Sri Lanka
Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka | |
|---|---|
| Anthem:"Sri Lanka Matha" (English:"Mother Sri Lanka") | |
 | |
| Capital |
|
| Largest city | Colombo |
| Official languages | |
| Recognised language | English |
| Ethnic groups (2012[4]) |
|
| Religion (2012) | 70.2%Buddhism(official)[5] 12.6%Hinduism 9.7%Islam 7.4%Christianity 0.1% other / none |
| Demonym(s) | Sri Lankan |
| Government | Unitarysemi-presidential republic[6] |
| Ranil Wickremesinghe | |
| Dinesh Gunawardena | |
| Mahinda Yapa Abeywardena | |
| Jayantha Jayasuriya | |
| Legislature | Parliament |
| Formation | |
| 543 BCE | |
| 377 BCE–1017 CE | |
| 1017–1232 | |
| 1232–1592 | |
| 1592–1815 | |
| 1815–1948 | |
| 4 February 1948 | |
| 22 May 1972 | |
| 7 September 1978 | |
| Area | |
• Total | 65,610.2 km2(25,332.2 sq mi) (120th) |
• Water (%) | 4.4 |
| Population | |
• 2022 estimate |  22,037,000[8](60th) |
• 2012 census | 20,277,600[9] |
• Density | 337.7/km2(874.6/sq mi) (42nd) |
| GDP(PPP) | 2023 estimate |
• Total |  $318.6 billion[10](60th) |
• Per capita | $14,234[10](101th) |
| GDP(nominal) | 2023 estimate |
• Total | $73.7 billion[10](79th) |
• Per capita | $3,293[10](132nd) |
| Gini(2016) | 39.8[11] medium |
| HDI(2022) | 0.780[12] high(78th) |
| Currency | Sri Lankan rupee(Rs) (LKR) |
| Time zone | UTC+5:30(SLST) |
| Driving side | left |
| Calling code | +94 |
| ISO 3166 code | LK |
| Internet TLD | |
Website gov.lk | |
Sri Lanka,[a]historically known asCeylonand officially theDemocratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka,is anisland countryinSouth Asia.It lies in theIndian Ocean,southwest of theBay of Bengal,separated from theIndian peninsulaby theGulf of Mannarand thePalk Strait.It shares amaritime borderwith theMaldivesin the southwest andIndiain the northwest.
Sri Lanka has a population of approximately 22 million and is home to many cultures, languages and ethnicities. TheSinhalesepeople form the majority of the population, followed by theSri Lankan Tamils,who are the largest minority group and are concentrated in northern Sri Lanka; both groups have played an influential role in the island's history. Other long-established groups include theMoors,Indian Tamils,Burghers,Malays,Chinese,andVedda.[13]
Sri Lanka's documented history goes back 3,000 years, with evidence of prehistoric human settlements dating back 125,000 years.[14]The earliest knownBuddhistwritings of Sri Lanka, known collectively as thePāli canon,date to thefourth Buddhist council,which took place in 29 BCE.[15][16]Also called thePearl of the Indian Ocean,or theGranary of the East,Sri Lanka's geographic location and deep harbours have made it of great strategic importance, from the earliest days of the ancientSilk Roadtrade route to today's so-calledmaritime Silk Road.[17][18][19]Because its location made it a major trading hub, it was already known to both East Asians and Europeans as long ago as theAnuradhapura period.During a period ofgreat political crisisin theKingdom of Kotte,thePortuguesearrived in Sri Lanka and sought to control its maritime trade, with a part of Sri Lanka subsequently becoming aPortuguese possession.After theSinhalese-Portuguese war,theDutch Empireand theKingdom of Kandytook control of those areas. TheDutch possessionswere then taken by theBritish,who later extended their control over the whole island,colonisingit from 1815 to 1948. A national movement for political independence arose in the early 20th century, and in 1948, Ceylon became adominion.It was succeeded by therepublicof Sri Lanka in 1972. Sri Lanka's more recent history was marred by a 26-yearcivil war,which began in 1983 and ended in 2009, when theSri Lanka Armed Forcesdefeated theLiberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam.[20]
Sri Lanka is adeveloping country,ranking 73rd on theHuman Development Index.It is the highest-ranked South Asian nation in terms of development and has the second-highestper capita incomein South Asia. However,the ongoing economic crisishas resulted in the collapse of its currency, rising inflation, and a humanitarian crisis due to a severe shortage of essentials. It has also led to an eruption ofstreet protests,with citizens successfully demanding that thepresidentand thegovernmentstep down.[21]The country has had a long history of engagement with modern international groups; it is a founding member of theSAARC,theG77and theNon-Aligned Movement,as well as a member of theUnited Nationsand theCommonwealth of Nations.
Toponymy
In antiquity, Sri Lanka was known to travellers by a variety of names. According to theMahāvaṃsa,the legendaryPrince Vijayanamed the islandTambapaṇṇĩ( "copper-redhands "or" copper-red earth "), because his followers' hands were reddened by thered soilof the area where he landed.[22][23]InHindu mythology,the termLankā( "Island" ) appears but it is unknown whether it refers to the modern-day state. The Tamil termEelam(Tamil:ஈழம்,romanized:īḻam) was used to designate the whole island inSangam literature.[24][25]The island was knownunder Chola ruleasMummudi Cholamandalam( "realm of thethree crownedCholas ").[26]
Ancient Greekgeographers called itTaprobanā(Ancient Greek:Ταπροβανᾶ) orTaprobanē(Ταπροβανῆ)[27]from the wordTambapanni.The Persians and Arabs referred to it asSarandīb(the origin of the word "serendipity") fromSanskritSiṃhaladvīpaḥ.[28][29]Ceilão,the name given to Sri Lanka by the Portuguese Empire when it arrived in 1505,[30]was transliterated into English asCeylon.[31]As a Britishcrown colony,the island was known as Ceylon; it achieved independence as theDominion of Ceylonin 1948.
The country is now known in Sinhala asŚrī Laṅkā(Sinhala:ශ්රී ලංකා) and in Tamil asIlaṅkai(Tamil:இலங்கை,IPA:[iˈlaŋɡaɪ]). In 1972, its formal name was changed to "Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka". Later, on 7 September 1978, it was changed to the "Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka".[32][33]As the name Ceylon still appears in the names of a number of organisations, the Sri Lankan government announced in 2011 a plan to rename all those over which it has authority.[34]
History
Prehistory
The pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years and possibly even as far back as 500,000 years.[35]The era spans thePalaeolithic,Mesolithic,and earlyIron Ages.Among thePaleolithichuman settlements discovered in Sri Lanka,Pahiyangala(37,000 BP), named after theChinesetravellermonkFaxian;[36]Batadombalena(28,500 BP);[37]andBelilena(12,000 BP) are the most important. In these caves, archaeologists have found the remains ofanatomicallymodernhumanswhich they have namedBalangoda Man,and other evidence[38]suggesting that they may have engaged inagricultureand kept domestic dogs for driving game.[39]
The earliest inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably ancestors of theVedda people,[40]an indigenous people numbering approximately 2,500 living in modern-day Sri Lanka.
