the Sun and the Sun orbiting the centre of the Milky Way galaxy
Main articles:Sputnik (rocket)andR-7 Semyorka

The R-7 rocket was initially designed as anintercontinental ballistic missile(ICBM) by OKB-1. The decision to build it was made by theCentral Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Unionand the Council of Ministers of the USSR on 20 May 1954.[26]The rocket was the most powerful in the world; it was designed with excess thrust since they were unsure how heavy the hydrogen bomb payload would be.[27]The R-7 was also known by its GRAU (later GURVO, the Russian abbreviation for "Chief Directorate of the Rocket Forces" ) designation 8K71.[28]At the time, the R-7 was known to NATO sources as the T-3 or M-104,[29]and Type A.[30]

Several modifications were made to the R-7 rocket to adapt it to 'Object D', including upgrades to the main engines, the removal of a 300-kg radio package on the booster, and a new payload fairing that made the booster almost four meters shorter than its ICBM version.[31][32]Object D would later be launched asSputnik 3after the much lighter 'Object PS' (Sputnik 1) was launched first.[33]The trajectory of the launch vehicle and the satellite were initially calculated usingarithmometersand six-digit trigonometric tables. More complex calculations were carried out on a newly-installed computer at theAcademy of Sciences.[32]

A specialreconnaissancecommission selected Tyuratam for the construction of a rocketproving ground,the 5th Tyuratam range, usually referred to as "NIIP-5", or "GIK-5" in the post-Soviet time. The selection was approved on 12 February 1955 by the Council of Ministers of the USSR, but the site would not be completed until 1958. Actual work on the construction of the site began on 20 July by military building units.[34]

The first launch of an R-7 rocket (8K71 No.5L) occurred on 15 May 1957. A fire began in the Blok Dstrap-onalmost immediately at liftoff, but the booster continued flying until 98 seconds after launch when the strap-on broke away and the vehicle crashed some 400 km (250 mi) downrange.[35]Three attempts to launch the second rocket (8K71 No.6) were made on 10–11 June, but an assembly defect prevented launch.[36]The unsuccessful launch of the third R-7 rocket (8K71 No.7) took place on 12 July.[35]Anelectrical shortcaused thevernier enginesto put the missile into an uncontrolled roll which resulted in all of the strap-ons separating 33 seconds into the launch. The R-7 crashed about 7 km (4.3 mi) from the pad.[37]

One of the first Americannewsreelreports about the Sputnik in 1957.

The launch of the fourth rocket (8K71 No.8), on 21 August at 15:25Moscow Time,[35]was successful. The rocket's core boosted the dummy warhead to the target altitude and velocity, reentered the atmosphere, and broke apart at a height of 10 km (6.2 mi) after traveling 6,000 km (3,700 mi). On 27 August, theTASSissued a statement on the successful launch of a long-distance multistage ICBM. The launch of the fifth R-7 rocket (8K71 No.9), on 7 September,[35]was also successful, but the dummy was also destroyed on atmospheric re-entry,[37]and hence needed a redesign to completely fulfill its military purpose. The rocket, however, was deemed suitable for satellite launches, and Korolev was able to convince the State Commission to allow the use of the next R-7 to launch PS-1,[38]allowing the delay in the rocket's military exploitation to launch the PS-1 and PS-2 satellites.[39][40]

On 22 September a modified R-7 rocket, namedSputnikand indexed as 8K71PS,[41]arrived at the proving ground and preparations for the launch of PS-1 began.[42]Compared to the military R-7 test vehicles, the mass of 8K71PS was reduced from 280 t to 272 t, its length with PS-1 was 29.167 metres (95 ft 8.3 in) and thethrustat liftoff was 3.90MN(880,000lbf).[43]

Observation complex

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PS-1 was not designed to be controlled; it could only be observed. Initial data at the launch site would be collected at six separate observatories and telegraphed toNII-4.[39]Located back in Moscow (atBolshevo), NII-4 was a scientific research arm of theMinistry of Defencethat was dedicated to missile development.[44]The six observatories were clustered around the launch site, with the closest situated 1 km (0.62 mi) from the launch pad.[39]

