Israel
State of Israel | |
|---|---|
| Anthem:הַתִּקְוָה(Hatīkvāh;"The Hope" ) | |
  Israel within internationally recognized borders shown in dark green;Israeli-occupied territoriesshown in light green | |
| Capital and largest city | Jerusalem (limited recognition)[fn 1][fn 2] 31°47′N35°13′E/ 31.783°N 35.217°E |
| Official language | Hebrew[8] |
| Recognized language | Arabic[fn 3] |
| Ethnic groups (2023)[12] | |
| Religion (2016)[13] | |
| Demonym(s) | Israeli |
| Government | Unitary parliamentary republic |
| Isaac Herzog | |
| Benjamin Netanyahu | |
| Amir Ohana | |
| Uzi Vogelman(acting) | |
| Legislature | Knesset |
| Establishment | |
| 14 May 1948 | |
| 11 May 1949 | |
| 1958–2018 | |
| Area | |
• Total | 22,072 or 20,770[14][15]km2(8,522 or 8,019 sq mi)[a](149th) |
• Water (%) | 2.71[16] |
| Population | |
• 2024 estimate | 9,900,000[17](93rd) |
• 2008 census | 7,412,200[18][fn 4] |
• Density | 450/km2(1,165.5/sq mi) (29th) |
| GDP(PPP) | 2024 estimate |
• Total |  $552.151 billion[19](47th) |
• Per capita | $55,533[19](29th) |
| GDP(nominal) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $530.664 billion[19](29th) |
• Per capita | $53,372[19](18th) |
| Gini(2018) | 34.8[fn 4][20] medium |
| HDI(2022) | 0.915[21] very high(25th) |
| Currency | New shekel(₪) (ILS) |
| Time zone | UTC+2:00(IST) |
• Summer (DST) | UTC+3:00(IDT) |
| Date format | |
| Driving side | right |
| Calling code | +972 |
| ISO 3166 code | IL |
| Internet TLD | .il |
| |
Israel,[a]officially theState of Israel,[b]is a country in theSouthern Levant,West Asia.It isborderedbyLebanonandSyriato the north, theWest BankandJordanto the east,Egypt,theGaza Stripand theRed Seato the south, and theMediterranean Seato the west.[22]Tel Avivis the country'sfinancial,economic,andtechnologicalcenter. Israel's governmental seat is in itsproclaimed capitalofJerusalem,though recognition of Israeli sovereignty overEast Jerusalemislimited internationally.[c][24]
Israel is located in a region known historically asCanaan,Palestine,and theHoly Land.In antiquity, it was home to Canaanitecity-states,then thekingdoms of Israel and Judah,and is referred to as theLand of IsraelinJewish tradition.Situated at acontinental crossroad,the region was then ruled byvarious empires.[25]AmidEuropean antisemitism,the late 19th century saw the rise ofZionism,which sought aJewish homeland.British occupationled to the establishment ofMandatory Palestinein 1920.Jewish immigration,combined withBritish colonial policy,led tointercommunal conflictbetweenJewsandArabs.[26][27]The 1947UN Partition Plantriggeredcivil warbetween them.
The State of Israeldeclared its establishmenton 14 May 1948. The next day, armies of neighboring Arab states invaded, starting theFirst Arab–Israeli War.A majority of Palestinians were expelled or fleddue tovarious causes.[28][29][30]Over the following decades, Israel received an influx of immigration fromJews who emigrated, fled, or were expelled from the Muslim world.[31][32]The1949 Armistice Agreementsestablished Israel's borders over most of the former Mandate territory.[33][34][35]The 1967Six-Day Warsaw Israel occupy theWest Bank,Gaza Strip, EgyptianSinai Peninsulaand SyrianGolan Heights.Israel has established and continues to expandsettlementsacross theoccupied territories,which is deemed illegalunder international law,and has annexedEast Jerusalemand theGolan Heights,which is largely unrecognized internationally. Since the 1973Yom Kippur War,Israel has signed peace treatieswith Egypt,returning the Sinai Peninsula, andJordan,and into the 2020s hasnormalized relations with several Arab countries.However,efforts to resolvetheIsraeli–Palestinian conflicthave not succeeded. Israel has been internationally criticised in its occupation of the Palestinian territories, and been accused of committingwar crimesand crimes against humanity against the Palestinians by human rights organizations and UN officials.