During the protohistoric period (1000–500 BCE) Sri Lanka was culturally united with southern India,[41]and shared the same megalithic burials,pottery,iron technology, farming techniques andmegalithic graffiti.[42][43]This cultural complex spread from southern India along with Dravidian clans such as theVelir,prior to the migration ofPrakritspeakers.[44][45][42]
One of the first written references to the island is found in the IndianepicRamayana,which provides details of a kingdom namedLankathat was created by the divine sculptorVishvakarmaforKubera,the God of Wealth.[46]It is said that Kubera was overthrown by hisrakshasastepbrother,Ravana.[47]
Ancient history
According to theMahāvamsa,aPāḷichronicle written in the 5th century CE, the original inhabitants of Sri Lanka are said to be theYakshasandNagas.Sinhalese history traditionally starts in 543 BCE with the arrival ofPrince Vijaya,a semi-legendary prince who sailed with 700 followers to Sri Lanka, after being expelled fromVanga Kingdom(present-dayBengal).[48]He established theKingdom of Tambapanni,near modern-dayMannar.Vijaya (Singha) is the first of the approximately189 monarchs of Sri Lankadescribed in chronicles such as theDipavamsa,Mahāvaṃsa,Cūḷavaṃsa,andRājāvaliya.[49]
OncePrakritspeakers had attained dominance on the island, theMahavamsafurther recounts the later migration of royal brides and service castes from the TamilPandya Kingdomto theAnuradhapura Kingdomin the early historic period.[50]
TheAnuradhapura period(377 BCE – 1017 CE) began with the establishment of theAnuradhapura Kingdomin 380 BCE during the reign ofPandukabhaya.Thereafter, Anuradhapura served as thecapital cityof the country for nearly 1,400 years.[51]Ancient Sri Lankans excelled at building certain types ofstructuressuch astanks,dagobasand palaces.[52]Society underwent a major transformation during the reign ofDevanampiya Tissa,with the arrival ofBuddhismfrom India. In 250 BCE,[53]Mahinda,abhikkhuand the son of theMauryanEmperorAshokaarrived inMihintalecarrying the message of Buddhism.[54]His mission won over the monarch, who embraced the faith and propagated it throughout theSinhalese population.[55]
Succeeding kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain manyBuddhist schoolsand monasteries and support the propagation of Buddhism into other countries inSoutheast Asia.Sri Lankan Bhikkhus studied in India's famous ancient Buddhist University ofNalanda,which was destroyed byBakhtiyar Khilji.It is probable that many of the scriptures from Nalanda are preserved in Sri Lanka's many monasteries and that the written form of theTripiṭaka,including Sinhalese Buddhist literature, were part of the University of Nalanda.[56]In 245 BCE,bhikkhuniSanghamittaarrived with theJaya Sri Maha Bodhitree, which is considered to be a sapling from the historicalBodhi Treeunder whichGautama Buddhabecame enlightened.[57]It is considered the oldest human-planted tree (with a continuous historical record) in the world. (Bodhivamsa)[58][59]
Sri Lanka experienced the first of many foreign invasions during the reign ofSuratissa,who was defeated by two horse traders namedSena and GuttikafromSouth India.[55]The next invasion came immediately in 205 BCE by aCholanamedElara,who overthrewAselaand ruled the country for 44 years.Dutugamunu,the eldest son of the southern regional sub-king,Kavan Tissa,defeated Elara in theBattle of Vijithapura.During its two and a half millennia of existence, theSinhala Kingdomwas invaded at least eight times by neighbouring South Indian dynasties such as theChola,Pandya,andPallava.[citation needed]There also were incursions by the kingdoms ofKalinga(modernOdisha) and from theMalay Peninsulaas well.[citation needed]
TheFourth Buddhist CouncilofTheravadaBuddhism was held at theAnuradhapura Maha Viharayain Sri Lanka under the patronage ofValagamba of Anuradhapurain 25 BCE. The council was held in response to a year in which the harvests in Sri Lanka were particularly poor and manyBuddhist monkssubsequently died of starvation. Because thePāli Canonwas at that timeoral literaturemaintained in several recensions bydhammabhāṇakas (dharmareciters), the surviving monks recognised the danger of not writing it down so that even if some of the monks whose duty it was to study and remember parts of the Canon for later generations died, the teachings would not be lost.[60]After the council,palm-leaf manuscriptscontaining the completed Canon were taken to other countries such asBurma,Thailand,CambodiaandLaos.
Sri Lanka was the first Asian country known to have a female ruler:Anula of Anuradhapura(r. 47–42 BCE).[61]Sri Lankan monarchs undertook some remarkable construction projects such asSigiriya,the so-called "Fortress in the Sky", built during the reign ofKashyapa I of Anuradhapura,who ruled between 477 and 495. The Sigiriya rock fortress is surrounded by an extensive network of ramparts and moats. Inside this protective enclosure were gardens, ponds, pavilions, palaces and other structures.[62][63]
In 993 CE, the invasion ofChola emperorRajaraja Iforced the then Sinhalese rulerMahinda Vto flee to the southern part of Sri Lanka. Taking advantage of this situation,Rajendra I,son of Rajaraja I, launched a large invasion in 1017. Mahinda V was captured and taken to India, and the Cholassacked the city of Anuradhapuracausing the fall ofAnuradhapura Kingdom.Subsequently, they moved the capital toPolonnaruwa.[64]
Post-classical period
Following a 17-year-long campaign,Vijayabahu Isuccessfully drove the Chola out of Sri Lanka in 1070, reuniting the country for the first time in over a century.[65][66]Upon his request, ordained monks were sent fromBurmato Sri Lanka to re-establish Buddhism, which had almost disappeared from the country during the Chola reign.[67]During the medieval period, Sri Lanka was divided into three sub-territories, namely,Ruhunu,Pihiti andMaya.[68]
Sri Lanka'sirrigation systemwas extensively expanded during the reign ofParākramabāhu the Great(1153–1186).[69]This period is considered as a time when Sri Lanka was at the height of its power.[70][71]He built 1,470 reservoirs – the highest number by any ruler in Sri Lanka's history – repaired 165 dams, 3,910 canals, 163 major reservoirs, and 2,376 mini-reservoirs.[72]His most famous construction is theParakrama Samudra,[73]the largest irrigation project of medieval Sri Lanka. Parākramabāhu's reign is memorable for two major campaigns – in the south of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a punitive strike against the kings of Ramanna (Burma) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka.[74]
After his demise, Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power. In 1215,Kalinga Magha,an invader with uncertain origins, identified as the founder of the Jaffna kingdom, invaded and captured theKingdom of Polonnaruwa.He sailed fromKalinga[72]690 nautical miles on 100 large ships with a 24,000 strong army. Unlike previous invaders, helooted,ransacked and destroyed everything in the ancient Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa Kingdoms beyond recovery.[75]His priorities in ruling were to extract as much as possible from the land and overturn as many of the traditions ofRajarataas possible. His reign saw the massive migration of nativeSinhalese peopleto the south and west of Sri Lanka, and into the mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power.[76][77]
Sri Lanka never really recovered from the effects of Kalinga Magha's invasion. King Vijayabâhu III, who led the resistance, brought the kingdom toDambadeniya.The north, in the meanwhile, eventually evolved into theJaffna kingdom.[76][77]The Jaffna kingdom never came under the rule of any kingdom of the south except on one occasion; in 1450, following the conquest led by kingParâkramabâhu VI's adopted son,Prince Sapumal.[78]He ruled the North from 1450 to 1467 CE.[79]
The next three centuries starting from 1215 were marked by kaleidoscopically shifting collections of capitals in south and central Sri Lanka, including Dambadeniya,Yapahuwa,Gampola,Raigama,Kotte,[80]Sitawaka,and finally,Kandy.In 1247, the Malay kingdom ofTambralingawhich was a vassal ofSri Vijayaled by their kingChandrabhanu[81]briefly invaded Sri Lanka fromInsular Southeast Asia.They were then expelled by the South Indian Pandyan dynasty.[82]However, this temporary invasion reinforced the steady flow of the presence of variousAustronesianmerchant ethnic groups, fromSumatrans(Indonesia) toLucoes(Philippines) into Sri Lanka which occurred since 200 BCE.[83]Chinese admiralZheng Heand his naval expeditionary force landed at Galle, Sri Lanka in 1409 and got intobattlewith the local kingVira Alakesvara of Gampola.Zheng He captured King Vira Alakesvara and later released him.[84][85][86][87]Zheng He erected theGalle Trilingual Inscription,a stone tablet atGallewritten in threelanguages(Chinese,Tamil,andPersian), to commemorate his visit.[88][89]Thestelewas discovered by S. H. Thomlin at Galle in 1911 and is now preserved in theColombo National Museum.
Early modern period
The early modern period of Sri Lanka begins with the arrival ofPortuguesesoldier and explorerLourenço de Almeida,the son ofFrancisco de Almeida,in 1505.[90]In 1517, the Portuguese built a fort at the port city ofColomboand gradually extended their control over the coastal areas. In 1592, after decades of intermittent warfare with the Portuguese,Vimaladharmasuriya Imoved his kingdom to the inland city ofKandy,a location he thought more secure from attack.[91]In 1619, succumbing to attacks by thePortuguese,the independent existence of theJaffna kingdomcame to an end.[92]
During the reign of theRajasinha II,Dutchexplorers arrived on the island. In 1638, the king signed atreatywith theDutch East India Companyto get rid of the Portuguese who ruled most of the coastal areas.[93]The followingDutch–Portuguese Warresulted in a Dutch victory, with Colombo falling into Dutch hands by 1656. The Dutch remained in the areas they had captured, thereby violating the treaty they had signed in 1638. TheBurgher people,a distinct ethnic group, emerged as a result of intermingling between the Dutch and native Sri Lankans in this period.[94]
The Kingdom of Kandy was the last independent monarchy of Sri Lanka.[95]In 1595, Vimaladharmasurya brought the sacredTooth Relic—the traditional symbol of royal and religious authority amongst theSinhalese—to Kandy and built theTemple of the Tooth.[95]In spite of on-going intermittent warfare with Europeans, the kingdom survived. Later, a crisis of succession emerged in Kandy upon kingVira Narendrasinha's death in 1739. He was married to aTelugu-speakingNayakkarprincess from South India (Madurai) and was childless by her.[95]
Eventually, with the support ofbhikkuWeliwita Sarankara and ignoring the right of"Unambuwe Bandara",the crown passed to the brother of one of Narendrasinha's princesses, overlooking Narendrasinha's own son by a Sinhaleseconcubine.[96]The new king was crownedSri Vijaya Rajasinhalater that year. Kings of the Nayakkar dynasty launched several attacks on Dutch controlled areas, which proved to be unsuccessful.[97]
During theNapoleonic Wars,fearing that French control of the Netherlands might deliver Sri Lanka to the French, theBritish Empireoccupied the coastal areas of the island (which theycalledthe colony ofBritish Ceylon) with little difficulty in 1796.[98]Two years later, in 1798,Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha,third of the four Nayakkar kings of Sri Lanka, died of a fever. Following his death, a nephew of Rajadhi Rajasinha, eighteen-year-old Kannasamy, was crowned.[99]The young king, now namedSri Vikrama Rajasinha,faced aBritishinvasion in 1803 but successfully retaliated. The First Kandyan War ended in a stalemate.[99]
By then the entire coastal area was under theBritish East India Companyas a result of theTreaty of Amiens.On 14 February 1815,Kandywas occupied by the British in thesecond Kandyan War,ending Sri Lanka's independence.[99]Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, the last native monarch of Sri Lanka, was exiled to India.[100]TheKandyan Conventionformally ceded the entire country to the British Empire. Attempts by Sri Lankan noblemen to undermine British power in 1818 during theUva Rebellionwere thwarted byGovernorRobert Brownrigg.[101]
The beginning of the modern period of Sri Lanka is marked by theColebrooke-Cameron reformsof 1833.[102]They introduced autilitarianandliberalpolitical culture to the country based on therule of lawand amalgamated the Kandyan and maritime provinces as a single unit of government.[102]Anexecutive counciland alegislative councilwere established, later becoming the foundation of a representative legislature. By this time, experiments withcoffeeplantations were largely successful.[103]
Soon, coffee became the primary commodity export of Sri Lanka. Falling coffee prices as a result of thedepression of 1847stalled economic development and prompted the governor to introduce a series of taxes on firearms, dogs, shops, boats, etc., and to reintroduce a form ofrajakariya,requiring six days free labour on roads or payment of a cash equivalent.[103]These harsh measures antagonised the locals, andanother rebellionbroke out in 1848.[104]A devastating leaf disease,Hemileia vastatrix,struck the coffee plantations in 1869, destroying the entire industry within fifteen years.[105]The British quickly found a replacement: abandoning coffee, they began cultivating tea instead.Tea production in Sri Lankathrived in the following decades. Large-scale rubber plantations began in the early 20th century.