A second, nationwide observation complex was established to track the satellite after its separation from the rocket. Called the Command-Measurement Complex, it consisted of the coordination center in NII-4 and seven distant stations situated along the line of the satellite'sground track.[45]These tracking stations were located atTyuratam,Sary-Shagan,Yeniseysk,Klyuchi,Yelizovo,MakatinGuryev Oblast,andIshkupinKrasnoyarsk Krai.[39][45]Stations were equipped withradar,optical instruments, and communications systems. Data from stations were transmitted bytelegraphsinto NII-4 whereballisticsspecialists calculated orbital parameters.[46]

The observatories used a trajectory measurement system called "Tral", developed byOKB MEI(Moscow Energy Institute), by which they received and monitored data fromtranspondersmounted on the R-7 rocket's core stage.[47]The data was useful even after the satellite's separation from the second stage of the rocket; Sputnik's location was calculated from the data on the second stage's location which followed Sputnik at a known distance.[48]Tracking of the booster during launch had to be accomplished through purely passive means such as visual coverage and radar detection. R-7 test launches demonstrated that the tracking cameras were only good up to an altitude of 200 km (120 mi), but radar could track it for almost 500 km (310 mi).[43]

First ground track of Sputnik 1 on 13 October 1957 4:51 fromRodewisch

Outside the Soviet Union, the satellite was tracked byamateur radiooperators in many countries.[49]The booster rocket was located and tracked by the British using theLovell Telescopeat theJodrell Bank Observatory,the only telescope in the world able to do so by radar.[49]Canada'sNewbrook Observatorywas the first facility in North America to photograph Sputnik 1.[50]

Design

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Sputnik's internal components
Exploded view of Sputnik 1

Sputnik 1 was designed to meet a set of guidelines and objectives such as:[32]

  • simplicity and reliability that could be adapted to future projects
  • a spherical body to help determine atmospheric density from its lifetime in orbit
  • radio equipment to facilitate tracking and to obtain data on radio waves propagation through the atmosphere
  • verification of the satellite's pressurization scheme

The chief constructor of Sputnik 1 atOKB-1was Mikhail S. Khomyakov.[51]The satellite was a 585-millimetre (23.0 in) diameter sphere, assembled from two hemispheres that werehermeticallysealed withO-ringsand connected by 36bolts.It had a mass of 83.6 kilograms (184 lb).[52]The hemispheres were 2 mm thick,[53]and were covered with a highly polished 1 mm-thickheat shield[54]made of analuminium–magnesium–titaniumalloy,AMG6T.The satellite carried two pairs of antennas designed by the Antenna Laboratory of OKB-1, led by Mikhail V. Krayushkin.[22]Each antenna was made up of two whip-like parts, 2.4 and 2.9 metres (7.9 and 9.5 ft) in length,[55]and had an almost sphericalradiation pattern.[56]

Thepower supply,with a mass of 51 kg (112 lb), was in the shape of an octagonalnutwith the radio transmitter in its hole.[57]It consisted of threesilver-zinc batteries,developed at the All-Union Research Institute of Power Sources (VNIIT) under the leadership of Nikolai S. Lidorenko. Two of these batteries powered the radio transmitter and one powered the temperature regulation system. The batteries had an expected lifetime of two weeks, and operated for 22 days. The power supply was turned on automatically at the moment of the satellite's separation from the second stage of the rocket.[58]