The country has aparliamentary systemelected byproportional representation.Theprime ministeris head ofgovernment,and elected by theKnesset,aunicameral legislature.[36]Israel has one of the biggesteconomies in the Middle East,[37]and is one of the richest countries in the Middle East and Asia,[38][39][40]It has been anOECDmember since 2010.[41]It has one of the highest standards of living in the Middle East and Asia and ranks as one of the most advanced countries.[42][43][44]
Etymology
Under theBritish Mandate(1920–1948), the whole region was known asPalestine.[45]Uponestablishmentin 1948, the country formally adopted the nameState of Israel(Hebrew:מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל,[mediˈnatjisʁaˈʔel];Arabic:دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل,Dawlat Isrāʼīl,[dawlatʔisraːˈʔiːl]) after otherproposed namesincludingLand of Israel(Eretz Israel),Ever(from ancestorEber),Zion,andJudea,were considered but rejected.[46]The nameIsraelwas suggested byBen-Gurionand passed by a vote of 6–3.[47]In the early weeks after establishment, the government chose the termIsraelito denote a citizen of the Israeli state.[48]
The namesLand of IsraelandChildren of Israelhave historically been used to refer to the biblicalKingdom of Israeland theentire Jewish peoplerespectively.[49]ThenameIsrael(Hebrew:Yīsrāʾēl;SeptuagintGreek:Ἰσραήλ,Israēl,"El (God)persists/rules ", though afterHosea 12:4often interpreted as "struggle with God" ) refers to the patriarchJacobwho, according to theHebrew Bible,was given the name after he successfully wrestled with the angel of the Lord.[50]The earliest known archaeological artefact to mention the wordIsraelas a collective is theMerneptah Steleofancient Egypt(dated to the late 13th century BCE).[51]
History
Prehistory
Early hominin presencein theLevant,where Israel is located, dates back at least 1.5 million years based on theUbeidiya prehistoric site.[52]TheSkhul and Qafzeh hominins,dating back 120,000 years, are some of the earliest traces ofanatomically modern humansoutside of Africa.[53]TheNatufian cultureemerged by the 10th millennium BCE,[54]followed by theGhassulianculture by around 4,500 BCE.[55]
Bronze and Iron Ages
Early references to "Canaanites" and "Canaan" appear in Near Eastern and Egyptian texts (c.2000 BCE); these populations were structured as politically independentcity-states.[56][57]During theLate Bronze Age(1550–1200 BCE), large parts of Canaan formedvassal statesof theNew Kingdom of Egypt.[58]As a result of theLate Bronze Age collapse,Canaan fell into chaos, and Egyptian control over the region collapsed.[59][60]
A people named Israel appear for the first time in theMerneptah Stele,anancient Egyptianinscription which dates to about 1200 BCE.[61][62][fn 5][64]Ancestors of theIsraelitesare thought to have includedancient Semitic-speaking peoplesnative to this area.[65]: 78–79 Modern archaeological accounts suggest that the Israelites and their culture branched out of the Canaanite peoples[66]through the development of a distinctmonolatristic—and latermonotheistic—religion centered onYahweh.[67][68]They spoke an archaic form ofHebrew,known asBiblical Hebrew.[69]Around the same time, thePhilistinessettled on the southerncoastal plain.[70][71]
Modernarchaeologyhas largely discardedthe historicityof the narrative in theTorahand instead views the narrative as the Israelites'national myth.[72]However, some elements of these traditions do appear to have historical roots.[73][74][75]There is debate about the earliest existence of theKingdoms of Israel and Judahand their extent and power. While it is unclear if there was ever aUnited Kingdom of Israel,[76][77]historians and archaeologists agree that the northernKingdom of Israelexisted byca.900 BCE[78]: 169–195 [79]and theKingdom of Judahbyca.850 BCE.[80][81]The Kingdom of Israel was the more prosperous of the two and soon developed into a regional power, with a capital atSamaria;[82][83][84]during theOmride dynasty,it controlledSamaria,Galilee,the upperJordan Valley,theSharonand large parts of theTransjordan.[85]