By the end of the 19th century, a new educatedsocial classtranscending race andcastearose through British attempts to staff theCeylon Civil Serviceand the legal, educational, engineering, and medical professions with natives.[106]New leaders represented the various ethnic groups of the population in theCeylon Legislative Councilon a communal basis. Buddhist and Hindu revivalism reacted againstChristian missionaryactivities.[107][108]The first two decades in the 20th century are noted by the unique harmony among Sinhalese andTamilpolitical leadership, which has since been lost.[109]
The1906 malaria outbreak in Ceylonactually started in the early 1900s, but the first case was documented in 1906.
In 1919, major Sinhalese and Tamil political organisations united to form the Ceylon National Congress, under the leadership ofPonnambalam Arunachalam,[110]pressing colonial masters for more constitutional reforms. But without massive popular support, and with the governor's encouragement for "communal representation" by creating a "Colombo seat" that dangled between Sinhalese and Tamils, the Congress lost momentum towards the mid-1920s.[111]
TheDonoughmore reformsof 1931 repudiated the communal representation and introduceduniversal adult franchise(the franchise stood at 4% before the reforms). This step was strongly criticised by the Tamil political leadership, who realised that they would be reduced to a minority in the newly createdState Council of Ceylon,which succeeded the legislative council.[112][113]In 1937, Tamil leaderG. G. Ponnambalamdemanded a 50–50 representation (50% for the Sinhalese and 50% for other ethnic groups) in the State Council. However, this demand was not met by theSoulbury reformsof 1944–45.
Contemporary history
The Soulbury constitution ushered indominion status,with independence proclaimed on 4 February 1948.[114]D. S. Senanayakebecame the firstPrime Minister of Ceylon.[115]ProminentTamilleaders including Ponnambalam andArunachalam Mahadevajoined his cabinet.[112][116]TheBritish Royal Navyremained stationed atTrincomaleeuntil 1956. A countrywidepopular demonstrationagainst withdrawal of the rice rations resulted in the resignation of prime ministerDudley Senanayake.[117]
S. W. R. D. Bandaranaikewas elected prime minister in 1956. His three-year rule had a profound influence through his self-proclaimed role of "defender of the besieged Sinhalese culture".[118]He introduced the controversialSinhala Only Act,recognisingSinhalaas the only official language of the government. Although partially reversed in 1958, the bill posed a grave concern for the Tamil community, which perceived in it a threat to their language and culture.[119][120][121]
TheFederal Party(FP) launched a movement of non-violent resistance (satyagraha) against the bill, which prompted Bandaranaike to reach an agreement (Bandaranaike–Chelvanayakam Pact) withS. J. V. Chelvanayakam,leader of the FP, to resolve the looming ethnic conflict.[122]The pact proved ineffective in the face of ongoing protests by opposition and the Buddhist clergy. The bill, together with various governmentcolonisation schemes,contributed much towards the political rancour between Sinhalese and Tamil political leaders.[123]Bandaranaike wasassassinatedby an extremist Buddhist monk in 1959.[124]
Queen of Ceylon
Prime Minister
Sirimavo Bandaranaike,the widow of Bandaranaike, took office as prime minister in 1960, and withstood anattempted coup d'étatin 1962. During her second term as prime minister, the government instituted socialist economic policies, strengthening ties with theSoviet Unionand China, while promoting a policy of non-alignment. In 1971, Ceylon experienced aMarxist insurrection,which was quickly suppressed. In 1972, the country became arepublicnamed Sri Lanka, repudiating its dominion status. Prolonged minority grievances and the use of communal emotionalism as an election campaign weapon by both Sinhalese and Tamil leaders abetted a fledgling Tamil militancy in the north during the 1970s.[125]Thepolicy of standardisationby the Sirimavo government to rectify disparities created in university enrolment, which was in essence anaffirmative actionto assist geographically disadvantaged students to obtain tertiary education,[126]resulted in reducing the proportion of Tamil students at university level and acted as the immediate catalyst for the rise of militancy.[127][128]The assassination ofJaffnaMayorAlfred Duraiyappahin 1975 by theLiberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam(LTTE) marked a crisis point.[129][130]
The government ofJ. R. Jayawardeneswept to power in 1977, defeating the largely unpopularUnited Frontgovernment.[131]Jayawardene introduced anew constitution,together with afree-market economyand a powerfulexecutive presidencymodelled after that of France. It made Sri Lanka the firstSouth Asiancountry toliberaliseits economy.[132]Beginning in1983,ethnic tensions were manifested in anon-and-off insurgencyagainst the government by the LTTE. AnLTTE attack on 13 soldiersresulted in the start of a civil war, and in response anti-Tamilrace riotstook place, allegedly backed bySinhalese hard-lineministers, which resulted in more than 150,000 Tamil civilians fleeing the island, seeking asylum in other countries.[133][134]
Lapses in foreign policy resulted in India strengthening the Tigers by providing arms and training.[135][136][137]In 1987, theIndo-Sri Lanka Accordwas signed and theIndian Peace Keeping Force(IPKF) was deployed in northern Sri Lanka to stabilise the region by neutralising the LTTE.[138]The same year, theJVPlaunched itssecond insurrectionin Southern Sri Lanka,[139]necessitating redeployment of the IPKF in 1990.[140]In October 1990, the LTTEexpelled Sri Lankan Moors(Muslims by religion) from northern Sri Lanka.[141]In 2002, the Sri Lankan government and LTTE signed a Norwegian-mediated ceasefire agreement.[121]
The2004 Asian tsunamikilled over 30,000 and displaced over 500,000 people in Sri Lanka.[142][143]From 1985 to 2006, the Sri Lankan government and Tamil insurgents held four rounds of peace talks without success. Both LTTE and the government resumed fighting in 2006, and the government officially backed out of the ceasefire in 2008.[121]In 2009, under thePresidencyofMahinda Rajapaksa,theSri Lanka Armed Forcesdefeated the LTTE, bringing an end to the 26 year long civil war on 19 May 2009,[144][145][146][147]and re-established control of the entire country by the Sri Lankan Government.[148]Overall, between 60,000 and 100,000 people were killed during the course of the 26 year long conflict.[149][150]
2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombingscarried out by the terrorist groupNational Thowheeth Jama'athon 21 April 2019 resulted in the brutal death of 261 innocent people.[151]On 26 April 2019 an antiterrorist operationwas carried out against the National Thowheeth Jama'ath by theSri Lanka Armywith the operation being successful and National Thowheeth Jama'ath's insurgency ending.[152][153][154]
Economic troubles in Sri Lanka began in 2019, when asevere economic crisisoccurred caused by rapidly increasing foreign debt, massive government budget deficits due to tax cuts, falling foreign remittances, a food crisis caused by mandatory organic farming along with a ban on chemical fertilizers, and a multitude of other factors.[155]The Sri Lankan Government officially declared the ongoing crisis to be the worsteconomic crisis in the countryin 73 years.[156]In August 2021, a food emergency was declared.[157]In June 2022, Prime MinisterRanil Wickremesinghedeclared the collapse of the Sri Lankan economy in parliament.[158]The crisis resulted in Sri Lanka defaulting on its $51 billion sovereign debt for the first time in its history, along with double-digit inflation, a crippling energy crisis that led to approximately 15 hour power cuts, severe fuel shortages leading to the suspension of fuel to all non-essential vehicles, and more such economic disorder.[159][160]Due to the crisis, massivestreet protestserupted all over the country, with protesters demanding the resignation of the PresidentGotabaya Rajapaksa.The protests culminated with the storming and siege of thePresident's Houseon July 9, 2022, and resulted in President Gotabaya Rajapaksa fleeing to Singapore[161]and later emailing his resignation to parliament, formally announcing his resignation and making him the first Sri Lankan president to resign in the middle of his term.[162]On the same day the President's House was stormed, protesters besieged and stormed theprivate residence of the prime ministerand burnt it down.[163]
After winning the2022 Sri Lankan presidential election,on 21 July 2022,Ranil Wickremesinghetook oath as the ninth President of Sri Lanka.[164]He implemented various economic reforms in efforts to stabilize Sri Lanka's economy, which has shown slight improvement since.[165][166]
Geography
Sri Lanka, an island inSouth Asiashaped as a teardrop or a pear/mango,[167]lies on theIndian Plate,a majortectonic platethat was formerly part of theIndo-Australian Plate.[168]It is in the Indian Ocean southwest of theBay of Bengal,between latitudes5°and10° N,and longitudes79°and82° E.[169]Sri Lanka is separated from the mainland portion of theIndian subcontinentby theGulf of MannarandPalk Strait.According toHindu mythology,a land bridge existed between the Indian mainland and Sri Lanka. It now amounts to only achain of limestone shoalsremaining abovesea level.[170]Legends claim that it was passable on foot up to 1480 CE, untilcyclonesdeepened the channel.[171][172]Portions are still as shallow as 1 metre (3 ft), hindering navigation.[173]The island consists mostly of flat to rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. The highest point isPidurutalagala,reaching 2,524 metres (8,281 ft) above sea level.