The satellite had a one-watt, 3.5 kg (7.7 lb)[39]radio transmitting unit inside, developed by Vyacheslav I. Lappo fromNII-885,the Moscow Electronics Research Institute,[58][59]that worked on two frequencies, 20.005 and 40.002 MHz. Signals on the first frequency were transmitted in 0.3 s pulses (near f = 3 Hz) (under normal temperature and pressure conditions on board), with pauses of the same duration filled by pulses on the second frequency.[60]Analysis of the radio signals was used to gather information about the electron density of the ionosphere. Temperature and pressure were encoded in the duration of radio beeps. A temperature regulation system contained afan,a dualthermal switch,and a control thermal switch.[58]If the temperature inside the satellite exceeded 36 °C (97 °F), the fan was turned on; when it fell below 20 °C (68 °F), the fan was turned off by the dual thermal switch.[56]If the temperature exceeded 50 °C (122 °F) or fell below 0 °C (32 °F), another control thermal switch was activated, changing the duration of the radio signal pulses.[58]Sputnik1was filled with drynitrogen,pressurized to 1.3atm(130 kPa).[41]The satellite had abarometricswitch, activated if the pressure inside the satellite fell below 130 kPa, which would have indicated failure of the pressure vessel or puncture by a meteor, and would have changed the duration of radio signal impulse.[7]

While attached to the rocket, Sputnik 1 was protected by a cone-shapedpayload fairing,with a height of 80 cm (31.5 in).[39]The fairing separated from both Sputnik and the spent R-7 second stage at the same time as the satellite was ejected.[58]Tests of the satellite were conducted at OKB-1 under the leadership ofOleg G. Ivanovsky.[51]

Launch and mission

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Artist's impression ofSputnik 1in orbit

The control system of the Sputnik rocket was adjusted to an intended orbit of 223 by 1,450 km (139 by 901 mi), with an orbital period of 101.5 minutes.[61]The trajectory had been calculated earlier byGeorgi Grechko,using theUSSR Academy of Sciences'mainframe computer.[39][62]

The Sputnik rocket was launched on 4 October 1957 at 19:28:34UTC(5 October at the launch site[3][5]) fromSite No.1at NIIP-5.[63]Telemetry indicated that the strap-ons separated 116 seconds into the flight and the core stage engine shut down 295.4 seconds into the flight.[61]At shutdown, the 7.5-tonne core stage (with PS-1 attached) had attained an altitude of 223 km (139 mi) above sea level, a velocity of 7,780 m/s (25,500 ft/s), and a velocity vector inclination to the local horizon of 0 degrees 24 minutes. This resulted in an initial elliptical orbit of 223 km (139 mi) by 950 km (590 mi), with an apogee approximately 500 km (310 mi) lower than intended, and aninclinationof 65.10° and a period of 96.20 minutes.[61][64]

Several engines did not fire on time, almost aborting the mission.[65]A fuel regulator in the booster also failed around 16 seconds into launch, which resulted in excessiveRP-1consumption for most of the powered flight and the engine thrust being 4% above nominal. Core stage cutoff was intended for T+296 seconds, but the premature propellant depletion caused thrust termination to occur one second earlier when a sensor detected overspeed of the empty RP-1 turbopump. There were 375 kg (827 lb) ofLOXremaining at cutoff.[3]

At 19.9 seconds after engine cut-off, PS-1 separated from the second stage[3]and the satellite's transmitter was activated. These signals were detected at the IP-1 station by Junior Engineer-Lieutenant V.G. Borisov, where reception of Sputnik 1's "beep-beep-beep" tones confirmed the satellite's successful deployment. Reception lasted for 2 minutes, until PS-1 fell below the horizon.[39][66]The Tral telemetry system on the R-7 core stage continued to transmit and was detected on its second orbit.[3]

The designers, engineers and technicians who developed the rocket and satellite watched the launch from the range.[67]After the launch they drove to the mobile radio station to listen for signals from the satellite.[67]They waited about 90 minutes to ensure that the satellite had made one orbit and was transmitting before Korolev called Soviet premierNikita Khrushchev.[68]

On the first orbit theTelegraph Agency of the Soviet Union(TASS) transmitted: "As result of great, intense work of scientific institutes and design bureaus the first artificial Earth satellite has been built".[69]The R-7 core stage, with a mass of 7.5 tonnes and a length of 26 metres, also reached Earth orbit. It was afirst magnitudeobject following behind the satellite and visible at night. Deployable reflective panels were placed on the booster in order to increase its visibility for tracking.[68]A small highly polished sphere, the satellite was barely visible at sixth magnitude, and thus harder to follow optically.[25]The batteries ran out on 26 October 1957, after the satellite completed 326 orbits.[70]