The Kingdom of Israel was conquered around 720 BCE by theNeo-Assyrian Empire.[86]The Kingdom of Judah, with its capital inJerusalem,later became aclient stateof first the Neo-Assyrian Empire and then theNeo-Babylonian Empire.It is estimated thatthe region's populationwas around 400,000 in theIron Age II.[87]In 587/6 BCE, following arevolt in Judah,KingNebuchadnezzar IIbesieged and destroyed Jerusalemand Solomon's Temple,[88][89]dissolved the kingdom andexiled much of the Judean elite to Babylon.[90]Aftercapturing Babylonin 539 BCE,Cyrus the Great,founder of theAchaemenid Empire,issued aproclamationallowing the exiled Judean population to return to Judah.[91][92]
Classical antiquity
The construction of theSecond Templewas completedc. 520 BCE.[91]The Achaemenids ruled the region as the province ofYehud Medinata.[93]In 332 BCE,Alexander the GreatofMacedonconquered the region as part of hiscampaign against the Achaemenid Empire.After his death, the area was controlled by thePtolemaicandSeleucidempires as a part ofCoele-Syria.Over the ensuing centuries, theHellenizationof the region led to cultural tensions that came to a head during the reign ofAntiochus IV,giving rise to theMaccabean Revoltof 167 BCE. The civil unrest weakened Seleucid rule and in the late 2nd century the semi-autonomousHasmonean Kingdom of Judeaarose, eventually attaining full independence and expanding into neighboring regions.[94][95][96]
TheRoman Republicinvaded the region in 63 BCE, firsttaking control of Syria,and then intervening in theHasmonean Civil War.Thestrugglebetween pro-Roman and pro-Parthianfactions in Judea led to the installation ofHerod the Greatas adynastic vassalofRome.In 6 CE, the area was annexed as theRoman province of Judaea;tensions with Roman rule led to a series ofJewish–Roman wars,resulting in widespread destruction. TheFirst Jewish–Roman War(66–73 CE) resulted in thedestruction of Jerusalem and the Second Templeand a sizable portion of the population being killed or displaced.[97]
A second uprising known as theBar Kokhba revolt(132–136 CE) initially allowed the Jews to form an independent state, but the Romans brutally crushed the rebellion, devastating and depopulating Judea's countryside.[97][98][99][100][101]Jerusalem was rebuilt as aRoman colony(Aelia Capitolina), and the province of Judea was renamedSyria Palaestina.[102][103]Jews were expelled from the districts surrounding Jerusalem.[104][100]Nevertheless, there was a continuous small Jewish presence andGalileebecame its religious center.[105][106]
Late antiquity and the medieval period
With the transition toByzantine ruleunderEmperor Constantine,Early Christianitydisplaced the more tolerantRoman Paganism.[108][109]A series of laws were passed that discriminated against Jews and Judaism, and Jews were persecuted by both the church and the authorities.[109]Many Jews had emigrated to flourishingDiasporacommunities,[110]while locally there was both Christian immigration and local conversion. By the middle of the 5th century, there was a Christian majority.[111][112]Towards the end of the 5th century,Samaritan revoltserupted, continuing until the late 6th century and resulting in a large decrease in the Samaritan population.[113]After theSasanian conquest of Jerusalemand the short-livedJewish revolt against Heracliusin 614 CE, the Byzantine Empirereconsolidated control of the areain 628.[114]
In 634–641 CE, theRashidun Caliphateconquered the Levant.[110][115][116]Over the next six centuries, control of the region transferred between theUmayyad,Abbasid,Fatimidcaliphates,and subsequently theSeljuksandAyyubiddynasties.[117]The population drastically decreased during the following several centuries, dropping from an estimated 1 million during Roman and Byzantine periods to about 300,000 by the early Ottoman period, and there was a steady process ofArabizationandIslamization.[116][115][118][87][25]The end of the 11th century brought theCrusades,papally-sanctioned incursions of Christiancrusadersintent on wrestingJerusalemand theHoly Landfrom Muslim control and establishingCrusader States.[119]The Ayyubids pushed back the crusaders before Muslim rule was fully restored by theMamluk sultans of Egyptin 1291.[120]