Sri Lanka has 103 rivers. The longest of these is theMahaweli River,extending 335 kilometres (208 mi).[174]These waterways give rise to 51 natural waterfalls of 10 metres (33 ft) or more. The highest isBambarakanda Falls,with a height of 263 metres (863 ft).[175]Sri Lanka's coastline is 1,585 km (985 mi) long.[176]Sri Lanka claims anexclusive economic zoneextending 200nautical miles,which is approximately 6.7 times Sri Lanka's land area. The coastline and adjacent waters support highly productive marine ecosystems such asfringingcoral reefsand shallow beds of coastal andestuarineseagrasses.[177]
Sri Lanka has 45estuariesand 40lagoons.[176]Sri Lanka'smangroveecosystem spans over 7,000hectaresand played a vital role in buffering the force of the waves in the2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.[178]The island is rich in minerals such asilmenite,feldspar,graphite,silica,kaolin,micaandthorium.[179][180]Existence ofpetroleumand gas in the Gulf of Mannar has also been confirmed, and the extraction of recoverable quantities is underway.[181]
Climate
The climate istropicaland warm because of moderating effects of ocean winds. Mean temperatures range from 17 °C (62.6 °F) in thecentral highlands,where frost may occur for several days in the winter, to a maximum of 33 °C (91.4 °F) in low-altitude areas. Average yearly temperatures range from 28 °C (82.4 °F) to nearly 31 °C (87.8 °F). Day and night temperatures may vary by 14 °C (57.2 °F) to 18 °C (64.4 °F).[182]
The rainfall pattern is influenced bymonsoonwinds from the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal. The "wet zone" and some of the windward slopes of the central highlands receive up to 2,500 millimetres (98.4 in) of rain each year, but the leeward slopes in the east and northeast receive little rain. Most of the east, southeast, and northern parts of Sri Lanka constitute the "dry zone", which receives between 1,200 and 1,900 mm (47 and 75 in) of rain annually.[183]
The arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least rain at 800 to 1,200 mm (31 to 47 in) per year. Periodic squalls occur and sometimestropical cyclonesbring overcast skies and rains to the southwest, northeast, and eastern parts of the island. Humidity is typically higher in the southwest and mountainous areas and depends on the seasonal patterns of rainfall.[184]An increase in average rainfall coupled with heavier rainfall events has resulted in recurrent flooding and related damages to infrastructure, utility supply and the urban economy.[185]
Flora and fauna
Western Ghatsof India and Sri Lanka were included among the first 18 globalbiodiversity hotspotsdue to high levels of species endemism. The number of biodiversity hotspots has now increased to 34.[187]Sri Lanka has the highest biodiversity per unit area among Asian countries for flowering plants and all vertebrate groups except birds.[188]A remarkably high proportion of the species among its flora and fauna, 27% of the 3,210 flowering plants and 22% of the mammals, areendemic.[189]Sri Lanka supports a rich avifauna of that stands at 453 species and this include 240 species of birds that are known to breed in the country.33 speciesare accepted by some ornithologists as endemic while some ornithologists consider only 27 are endemic and the remaining six are considered as proposed endemics.[190]Sri Lanka's protected areas are administrated by two government bodies; TheDepartment of Forest Conservationand theDepartment of Wildlife Conservation.Department of Wildlife Conservation administrates 61 wildlife sanctuaries, 22 national parks, four nature reserves, three strict nature reserves, and one jungle corridor while Department of Forest Conservation oversees 65 conservation forests and one national heritage wilderness area. 26.5% of the country's land area is legally protected. This is a higher percentage of protected areas when compared to the rest of Asia.[191]
Sri Lanka contains four terrestrial ecoregions:Sri Lanka lowland rain forests,Sri Lanka montane rain forests,Sri Lanka dry-zone dry evergreen forests,andDeccan thorn scrub forests.[192]Floweringacaciasflourish on the aridJaffna Peninsula.Among the trees of the dry-land forests are valuable species such assatinwood,ebony,ironwood,mahoganyandteak.The wet zone is a tropical evergreen forest with tall trees, broad foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and creepers. Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of temperate climates flourish in the higher altitudes.[193]
Yala National Parkin the southeast protects herds of elephant, deer, and peacocks. TheWilpattu National Parkin the northwest, the largest national park, preserves the habitats of many water birds such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. The island has fourbiosphere reserves:Bundala,Hurulu Forest Reserve,theKanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya,andSinharaja.[194]Sinharaja is home to 26 endemic birds and 20 rainforest species, including the elusivered-faced malkoha,thegreen-billed coucaland theSri Lanka blue magpie.The untapped genetic potential of Sinharaja flora is enormous. Of the 211 woody trees and lianas within the reserve, 139 (66%) are endemic. The total vegetation density, including trees, shrubs, herbs, and seedlings, has been estimated at 240,000 individuals per hectare. The Minneriya National Park borders theMinneriya Tank,which is an important source of water for elephants inhabiting the surrounding forests. Dubbed "The Gathering", the congregation of elephants can be seen on the tank-bed in the late dry season (August to October) as the surrounding water sources steadily disappear. The park also encompasses a range of micro-habitats which include classic dry zone tropical monsoonal evergreen forest, thick stands of giant bamboo, hilly pastures (patanas), and grasslands (talawas).[195]
During the Mahaweli Program of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the government set aside four areas of land totalling 1,900 km2(730 sq mi) as national parks. Statistics of Sri Lanka's forest cover show rapid deforestation from 1956 to 2010. In 1956, 44.2 percent of the country's land area had forest cover. Forest cover depleted rapidly in recent decades; 29.6 percent in 1999, 28.7 percent in 2010.[196]
Government and politics
![[icon]](/translate/en.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3AWiki_letter_w_cropped.svg&t=vi){kind=small} | This sectionneeds expansionwith: is missing explication of the constitutional socialist nature of the republic that is reflected in the formal name of the country: "Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka". You can help byadding to it.(July 2022) |
Sri Lanka is ademocraticrepublicand aunitary statewhich is governed by asemi-presidential system.[197]Sri Lanka is the oldest democracy in Asia.[198]Most provisions of the constitution can be amended by atwo-thirds majorityinparliament.The amendment ofcertain basic featuressuch as the clauses on language, religion, and reference to Sri Lanka as a unitary state require both a two-thirds majority and approval in a nationwidereferendum.
In common with many democracies, the Sri Lankan government has three branches:
- Executive:ThePresident of Sri Lankais thehead of state;thecommander in chiefof the armed forces;chief executive,and is popularly elected for a five-year term.[199]The president heads thecabinetand appointsministersfrom electedmembers of parliament.[200]The president is immune from legal proceedings while in the office with respect to any acts done or omitted to be done by him or her in either an official or private capacity.[201]Following the passage of the19th amendment to the constitutionin 2015, the president has two terms, which previously stood at no term limit.
- Legislative:TheParliament of Sri Lankais aunicameral225-member legislature with 196 members elected from 22 multi-seat constituencies and 29 elected byproportional representation.[202]Members are elected by universal suffrage for a five-year term. The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament at any time after four and a half years. The parliament reserves the power to make all laws.[203]The president's deputy andhead of government,theprime minister,leads theruling partyin parliament and shares many executive responsibilities, mainly in domestic affairs.
- Judicial:Sri Lanka's judiciary consists of aSupreme Court– the highest and final superior court of record,[203]a Court of Appeal, High Courts and a number of subordinate courts. The highly complex legal system reflects diverse cultural influences.[204]Criminal law is based almost entirely onBritish law.Basic civil law derives fromRoman-Dutch law.Laws pertaining to marriage, divorce, and inheritance arecommunal.[205]Because of ancient customary practices and religion, the Sinhala customary law (Kandyan law), theThesavalamai,andSharialaw are followed in special cases.[206]The president appoints judges to the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, and the High Courts. A judicial service commission, composed of thechief justiceand two Supreme Court judges, appoints, transfers, and dismisses lower court judges.