The core stage of the R-7 remained in orbit for two months until 2 December 1957, while Sputnik 1 orbited for three months, until 4 January 1958, having completed 1,440 orbits of the Earth.[3]

Reception

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Further information:Sputnik crisisandSpace Race

Organized through thecitizen scienceprojectOperation Moonwatch,teams of visual observers at 150 stations in the United States and other countries were alerted during the night to watch for the satellite at dawn and during the evening twilight as it passed overhead.[71]The USSR requested amateur and professional radio operators to tape record the signal being transmitted from the satellite.[71]

Sputnik 1'ssteady beep, which "both thrilled and terrified" listeners[72]
"BEEP... BEEP... ToBob's"spaceship ad spoofs Sputnik in theCalifornia Institute of Technologyyearbook of 1958.

News reports at the time pointed out that "anyone possessing a short wave receiver can hear the new Russian earth satellite as it hurtles over this area of the globe."[12]Directions, provided by theAmerican Radio Relay League,were to "Tune in 20megacyclessharply, by the time signals, given on that frequency. Then tune to slightly higher frequencies. The 'beep, beep' sound of the satellite can be heard each time it rounds the globe. "[73]The first recording of Sputnik 1's signal was made byRCAengineers near Riverhead, Long Island. They then drove the tape recording into Manhattan for broadcast to the public overNBCradio. However, as Sputnik rose higher over the East Coast, its signal was picked up by W2AEE, the ham radio station ofColumbia University.Students working in the university's FM station,WKCR,made a tape of this, and were the first to rebroadcast the Sputnik signal to the American public (or whoever could receive the FM station).[72]

The Soviet Union agreed to transmit on frequencies that worked with the United States' existing infrastructure, but later announced the lower frequencies.[71]Asserting that the launch "did not come as a surprise", theWhite Houserefused to comment on any military aspects.[74]On 5 October the Naval Research Laboratory captured recordings of Sputnik 1 during four crossings over the United States.[71]TheUSAF Cambridge Research Centercollaborated withBendix-Friez,Westinghouse Broadcasting,and theSmithsonian Astrophysical Observatoryto obtain a video of Sputnik's rocket body crossing the pre-dawn sky of Baltimore, broadcast on 12 October byWBZ-TVin Boston.[75]

The success of Sputnik 1 seemed to have changed minds around the world regarding a shift in power to the Soviets.[76]

The USSR's launch of Sputnik 1 spurred the United States to create the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA, laterDARPA) in February 1958 to regain a technological lead.[77][78][79]

In Britain, the media and population initially reacted with a mixture of fear for the future, but also amazement about human progress. Many newspapers and magazines heralded the arrival of theSpace Age.[80]However, when the USSR launchedSputnik 2,containing the dogLaika,the media narrative returned to one of anti-Communism and many people sent protests to the Soviet embassy and the RSPCA.[81]

Propaganda

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A Soviet 40 kopek stamp, showing the satellite's orbit

Sputnik 1 was not immediately used for Soviet propaganda. The Soviets had kept quiet about their earlier accomplishments in rocketry, fearing that it would lead to secrets being revealed and failures being exploited by the West.[82]When the Soviets began using Sputnik in their propaganda, they emphasized pride in the achievement of Soviet technology, arguing that it demonstrated the Soviets' superiority over the West. People were encouraged to listen to Sputnik's signals on the radio[82]and to look out for Sputnik in the night sky. While Sputnik itself had been highly polished, its small size made it barely visible to the naked eye. What most watchers actually saw was the much more visible 26-metre core stage of the R-7.[82]Shortly after the launch of PS-1, Khrushchev pressed Korolev to launch another satellite to coincide with the 40th anniversary of theOctober Revolution,on 7 November 1957.[83][84]