Modern period and the emergence of Zionism
In 1516, theOttoman Empireconquered the region and ruled it as part ofOttoman Syria.[121]Two violent incidents took place against Jews, the1517 Safed attacksand the1517 Hebron attacks,after the Turkish Ottomans ousted theMamluksduring theOttoman–Mamluk War.[122][123]Under the Ottoman Empire, the Levant was fairly cosmopolitan, with religious freedoms forChristians, Muslims, and Jews.In 1561 theOttoman sultaninvitedSephardi Jewsescaping theSpanish Inquisitionto settle in and rebuild the city ofTiberias.[124][125]
Under the Ottoman Empire'smillet system,Christians and Jews were considereddhimmi(meaning "protected" ) underOttoman lawin exchange for loyalty to the state and payment of thejizyatax.[126][127]Non-Muslim Ottoman subjects faced geographic and lifestyle restrictions, though these were not always enforced.[128][129][130]The millet system organized non-Muslims into autonomous communities on the basis of religion.[131]
Since the existence of theJewish diaspora,many Jews have aspired toreturnto "Zion".[132]The Jewish population of Palestine from the Ottoman rule to the beginning of the Zionist movement, known as theOld Yishuv,comprised a minority and fluctuated in size. During the 16th century, Jewish communities struck roots in theFour Holy Cities—Jerusalem,Tiberias,Hebron,andSafed—and in 1697, Rabbi Yehuda Hachasid led a group of 1,500 Jews to Jerusalem.[133]A 1660Druze revoltagainst the Ottomans destroyedSafedandTiberias.[121]In the second half of the 18th century, Eastern European Jews who wereopponentsofHasidism,known as thePerushim,settled in Palestine.[134][135]
In the late 18th century, local ArabSheikhZahir al-Umarcreated a de facto independent Emirate in the Galilee. Ottoman attempts to subdue the Sheikh failed. After Zahir's death the Ottomans regained control of the area. In 1799, governorJazzar Pasharepelled anassault on AcrebyNapoleon's troops, prompting the French to abandon the Syrian campaign.[136]In 1834, arevolt by Palestinian Arab peasantsagainst Egyptian conscription and taxation policies underMuhammad Aliwas suppressed; Muhammad Ali's army retreated and Ottoman rule was restored with British support in 1840.[137]TheTanzimatreforms were implemented across the Ottoman Empire.
The first wave of modern Jewish migration toOttoman-ruled Palestine,known as theFirst Aliyah,began in 1881, as Jews fledpogromsin Eastern Europe.[138]The 1882May Lawsincreased economic discrimination against Jews, and restricted where they could live.[139][140]In response, politicalZionismtook form, a movement that sought to establish aJewish statein the Land of Israel, thus offering a solution to theJewish questionof the European states.[141]
TheSecond Aliyah(1904–1914) began after theKishinev pogrom;some 40,000 Jews settled in Palestine, although nearly half left eventually. Both the first and second waves of migrants were mainlyOrthodox Jews.[142]The Second Aliyah includedZionist socialistgroups who established thekibbutzmovement based on the idea of establishing a separate Jewish economy based exclusively on Jewish labor.[143][144]Those of the Second Aliyah who became leaders of theYishuvin the coming decades believed that the Jewish settler economy should not depend on Arab labor. This would be a dominant source of antagonism with the Arab population, with the new Yishuv's nationalist ideology overpowering its socialist one.[145]Though the immigrants of the Second Aliyah largely sought to create communal Jewish agricultural settlements,Tel Avivwas established as the first planned Jewish town in 1909. Jewish armed militias emerged during this period, the first beingBar-Giorain 1907. Two years later, the largerHashomerorganization was founded as its replacement.