Politics
 National symbols of Sri Lanka | |
|---|---|
| Flag | Lion Flag |
| Emblem | Gold Lion Passant |
| Anthem | "Sri Lanka Matha" |
| Butterfly | Sri Lankan birdwing |
| Animal | Grizzled giant squirrel |
| Bird | Sri Lanka junglefowl |
| Flower | Blue water lily |
| Tree | Ceylon ironwood(nā) |
| Sport | Volleyball |
| Source:[207][208] | |
The current political culture in Sri Lanka is a contest between two rival coalitions led by thecentre-leftandprogressiveUnited People's Freedom Alliance(UPFA), an offspring ofSri Lanka Freedom Party(SLFP), and the comparativelyright-wingand pro-capitalistUnited National Party(UNP). after 2018 two major political parties have split with UNP majority has formedSamagi Jana Balawegayaand UPFA majority has formedSri Lanka Podujana Peramuna.The third wing partyJanatha Vimukthi Peramunahas gain popularity after 2022.
[209]Sri Lanka is essentially a multi-party democracy with many smaller Buddhist, socialist, and Tamil nationalist political parties. As of July 2011, the number of registered political parties in the country is 67.[210]Of these, theLanka Sama Samaja Party(LSSP), established in 1935, is the oldest.[211]
The UNP, established by D. S. Senanayake in 1946, was until recently the largest single political party.[212]It is the only political group which had representation in all parliaments since independence.[212]SLFP was founded byS. W. R. D. Bandaranaikein July 1951.[213]SLFP registered its first victory in 1956, defeating the ruling UNP in the1956 Parliamentary election.[213]Following the parliamentary election inJuly 1960,Sirimavo Bandaranaikebecame the prime minister and the world's first electedfemale head of government.[214]
G. G. Ponnambalam,theTamil nationalistcounterpart of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike,[215]founded theAll Ceylon Tamil Congress(ACTC) in 1944. Objecting to Ponnambalam's cooperation with D. S. Senanayake, a dissident group led byS.J.V. Chelvanayakambroke away in 1949 and formed theIllankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi(ITAK), also known as the Federal Party, becoming the main Tamil political party in Sri Lanka for next two decades.[216]The Federal Party advocated a more aggressive stance toward the Sinhalese.[217]With the constitutional reforms of 1972, the ACTC and ITAK created the Tamil United Front (laterTamil United Liberation Front). Following a period of turbulence as Tamil militants rose to power in the late 1970s, these Tamil political parties were succeeded in October 2001 by theTamil National Alliance.[217][218]Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna,aMarxist–Leninistpolitical party founded byRohana Wijeweerain 1965, serves as a third force in the current political context.[219]It endorses leftist policies which are more radical than the traditionalist leftist politics of the LSSP and theCommunist Party.[217]Founded in 1981, theSri Lanka Muslim Congressis the largest Muslim political party in Sri Lanka.[220]
PresidentMahinda Rajapaksalost the2015 presidential elections,ending his ten-year presidency. However, his successor as Sri Lankan President,Maithripala Sirisena,decided not to seek re-election in 2019.[221]The Rajapaksa family regained power in November2019 presidential electionswhen Mahinda's younger brother and former wartime defence chiefGotabaya Rajapaksawon the election, and he was later sworn in as the new president of Sri Lanka.[222][223]Their firm grip of power was consolidated in theparliamentary electionsin August 2020. The family's political party,Sri Lanka People's Front(known by its Sinhala initials SLPP), obtained a landslide victory and a clear majority in the parliament. Five members of the Rajapaksa family won seats in the new parliament. Former president Mahinda Rajapaksa became the new prime minister.[224]
In 2022, apolitical crisisstarted due to the power struggle betweenPresidentGotabaya Rajapaksaand theParliament of Sri Lanka.The crisis was fuelled byanti-government protests and demonstrations by the publicand also due to the worseningeconomy of Sri Lankasince 2019. The anti-government sentiment across various parts of Sri Lanka has triggered unprecedented political instability, creating shockwaves in the political arena.[225]
On July 20, 2022,Ranil Wickremesinghewas elected as the ninth President via aparliamentarian election.[226]
Administrative divisions
For administrative purposes, Sri Lanka is divided into nineprovinces[227]and twenty-fivedistricts.[228]
Provinces
Provinces in Sri Lanka have existed since the 19th century, but they had no legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment of the 1978 constitution established provincial councils after several decades of increasing demand for adecentralisationof the government.[229]Each provincial council is an autonomous body not under the authority of any ministry. Some of its functions had been undertaken by central government ministries, departments, corporations, and statutory authorities,[229]but authority over land and police is not as a rule given to provincial councils.[230][231]Between 1989 and 2006, the Northern and Eastern provinces were temporarily merged to form theNorth-East Province.[232][233]Prior to 1987, all administrative tasks for the provinces were handled by a district-based civil service which had been in place since colonial times. Now each province is administered by a directly elected provincial council:
|
Districts and local authorities
Each district is administered under adistrict secretariat.The districts are further subdivided into 256divisional secretariats,and these to approximately 14,008Grama Niladharidivisions.[237]The districts are known in Sinhala asdisaand in Tamil asmāwaddam.Originally, adisa(usually rendered into English as Dissavony) was aduchy,notably Matale and Uva.
There are three other types of local authorities: municipal councils (18), urban councils (13) and pradeshiya sabha, also called pradesha sabhai (256).[238]Local authorities were originally based on feudal counties namedkoraleandrata,and were formerly known as "D.R.O. divisions" after the divisional revenue officer.[239]Later, the D.R.O.s became "assistant government agents," and the divisions were known as "A.G.A. divisions". These divisional secretariats are currently administered by a divisional secretary.
Foreign relations
Sri Lanka is a founding member of theNon-Aligned Movement(NAM). While ensuring that it maintains its independence, Sri Lanka has cultivatedrelations with India.[240]Sri Lanka became a member of theUnited Nationsin 1955. Today, it is also a member of theCommonwealth,theSAARC,theWorld Bank,theInternational Monetary Fund,theAsian Development Bank,and theColombo Plan.
The United National Party has traditionally favoured links with the West, while the Sri Lanka Freedom Party has favoured links with the East.[240]Sri Lankan Finance Minister J. R. Jayewardene, together with then Australian Foreign Minister Sir Percy Spencer, proposed the Colombo Plan at the Commonwealth Foreign Minister's Conference held in Colombo in 1950.[241]At theSan Francisco Peace Conferencein 1951, while many countries were reluctant, Sri Lanka argued for a freeJapanand refused to accept payment of reparations forWorld War IIdamage because it believed it would harm Japan's economy.[242]Sri Lanka-China relations started as soon as the People's Republic of China was formed in 1949. The two countries signed an importantRubber-Rice Pactin 1952.[243]Sri Lanka played a vital role at theAsian–African Conferencein 1955, which was an important step in the crystallisation of the NAM.[244]
The Bandaranaike government of 1956 significantly changed the pro-western policies set by the previous UNP government. It recognised Cuba underFidel Castroin 1959. Shortly afterward, Cuba's revolutionaryChe Guevarapaid a visit to Sri Lanka.[245]TheSirima-Shastri Pactof 1964[246]andSirima-Gandhi Pactof 1974[247]were signed between Sri Lankan and Indian leaders in an attempt to solve thelong-standing disputeover the status ofplantation workers of Indian origin.In 1974,Kachchatheevu,a small island inPalk Strait,was formally ceded to Sri Lanka.[248]By this time, Sri Lanka was strongly involved in the NAM, and thefifth NAM summitwas held in Colombo in 1976.[249]The relationship between Sri Lanka and India became tense under the government ofJ. R. Jayawardene.[140][250]As a result,India intervened in the Sri Lankan Civil Warand subsequently deployed anIndian Peace Keeping Forcein 1987.[251]In the present, Sri Lanka enjoys extensive relations with China,[252]Russia,[253]and Pakistan.[254]
Military
TheSri Lanka Armed Forces,comprising theSri Lanka Army,theSri Lanka Navy,and theSri Lanka Air Force,come under the purview of theMinistry of Defence.[255]The total strength of the three services is around 346,000 personnel, with nearly 36,000 reserves.[256]Sri Lanka has not enforcedmilitary conscription.[257]Paramilitary units include theSpecial Task Force,theCivil Security Force,and theSri Lanka Coast Guard.[258][259]
Since independence in 1948, the primary focus of the armed forces has been internal security, crushing three major insurgencies, two byMarxistmilitants of theJVPand a 26-year-long conflict with theLTTE.The armed forces have been in a continuous mobilised state for the last 30 years.[260][261]The Sri Lankan Armed Forces have engaged inUnited Nationspeacekeepingoperations since the early 1960s, contributing forces to permanent contingents deployed in several UN peacekeeping missions inChad,Lebanon,andHaiti.[262]
Economy
According to the International Monetary Fund, Sri Lanka'sGDPin terms ofpurchasing power parityis the second highest in the South Asian region in terms ofper capita income.In the 19th and 20th centuries, Sri Lanka became aplantation economyfamous for its production and export ofcinnamon,rubber,andCeylon tea,which remains a trademark national export.[263]Thedevelopment of modern portsunder British rule raised the strategic importance of the island as a centre of trade.[264]From 1948 to 1977, socialism strongly influenced the government's economic policies. Colonial plantations were dismantled, industries were nationalised, and awelfare stateestablished. In 1977, thefree marketeconomy was introduced to the country, incorporating privatisation, deregulation, and the promotion of private enterprise.[132]
While the production and export of tea, rubber, coffee, sugar, and other commodities remain important, industrialisation has increased the importance of food processing, textiles, telecommunications, and finance. The country's main economic sectors are tourism, tea export, clothing, rice production, and other agricultural products. In addition to these economic sectors, overseas employment, especially in the Middle East, contributes substantially in foreign exchange.[265]
As of 2020[update],the service sector makes up 59.7% of GDP, the industrial sector 26.2%, and the agriculture sector 8.4%.[266]The private sector accounts for 85% of the economy.[267]China, India and the United States are Sri Lanka's largest trading partners.[268]Economic disparities exist between the provinces with the Western Province contributing 45.1% of the GDP and the Southern Province and the Central Province contributing 10.7% and 10%, respectively.[269]With the end of the war, the Northern Province reported a record 22.9% GDP growth in 2010.[270]
The per capita income of Sri Lanka doubled from 2005 to 2011.[272]During the same period, poverty dropped from 15.2% to 7.6%, unemployment rate dropped from 7.2% to 4.9%,market capitalisationof theColombo Stock Exchangequadrupled, and thebudget deficitdoubled.[265]99% of the households in Sri Lanka are electrified; 93.2% of the population have access to safe drinking water; and 53.1% have access to pipe-borne water.[266]Income inequality has also dropped in recent years, indicated by aGini coefficientof 0.36 in 2010.[273]
The 2011Global Competitiveness Report,published by theWorld Economic Forum,described Sri Lanka's economy as transitioning from the factor-driven stage to the efficiency-driven stage and that it ranked 52nd in global competitiveness.[274]Also, out of the 142 countries surveyed, Sri Lanka ranked 45th in health and primary education, 32nd in business sophistication, 42nd in innovation, and 41st in goods market efficiency. In 2016, Sri Lanka ranked 5th in theWorld Giving Index,registering high levels of contentment and charitable behaviour in its society.[275]In 2010,The New York Timesplaced Sri Lanka at the top of its list of 31 places to visit.[276]S&P Dow Jones Indicesclassifies Sri Lanka as afrontier marketas of 2018.[277]Sri Lanka rankswell above other South Asian countries in theHuman Development Index(HDI) with an index of 0.750.