The launch of Sputnik 1 surprised the American public, and shattered the perception created by American propaganda of the United States as the technological superpower, and the Soviet Union as a backward country.[85]Privately, however, theCIAand President Eisenhower were aware of progress being made by the Soviets on Sputnik from secret spy plane imagery.[86]Together with theJet Propulsion Laboratory(JPL), theArmy Ballistic Missile AgencybuiltExplorer 1,and launched it on 31 January 1958. Before work was completed, however, the Soviet Union launched a second satellite, Sputnik 2, on 3 November 1957. Meanwhile, the televised failure ofVanguard TV-3on 6 December 1957 deepened American dismay over the country's position in theSpace Race.The Americans took a more aggressive stance in the emerging space race,[87]resulting in an emphasis on science and technological research, and reforms in many areas from the military to education systems.[88]The federal government began investing in science, engineering, and mathematics at all levels of education.[85][89]An advanced research group was assembled for military purposes.[85]These research groups developed weapons such as ICBMs and missile defense systems, as well as spy satellites for the U.S.[85]

Legacy

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Initially, U.S. PresidentDwight Eisenhowerwas not surprised by Sputnik 1. He had been forewarned of the R-7's capabilities by information derived fromU-2 spy planeoverflight photos, as well as signals and telemetry intercepts.[90][91]GeneralJames M. Gavinwrote in 1958 that he had predicted to theArmy Scientific Advisory Panelon 12 September 1957 that the Soviets would launch a satellite within 30 days, and that on 4 October he andWernher von Braunhad agreed that a launch was imminent.[92]The Eisenhower administration's first response was low-key and almost dismissive.[93]Eisenhower was even pleased that the USSR, not the U.S., would be the first to test the waters of the still-uncertainlegal status of orbital satellite overflights.[94]Eisenhower had suffered the Soviet protests and shoot-downs ofProject Genetrix(Moby Dick) balloons[95]and was concerned about the probability of a U-2 being shot down.[96]To set a precedent for "freedom of space" before the launch of America's secret WS-117L spy satellites,[97]the U.S. had launchedProject Vanguardas its own "civilian" satellite entry for the International Geophysical Year.[98]Eisenhower greatly underestimated the reaction of the American public, who were shocked by the launch of Sputnik and by the televised failure of the Vanguard Test Vehicle 3 launch attempt. The sense of anxiety was inflamed by Democratic politicians and professional cold warriors, who portrayed the United States as woefully behind.[99]One of the many books that suddenly appeared for the lay-audience noted seven points of "impact" upon the nation: Western leadership, Western strategy and tactics, missile production, applied research, basic research, education, and democratic culture.[29]As public and the government became interested in space and related science and technology, the phenomenon was sometimes dubbed the "Sputnik craze".[100]

Sputnik 1,Sergei KorolevandValentin Glushkoon a 2007 Ukrainian stamp

The U.S. soon had a number of successful satellites, including Explorer 1,Project SCORE,andCourier 1B.However, public reaction to theSputnik crisisspurred America to action in the Space Race, leading to the creation of both theAdvanced Research Projects Agency(renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, or DARPA, in 1972),[101]andNASA(through theNational Aeronautics and Space Act),[102]as well as increased U.S. government spending on scientific research and education through theNational Defense Education Act.[103]

Sputnik also contributed directly to a new emphasis on science and technology in American schools. With a sense of urgency, Congress enacted the 1958 National Defense Education Act, which provided low-interest loans for college tuition to students majoring in mathematics and science.[104][105]After the launch of Sputnik, a poll conducted and published by the University of Michigan showed that 26% of Americans surveyed thought that Russian sciences and engineering were superior to that of the United States. (A year later, however, that figure had dropped to 10% as the U.S. began launching its own satellites into space.)[106]

One consequence of the Sputnik shock was the perception of a "missile gap".This became a dominant issue in the1960 Presidential campaign.[107]

One irony of the Sputnik event was the initially low-key response of the Soviet Union. The Communist Party newspaperPravdaonly printed a few paragraphs about Sputnik 1 on 4 October.[108]