British Mandate for Palestine
Chaim Weizmann'sefforts to garner British support for the Zionist movement eventually secured theBalfour Declaration(1917),[146]stating Britain's support for the creation of a Jewish "national home"in Palestine.[147][148]Weizmann's interpretation of the declaration was that negotiations on the future of the country were to happen directly between Britain and the Jews, excluding Arabs. The years that followed would seeJewish-Arab relationsin Palestine deteriorate dramatically.[149]
In 1918, theJewish Legion,primarily Zionist volunteers, assisted in the Britishconquest of Palestine.[150]In 1920, the territory was divided between Britain and France under themandate system,and the British-administered area (including modern Israel) was namedMandatory Palestine.[120][151][152]Arab opposition to British rule and Jewish immigration led to the1920 Palestine riotsand the formation of a Jewish militia known as theHaganahas an outgrowth of Hashomer, from which theIrgunandLehiparamilitaries later split.[153]In 1922, theLeague of Nationsgranted Britain theMandate for Palestineunder terms which included the Balfour Declaration with its promise to the Jews, and with similar provisions regarding the Arab Palestinians.[154]Thepopulation of the areawas predominantly Arab and Muslim, with Jews accounting for about 11%,[155]and Arab Christians about 9.5% of the population.[156]
TheThird(1919–1923) andFourth Aliyahs(1924–1929) brought an additional 100,000 Jews to Palestine. Therise of Nazismand the increasing persecution of Jews in 1930s Europe led to theFifth Aliyah,with an influx of a quarter of a million Jews. This was a major cause of theArab revolt of 1936–39,which was suppressed by British security forces and Zionist militias. Several hundred British security personnel and Jews were killed. 5,032 Arabs were killed, 14,760 were wounded, and 12,622 were detained.[157][158][159]An estimated ten percent of the adult malePalestinian Arabpopulation was killed, wounded, imprisoned or exiled.[160]
The British introduced restrictions on Jewish immigration to Palestine with theWhite Paper of 1939.With countries around the world turning awayJewish refugeesfleeingthe Holocaust,a clandestine movement known asAliyah Betwas organized to bring Jews to Palestine. By the end ofWorld War II,31% of the total population of Palestine was Jewish.[161]The UK found itself facing a Jewishinsurgencyover immigration restrictions and continued conflict with the Arab community over limit levels. The Haganah joined Irgun and Lehi in an armed struggle against British rule.[162]The Haganah attempted to bring tens of thousands of Jewish refugees andHolocaust survivorsto Palestine by ship in a programme calledAliyah Bet.Most of the ships were intercepted by theRoyal Navyand the refugees placed in detention camps inAtlitandCyprus.[163][164]
On 22 July 1946, Irgunbombedthe British administrative headquarters for Palestine, killing 91.[165][166][167][168][169][170]The attack was a response toOperation Agatha(a series of raids, including one on theJewish Agency,by the British) and was the deadliest directed at the British during the Mandate era.[169][170]The Jewish insurgency continued throughout 1946 and 1947 despite concerted efforts by the British military andPalestine Police Forceto suppress it. British efforts to mediate a negotiated solution with Jewish and Arab representatives also failed as the Jews were unwilling to accept any solution that did not involve a Jewish state and suggested a partition of Palestine into Jewish and Arab states, while the Arabs were adamant that a Jewish state in any part of Palestine was unacceptable and that the only solution was a unified Palestine under Arab rule. In February 1947, the British referred the Palestine issue to the newly formedUnited Nations.On 15 May 1947, theUN General Assemblyresolved that aSpecial Committeebe created "to prepare... a report on the question of Palestine".[171]The Report of the Committee[172]proposed a planto replace the British Mandate with "an independent Arab State, an independent Jewish State, and the City of Jerusalem [...] the last to be under an International Trusteeship System".[173]Meanwhile, the Jewish insurgency continued and peaked in July 1947, with a series of widespread guerrilla raids culminating inthe Sergeants affair,in which the Irgun took two British sergeants hostage as attempted leverage against the planned execution of three Irgun operatives. After the executions were carried out, the Irgun killed the two British soldiers, hanged their bodies from trees, and left a booby trap at the scene which injured a British soldier. The incident caused widespread outrage in the UK.[174]In September 1947, the British cabinet decided to evacuate Palestine as the Mandate was no longer tenable.[175]