By 2016, the country's debt soared as it was developing its infrastructure to the point of near bankruptcy which required a bailout from theInternational Monetary Fund(IMF).[278]The IMF had agreed to provide a US$1.5 billion bailout loan in April 2016 after Sri Lanka provided a set of criteria intended to improve its economy. By the fourth quarter of 2016, the debt was estimated to be $64.9 billion. Additional debt had been incurred in the past by state-owned organisations and this was said to be at least $9.5 billion. Since early 2015, domestic debt increased by 12% and external debt by 25%.[279]In November 2016, the IMF reported that the initial disbursement was larger than US$150 million originally planned, a full US$162.6 million (SDR 119.894 million). The agency's evaluation for the first tranche was cautiously optimistic about the future. Under the program, the Sri Lankan government implemented a new Inland Revenue Act and an automatic fuel pricing formula which was noted by the IMF in its fourth review. In 2018 China agreed to bail out Sri Lanka with a loan of $1.25 billion to deal with foreign debt repayment spikes in 2019 to 2021.[280][281][282]
In September 2021, Sri Lanka declared a majoreconomic crisis.[283]The Chief of its Central Bank has stepped down amid the crisis.[284]The Parliament has declared emergency regulations due to the crisis, seeking to ban "food hoarding".[285][286]
Tourism, which provided the economy with an input of foreign currency, has significantly declined as a result of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.[287]
Transport
Sri Lanka has an extensive road network for inland transportation. With more than 100,000 km (62,000 mi) of paved roads,[288]it has one of the highest road densities in the world (1.5 km or 0.93 mi of paved roads per every 1 km2or 0.39 sq mi of land). The road network consists of 35A-Grade highwaysandfourcontrolled-access highways.[289][290]A and B grade roads are national (arterial) highways administered by Road Development Authority.[291]C and D grade roads are provincial roads coming under the purview of the Provincial Road Development Authority of the respective province. The other roads are local roads falling under local government authorities.
Therailway network,operated by the state-runNational RailwayoperatorSri Lanka Railways,spans 1,447 kilometres (900 mi).[292]Sri Lanka also has threedeep-water portsatColombo,Galle,andTrincomalee,in addition to the newest port being built atHambantota.
Transition to biological agriculture
In June 2021, Sri Lanka imposed a nationwide ban on inorganic fertilisers and pesticides. The program was welcomed by its advisorVandana Shiva,[293]but ignored critical voices from scientific and farming community who warned about possible collapse of farming,[294][295][296][297][298]including financial crisis due to devaluation of national currency pivoted around tea industry.[294]The situation in the tea industry was described as critical, with farming under the organic program being described as ten times more expensive and producing half of the yield by the farmers.[299]In September 2021 the government declared an economic emergency, as the situation was further aggravated by falling national currency exchange rate, inflation rising as a result of high food prices, and pandemic restrictions in tourism which further decreased country's income.[283]
In November 2021, Sri Lanka abandoned its plan to become the world's first organic farming nation following rising food prices and weeks of protests against the plan.[300]As of December 2021, the damage to agricultural production was already done, with prices having risen substantially for vegetables in Sri Lanka, and time needed to recover from the crisis. The ban on fertiliser has been lifted for certain crops, but the price of urea has risen internationally due to the price for oil and gas.[287]Jeevika Weerahewa, a senior lecturer at theUniversity of Peradeniya,predicted that the ban would reduce the paddy harvest in 2022 by an unprecedented 50%.[301]
Demographics
Sri Lanka has roughly 22,156,000 people and an annual population growth rate of 0.5%. Thebirth rateis 13.8 births per 1,000 people, and thedeath rateis 6.0 deaths per 1,000 people.[266]Population density is highest in western Sri Lanka, especially in and around the capital.Sinhaleseconstitute the largest ethnic group in the country, with 74.8% of the total population.[302]Sri Lankan Tamilsare the second major ethnic group in the island, with a percentage of 11.2%.Moorscomprise 9.2%. There are also small ethnic groups such as theBurghers(of mixed European descent) andMalaysfrom Southeast Asia. Moreover, there is a small population ofVedda peoplewho are believed to be the original indigenous group to inhabit the island.[303]
Largest cities
| Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Colombo  Kaduwela |
1 | Colombo | Western | 561,314 | 11 | Galle | Southern | 86,333 | |
| 2 | Kaduwela | Western | 252,041 | 12 | Batticaloa | Eastern | 86,227 | ||
| 3 | Maharagama | Western | 196,423 | 13 | Jaffna | Northern | 80,829 | ||
| 4 | Kesbewa | Western | 185,122 | 14 | Matara | Southern | 74,193 | ||
| 5 | Dehiwala-Mount Lavinia | Western | 184,468 | 15 | Gampaha | Western | 62,335 | ||
| 6 | Moratuwa | Western | 168,280 | 16 | Katunayake | Western | 60,915 | ||
| 7 | Negombo | Western | 142,449 | 17 | Boralesgamuwa | Western | 60,110 | ||
| 8 | Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte | Western | 107,925 | 18 | Kolonnawa | Western | 60,044 | ||
| 9 | Kalmunai | Eastern | 99,893 | 19 | Anuradhapura | North Central | 50,595 | ||
| 10 | Kandy | Central | 98,828 | 20 | Trincomalee | Eastern | 48,351 | ||
Languages
SinhalaandTamilare the twoofficial languages.[305]The constitution definesEnglishas the link language. English is widely used for education, scientific and commercial purposes. Members of theBurghercommunity speak variant forms ofPortuguese Creoleand Dutch with varying proficiency, while members of the Malay community speak a form ofCreoleMalaythat is unique to the island.[306]
Religion
Buddhismis the largest and is considered as an "Official religion"of Sri Lanka under Chapter II, Article 9," The Republic of Sri Lanka shall give to Buddhism the foremost place and accordingly it shall be the duty of the State to protect and foster the Buddha Sasana ".[309][310] Buddhism is practised by 70.2% of the Sri Lankan population with most being predominantly fromTheravadaschool of thought.[311]Most Buddhists are of the Sinhalese ethnic group with minority Tamils. Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka in the 2nd century BCE byMahinda Maurya.[311]A sapling of theBodhi Treeunder whichthe Buddhaattained enlightenment was brought to Sri Lanka during the same time. ThePāli Canon(Thripitakaya), having previously been preserved as an oral tradition, was first committed to writing in Sri Lanka around 30 BCE.[312]Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any predominantly Buddhist nation.[311]During periods of decline, the Sri Lankan monastic lineage was revived through contact with Thailand and Burma.[312]
AlthoughHindus in Sri Lankaform a religious minority, Hinduism has been present in Sri Lanka at least since the 2nd century BCE.[313]Hinduism was the dominant religion in Sri Lanka before the arrival of Buddhism in the 3rd century BCE. Buddhism was introduced into Sri Lanka by Mahinda, the son of Emperor Ashoka, during the reign of KingDevanampiya Tissa;[314]the Sinhalese embraced Buddhism and Tamils remain Hindus in Sri Lanka. However, it was activity from across thePalk Straitthat truly set the scene forHinduism's survival in Sri Lanka.Shaivism(devotional worship of Lord Shiva) was the dominant branch practised by the Tamil peoples, thus most of the traditionalHindu temple architectureandphilosophyof Sri Lanka drew heavily from this particular strand ofHinduism.Thirugnanasambanthar mentioned the names of several Sri Lankan Hindu temples in his works.[315]
Islamis the third most prevalent religion in the country, having first been brought to the island by Arab traders over the course of many centuries, starting around the mid or late 7th century CE. Most followers on the island today areSunniwho follow theShafi'i school[316]and are believed to be descendants of Arab traders and the local women whom they married.[317]
Christianityreached the country at least as early as the fifth century (and possibly in the first),[318]gaining a wider foothold through Western colonists who began to arrive early in the 16th century.[319]Around 7.4% of the Sri Lankan population are Christians, of whom 82% areRoman Catholicswho trace their religious heritage directly to the Portuguese. Tamil Catholics attribute their religious heritage toSt. Francis Xavieras well as Portuguese missionaries. The remaining Christians are evenly split between theAnglican Church of Ceylonand otherProtestant denominations.[320]