Sputnik also inspired a generation of engineers and scientists. Harrison Storms, the North American designer who was responsible for theX-15rocket plane, and went on to head the effort to design theApollo command and service moduleandSaturn Vlaunch vehicle's second stage, was moved by the launch of Sputnik to think of space as being the next step for America.[109]AstronautsAlan Shepard(who was the first American in space) andDeke Slaytonlater wrote of how the sight of Sputnik 1 passing overhead inspired them to their new careers.[110]

The launch of Sputnik 1 led to the resurgence of the suffix-nikin the English language.[111][112]The American writerHerb Caenwas inspired to coin the term "beatnik"in an article about theBeat Generationin theSan Francisco Chronicleon 2 April 1958.[113]

The flag of Kaluga, featuring Sputnik 1

The flag of the Russian city ofKaluga,(which, due to it beingKonstantin Tsiolkovsky's place of work and residency, is very dedicated to space and space travel) features a small Sputnik in the canton.[114]

On October 3, 2007,Googlecelebrated 50th anniversary with aGoogle Doodle.[115]

Satellite navigation

[edit]
Main articles:Satellite navigationandGlobal Positioning System

The launch of Sputnik also planted the seeds for the development of modern satellite navigation. Two American physicists, William Guier and George Weiffenbach, at Johns Hopkins University'sApplied Physics Laboratory(APL) decided to monitor Sputnik's radio transmissions[116]and within hours realized that, because of theDoppler effect,they could pinpoint where the satellite was along its orbit. The Director of the APL gave them access to theirUNIVACcomputer to do the then heavy calculations required.

Early the next year, Frank McClure, the deputy director of the APL, asked Guier and Weiffenbach to investigate the inverse problem: pinpointing the user's location, given the satellite's. At the time, the Navy was developing the submarine-launchedPolarismissile, which required them to know the submarine's location. This led them and APL to develop theTRANSITsystem,[117]a forerunner of modernGlobal Positioning System(GPS) satellites.

Surviving examples

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Sputnik replica in Spain

Backups

[edit]

At least two vintage duplicates of Sputnik 1 exist, built apparently as backup units. The first resides nearMoscowin the corporate museum ofEnergia,the modern descendant of Korolev's design bureau, where it is on display by appointment only.[118][119]The second is a flight-ready backup at theCosmospherespace museum inHutchinson, Kansas,which also has an engineering model of theSputnik 2.[120]

Models

[edit]

TheMuseum of FlightinSeattle, Washingtonhas a Sputnik 1, but it has no internal components, though it does have casings and molded fittings inside (as well as evidence of battery wear), which may be an engineering model. Authenticated by theMemorial Museum of Cosmonauticsin Moscow, the unit was auctioned in 2001 and purchased by an anonymous private buyer, who donated it to the museum.[118]

TheSputnik 1 EMC/EMIis a class of full-scalelaboratory modelsof the satellite. The models, manufactured byOKB-1and NII-885 (headed by Mikhail Ryazansky), were introduced on February 15, 1957.[121]They were made to test groundelectromagnetic compatibility(EMC) andelectromagnetic interference(EMI).[121]

Replicas

[edit]

In 1959, the Soviet Union donated a replica of Sputnik to theUnited Nations.[122]There are other full-size Sputnik replicas (with varying degrees of accuracy) on display in locations around the world, including theNational Air and Space Museumin the United States,[118]theScience Museumin the United Kingdom,[123]thePowerhouse Museumin Australia,[124]and outside the Russian embassy in Spain.[citation needed]

Three one-third scale student-built replicas of Sputnik 1 were deployed from theMir space stationbetween 1997 and 1999. The first, namedSputnik 40to commemorate the fortieth anniversary of the launch of Sputnik 1, was deployed in November 1997.[125]Sputnik 41was launched a year later, andSputnik 99was deployed in February 1999. A fourth replica was launched, but never deployed, and was destroyed when Mir wasdeorbited.[118][126]

Private owners

[edit]

Two more Sputniks are claimed to be in the personal collections of American entrepreneursRichard Garriott[118]andJay S. Walker.[127]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
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Bibliography

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Further reading

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