There is also a small population ofZoroastrianimmigrants from India (Parsis) who settled in Ceylon during the period of British rule.[321]This community has steadily dwindled in recent years.[322]
Religion plays a prominent role in the life and culture of Sri Lankans. TheBuddhistmajority observePoyaDays each month according to theLunar calendar,andHindusandMuslimsalso observe their own holidays. In a 2008Gallup poll,Sri Lanka was ranked the third most religious country in the world, with 99% of Sri Lankans saying religion was an important part of their daily life.[323]
Health
Sri Lankans have alife expectancyof 75.5 years at birth, which is 10% higher than the world average.[266][265]The infant mortality rate stands at 8.5 per 1,000 births and the maternal mortality rate at 0.39 per 1,000 births, which is on par with figures from developed countries. The universal "pro-poor"[324]health care system adopted by the country has contributed much towards these figures.[325]Sri Lanka ranks first among southeast Asian countries with respect to deaths by suicide, with 33 deaths per 100,000 persons. According to the Department of Census and Statistics, poverty, destructive pastimes, and inability to cope with stressful situations are the main causes behind the high suicide rates.[326] On 8 July 2020, theWorld Health Organizationdeclared that Sri Lanka had successfully eliminatedrubellaandmeaslesahead of their 2023 target.[327]
Education
With aliteracy rateof 92.9%,[266]Sri Lanka has one of the most literate populations amongst developing nations.[328]Its youth literacy rate stands at 98.8%,[329]computer literacy rate at 35%,[330]and primary school enrollment rate at over 99%.[331]An education system which dictates 9 years ofcompulsory schoolingfor every child is in place.
Thefree educationsystem established in 1945[332]is a result of the initiative ofC. W. W. Kannangaraand A. Ratnayake.[333][334]It is one of the few countries in the world that provide universal free education from primary to tertiary stage.[335]Kannangara led the establishment of theMadhya Vidyalayas(central schools) in different parts of the country in order to provide education to Sri Lanka's rural children.[330]In 1942, a special education committee proposed extensive reforms to establish an efficient and quality education system for the people. However, in the 1980s changes to this system separated the administration of schools between the central government and the provincial government. Thus the elitenational schoolsare controlled directly by theministry of educationand the provincial schools by the provincial government. Sri Lanka has approximately 10,155 government schools, 120 private schools and 802pirivenas.[266]
Sri Lanka has 17 public universities.[336][337]A lack of responsiveness of the education system to labour market requirements, disparities in access to quality education, lack of an effective linkage between secondary and tertiary education remain major challenges for the education sector.[338]A number of private, degree awarding institutions have emerged in recent times to fill in these gaps, yet the participation at tertiary level education remains at 5.1%.[339]Sri Lanka was ranked 90th in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2023.[340][341]
Human rights and media
TheSri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation(formerlyRadio Ceylon) is the oldest-running radio station in Asia,[342]established in 1923 byEdward Harperjust three years after broadcasting began in Europe.[342]The station broadcasts services in Sinhala, Tamil, English and Hindi. Since the 1980s, many private radio stations have also been introduced. Broadcast television was introduced in 1979 when theIndependent Television Networkwas launched. Initially, all television stations were state-controlled, but private television networks began broadcasting in 1992.[343]
As of 2020[update],192 newspapers (122 Sinhala, 24 Tamil, 43 English, 3 multilingual) are published and 25 TV stations and 58 radio stations are in operation.[266]In recent years,freedom of the pressin Sri Lanka has been alleged by media freedom groups to be amongst thepoorest in democratic countries.[344]Alleged abuse of a newspaper editor by a senior government minister[345]achieved international notoriety because of the unsolved murder of the editor's predecessor,Lasantha Wickrematunge,[346]who had been a critic of the government and had presaged his own death in a posthumously published article.[347]
Officially, the constitution of Sri Lanka guarantees human rights as ratified by the United Nations. However, several groups, such asAmnesty International,Freedom from Torture,Human Rights Watch,[348]as well as theBritish government[349]and theUnited States Department of Statehave criticised human rights violations in Sri Lanka.[350]TheSri Lankan Governmentand the LTTE have both been accused of violating human rights. Areport by an advisory panel to the UN secretary-generalaccused both the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government ofwar crimesduring final stages of the civil war.[351][352]Corruption remains a problem in Sri Lanka, and there is little protection for those who stand up against corruption.[353]The 135-year-oldArticle 365 of the Sri Lankan Penal Codecriminaliseshomosexual acts,with a penalty of up to ten years in prison.[354]
TheUN Human Rights Councilhas documentedover 12,000 named individualswho have disappeared after detention by security forces in Sri Lanka, the second-highest figure in the world since the Working Group came into being in 1980.[355]The Sri Lankan government confirmed that 6,445 of these died. Allegations of human rights abuses have not ended with the close of the ethnic conflict.[356]
UN Human Rights CommissionerNavanethem Pillayvisited Sri Lanka in May 2013. After her visit, she said: "The war may have ended [in Sri Lanka], but in the meantime, democracy has been undermined and the rule of law eroded." Pillay spoke about the military's increasing involvement in civilian life and reports of militaryland grabbing.She also said that, while in Sri Lanka, she had been allowed to go wherever she wanted, but that Sri Lankans who came to meet her were harassed and intimidated by security forces.[357][358]
In 2012, the UK charityFreedom from Torturereported that it had received 233 referrals of torture survivors from Sri Lanka for clinical treatment or other services provided by the charity. In the same year, the group publishedOut of the Silence,which documents evidence of torture in Sri Lanka and demonstrates that the practice has continued long after the end of the civil war in 2009.[359]On 29 July 2020,Human Rights Watchsaid that the Sri Lanka government has targeted lawyers, human rights defenders, and journalists to suppress criticism against the government.[360]
Culture
Theculture of Sri Lankais influenced primarily by Buddhism and Hinduism.[361]Sri Lanka is the home to two main traditional cultures: the Sinhalese (centred in Kandy and Anuradhapura) and the Tamil (centred in Jaffna). Tamils co-existed with the Sinhalese people since then, and the early mi xing rendered the two ethnic groups almost physically indistinguishable.[362]Ancient Sri Lanka is marked for its genius inhydraulic engineeringandarchitecture.The British colonial culture has also influenced the locals. The rich cultural traditions shared by all Sri Lankan cultures is the basis of the country's long life expectancy, advanced health standards, and high literacy rate.[363]
Food and festivals
Dishes include rice and curry,pittu,kiribath,wholemealroti,string hoppers,wattalapam (a rich pudding of Malay origin made withcoconut milk,jaggery, cashews, eggs, and spices including cinnamon and nutmeg),kottu,andappam.[364]Jackfruitmay sometimes replace rice. Traditionally food is served on aplantain leaf or lotus leaf.Middle Eastern influences and practices are found in traditional Moor dishes, while Dutch and Portuguese influences are found with the island's Burgher community preserving their culture through traditional dishes such aslamprais(rice cooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf),breudher(Dutch holiday biscuit), andBolo fiado(Portuguese-style layer cake).[citation needed]
In April, Sri Lankans celebrate theBuddhistandHindunew year festivals.[365]Esala Peraherais a symbolic Buddhist festival consisting of dances and decorated elephants held in Kandy in July and August.[366]Fire dances, whip dances, Kandyan dances and various other cultural dances are integral parts of the festival. Christians celebrateChristmason 25 December to celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ andEasterto celebrate the resurrection of Jesus. Tamils celebrateThai PongalandMaha Shivaratri,and Muslims celebrateHajjandRamadan.
Visual, literary and performing arts
The movieKadawunu Poronduwa(The Broken Promise), produced byS. M. Nayagamof Chitra Kala Movietone, heralded the coming of Sri Lankan cinema in 1947.Ranmuthu Duwa(Island of Treasures) marked the transition of cinema fromblack-and-whiteto colour. In recent years, movies have featured subjects such as family melodrama, social transformation and the years of conflict between the military and the LTTE.[367]The Sri Lankan cinematic style is similar toBollywoodmovies. In 1979, movie attendance rose to an all-time high but has been in a steady decline since then.[368]
An influential filmmaker isLester James Peiris,who has directed a number of movies which led to global acclaim, includingRekava(Line of Destiny,1956),Gamperaliya(The Changing Village,1964),Nidhanaya(The Treasure,1970) andGolu Hadawatha(Cold Heart,1968).[369]Sri Lankan-Canadian poetRienzi Crusz,is the subject of a documentary on his life in Sri Lanka. His work is published in Sinhala and English. Naturalised CanadianMichael Ondaatjeis well known for his English-language novels and three films.[citation needed]
The earliest music in Sri Lanka came from theatrical performances such asKolam,SokariandNadagam.[370]Traditional music instruments such asBéra,Thammátama,DaŭlaandRăbānwere performed at these dramas. The first music album,Nurthi,recorded in 1903, was released through Radio Ceylon. Songwriters likeMahagama SekaraandAnanda Samarakoonand musicians such asW. D. Amaradeva,Victor Ratnayake,Nanda MaliniandClarence Wijewardenehave contributed much towards the progression of Sri Lankan music.[371]Baila musicoriginated amongKaffirsor the Afro-Sinhalese community.[372]
There are three main styles of Sri Lankan classical dance. They are, theKandyan dances,low country dances andSabaragamuwadances. Of these, the Kandyan style is most prominent. It is a sophisticated form of dance[373]that consists of five sub-categories:Ves dance,Naiyandi dance,Udekki dance,Pantheru danceand18 Vannam.[374]An elaborate headdress is worn by the male dancers, and a drum calledGeta Bérayais used to assist the dancers to keep on rhythm.[375]
The history of Sri Lankan painting and sculpture can be traced as far back as to the 2nd or 3rd century BCE.[376]The earliest mention about the art of painting on Mahāvaṃsa, is to the drawing of a palace on cloth usingcinnabarin the 2nd century BCE. The chronicles have a description of various paintings in relic chambers of Buddhist stupas and in monastic residences.
Theatre came to the country when aParsi theatrecompany fromMumbaiintroducedNurti,a blend of European and Indian theatrical conventions to the Colombo audience in the 19th century.[374]The golden age of Sri Lankan drama and theatre began with the staging ofManame,a play written byEdiriweera Sarachchandrain 1956.[377]It was followed by a series of popular dramas likeSinhabāhu,Pabāvatī,Mahāsāra,Muudu PuththuandSubha saha Yasa.
Sri Lankan literature spans at least two millennia and is heir to theAryanliterary tradition as embodied in the hymns of theRigveda.[378]ThePāli Canon,the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, was written down in Sri Lanka during theFourth Buddhist council,at the Alulena cave temple,Kegalle,as early as 29 BCE.[379]Chronicles such as theMahāvaṃsa,written in the 6th century, provide vivid descriptions of Sri Lankan dynasties. According to the German philosopherWilhelm Geiger,the chronicles are based on SinhalaAtthakatha(commentary).[378]The oldest surviving prose work is theDhampiya-Atuva-Getapadaya,compiled in the 9th century CE.[378]The greatest literary feats of medieval Sri Lanka includeSandesha Kāvya(poetic messages) such asGirā Sandeshaya(parrot message),Hansa Sandeshaya(swan message) andSalalihini Sandeshaya(myna message). Poetry includingKavsilumina,Kavya-Sekharaya(Diadem of Poetry) and proses such asSaddharma-Ratnāvaliya,Amāvatura(Flood of Nectar) andPujāvaliyaare also notable works of this period, which is considered to be the golden age of Sri Lankan literature.[378]The first modern-day novel,Meenaby Simon de Silva appeared in 1905[374]and was followed by several revolutionary literary works.Martin Wickramasinghe,the author ofMadol Doovais considered the iconic figure of Sri Lankan literature.[380]
Sport
While thenational sportisvolleyball,by far the most popular sport in the country isCricket.[381]Rugby unionalso enjoys extensive popularity,[382]as doassociation football,netballandtennis.Aquatic sports such as boating, surfing, swimming, kitesurfing[383]andscuba divingattract many Sri Lankans and foreign tourists. There are two styles of martial arts native to Sri Lanka:Cheena diandAngampora.[384]
TheSri Lanka national cricket teamachieved considerable success beginning in the 1990s, rising fromunderdogstatus to winning the1996 Cricket World Cup,defeatingAustraliain the final on 17 March 1996.[386]They also won the2014 ICC World Twenty20played in Bangladesh, beating India in the final. In addition, Sri Lanka became the runners-up of theCricket World Cupin2007[387]and2011,[388]and of theICC World Twenty20in2009and2012.[389]Former Sri Lankanoff-spinnerMuttiah Muralitharanhas been rated as the greatesttest matchbowlerever byWisden Cricketers' Almanack,[390]and four Sri Lankan cricketers ranked 2nd (Sangakkara), 4th (Jayasuriya), 5th (Jayawardene) and 11th (Dilshan) highest ODI run scorers of all time, which is the second best by a team. As of June 2022, Muttiah Muralitharan has the highest aggregate wickets in Test Cricket with a record 800 wickets, a feat he achieved in a Test Match against India in July 2010 that Sri Lanka had won by 10 Wickets.[391][392]Sri Lanka has won theAsia Cupin 1986,[393]1997,[394]2004,[395]2008,[396]2014.[397]and 2022.[398]Sri Lanka once held the highest team score in all three formats of cricket.[399]The country co-hosted the Cricket World Cup in1996and2011and hosted the2012 ICC World Twenty20.
Sri Lankans have won two medals atOlympic Games:one silver, byDuncan Whiteat the1948 London Olympicsfor men's400 metres hurdles;[400]and one silver bySusanthika Jayasingheat the2000 Sydney Olympicsfor women's200 metres.[401]In 1973,Muhammad Lafirwon theWorld Billiards Championship,the highest feat by a Sri Lankan in aCue sport.[402]Sri Lanka has also won the Carrom World Championship titles twice in 2012,2016[403]and 2018, the men's team becoming champions and the women's team winning second place. TheSri Lankan National Badminton Championshipswas annually held between 1953 and 2011.
Sri Lanka national football teamalso won the prestigious1995 South Asian Gold Cup.[404][405][406][407][408]
See also
Notes
- ^UK:/sriˈlæŋkə,ʃriː-/,US:/-ˈlɑːŋkə/;Sinhala:ශ්රී ලංකා,romanized:Śrī Laṅkā(IPA:[ʃriːlaŋkaː]);Tamil:இலங்கை,romanized:Ilaṅkai(IPA:[ilaŋɡaj])
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Notes
Sources and further reading
- Codrington, H.W. (1926).A Short History of Ceylon.London: Macmillan & Co.ISBN978-0-8369-5596-5.OCLC2154168.
- Buswell, R.E.; Lopez, D.S. (2013).The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism.Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0-691-15786-3.Retrieved29 May2021.
- Ganguly, Sumit. "Ending the Sri Lankan civil war."Dædalus147.1 (2018): 78–89.online
- Nubin, Walter (2002).Sri Lanka: Current issues and historical background.Nova Publishers.ISBN978-1-59033-573-4.
- Peebles, Patrick.The History of Sri Lanka(Greenwood, 2005).
- Paw, Maung."Theri Sanghamitta and the Bodhi Tree"(PDF).usamyanmar.net.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 24 July 2011.Retrieved15 September2011.
- De Silva, K. M. (1981).A history of Sri Lanka.University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-04320-6.
External links
Definitionsfrom Wiktionary
Mediafrom Commons
Newsfrom Wikinews
Quotationsfrom Wikiquote
Textsfrom Wikisource
Textbooksfrom Wikibooks
Resourcesfrom Wikiversity
Travel informationfrom Wikivoyage
Datafrom Wikidata
Government
- Official Sri Lankan Government Web Portal,a gateway to government sites.
- Official websiteof theParliament of Sri Lanka.
- Official Government News Portal
- Official websiteArchived25 July 2011 at theWayback Machineof thePresident of Sri Lanka.
- Official websiteof thePrime Minister of Sri Lanka/Prime Minister's Office.
- Official websiteof the Office of theCabinet of Ministers of Sri Lanka.
- Official websiteof theSupreme Court of Sri Lanka.
Overviews and data
- Sri Lanka.The World Factbook.Central Intelligence Agency.
- Official siteof the Department of Census and Statistics.
- Annual Report 2010from the Ministry of Finance and Planning.
- Sri LankafromUCB Libraries GovPubs.
- Sri LankaatCurlie
- Sri Lanka profilefrom theBBC News.
- Sri Lankain theEncyclopædia Britannica.
- Introducing Sri LankaOverview of the country fromLonely Planet.
- Key Development Forecasts for Sri LankafromInternational Futures.
History
- Mahavamsaan ancient Sri Lankan chronicle written in the 6th century.
- Sketches of the Natural History of Ceylonby SirJames Emerson Tennent,1861.
Maps
Wikimedia Atlas of Sri Lanka
Geographic data related toSri LankaatOpenStreetMap- Sri Lanka MapinGoogle Maps.
- Old maps of Sri Lanka,Eran Laor Cartographic Collection,The National Library of Israel
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