On 29 November 1947, the General Assembly adoptedResolution 181 (II).[176]The plan attached to the resolution was essentially that proposed in the report of 3 September. TheJewish Agency,the recognized representative of the Jewish community, accepted the plan, which assigned 55–56% of Mandatory Palestine to the Jews. At the time, the Jews were about a third of the population and owned around 6–7% of the land. Arabs constituted the majority and owned about 20% of the land, with the remainder held by the Mandate authorities or foreign landowners.[177][178][179][180][181][182][183]TheArab LeagueandArab Higher Committeeof Palestine rejected it,[184]and indicated that they would reject any other plan of partition.[185][186]On 1 December 1947, the Arab Higher Committee proclaimed a three-day strike, andriots broke out in Jerusalem.[187]The situation spiraled into acivil war.Colonial SecretaryArthur Creech Jonesannounced that the British Mandate would end on 15 May 1948, at which point the British would evacuate. As Arab militias and gangs attacked Jewish areas, they were faced mainly by theHaganah,as well as the smaller Irgun and Lehi. In April 1948, the Haganah moved onto the offensive.[188][189]During this period 250,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled, due tonumerous factors.[190]
State of Israel
Establishment and early years
On 14 May 1948, the day before the expiration of the British Mandate,David Ben-Gurion,the head of the Jewish Agency,declared"the establishment of a Jewish state inEretz-Israel".[191]The only reference in the text of the Declaration to the borders of the new state is the use of the termEretz-Israel( "Land of Israel").[citation needed]The following day, the armies of four Arab countries—Egypt,Syria,TransjordanandIraq—entered what had been Mandatory Palestine, launching the1948 Arab–Israeli War;[192][193][194]contingents fromYemen,Morocco,Saudi ArabiaandSudanjoined the war.[195][196]The apparent purpose of the invasion was to prevent the establishment of the Jewish state; some Arab leaders talked about "driving the Jews into the sea".[182][197][198]The Arab league stated the invasion was to restore order and prevent further bloodshed.[199]
After a year of fighting, aceasefire was declaredand temporary borders, known as theGreen Line,were established.[200]Jordanannexedwhat became known as theWest Bank,includingEast Jerusalem,and EgyptoccupiedtheGaza Strip.Over 700,000 Palestinians wereexpelled by or fledbyZionist militiasand theIsraeli military—what would become known in Arabic as theNakba('catastrophe').[201]The events also led to the destruction of most of Palestine's predominantly Arab population's society,culture,identity,political rights, andnational aspirations.Some 156,000 remained and becameArab citizens of Israel.[202]
Israelwas admittedas a member of the UN on 11 May 1949.[203]In the early years of the state, theLabor Zionistmovement led by Prime MinisterDavid Ben-GuriondominatedIsraeli politics.[204][205]Immigration to Israel during the late 1940s and early 1950s was aided by the Israeli Immigration Department and the non-government sponsoredMossad LeAliyah Bet(lit."Institute forImmigration B").[206]The latter engaged in clandestine operations in countries, particularly in the Middle East and Eastern Europe, where the lives of Jews were believed to be in danger and exit was difficult. Mossad LeAliyah Bet was disbanded in 1953.[207]The immigration was in accordance with theOne Million Plan.Some immigrants held Zionist beliefs or came for the promise of a better life, while others moved to escape persecution or were expelled.[208][209]
Aninflux of Holocaust survivorsandJews from Arab and Muslim countriesto Israel during the first three years increased the number of Jews from 700,000 to 1,400,000. By 1958, the population had risen to two million.[210]Between 1948 and 1970, approximately 1,150,000 Jewish refugees relocated to Israel.[211]Some new immigrants arrived as refugees and were housed in temporary camps known asma'abarot;by 1952, over 200,000 people were living in these tent cities.[212]Jews of European backgroundwere often treated more favorably than Jews fromMiddle EasternandNorth Africancountries—housing units reserved for the latter were often re-designated for the former, so Jews newly arrived from Arab lands generally ended up staying longer in transit camps.[213][214]During this period, food, clothes and furniture were rationed in what became known as theausterity period.The need to solve the crisis led Ben-Gurion to sign areparations agreement with West Germanythat triggered mass protests by Jews angered at the idea that Israel could accept monetary compensation for the Holocaust.[215]
Arab–Israeli conflict
During the 1950s, Israel was frequentlyattackedbyPalestinian fedayeen,nearly always against civilians,[216]mainly from the Egyptian-occupied Gaza Strip,[217]leading to several Israelireprisal operations.In 1956, the UK and France aimed at regaining control of theSuez Canal,which Egypt had nationalized. The continued blockade of the Suez Canal andStraits of Tiranto Israeli shipping, together with increasing Fedayeen attacks against Israel's southern population and recent Arab threatening statements, prompted Israel to attack Egypt.[218][219][220]Israel joineda secret alliancewith the UK and France and overran theSinai Peninsulain theSuez Crisis,but was pressured to withdraw by the UN in return for guarantees of Israeli shipping rights.[221][222][223]The war resulted in significant reduction of Israeli border infiltration.[224]
In the early 1960s, Israel captured Nazi war criminalAdolf Eichmannin Argentina and brought him to Israel fortrial.[225]Eichmann remains the only person executed in Israel by conviction in anIsraeli civilian court.[226]In 1963 Israel was engaged in a diplomatic standoff with the United States due to the Israelinuclear programme.[227][228]
Since 1964, Arab countries, concerned over Israeli plans to divert waters of theJordan Riverinto thecoastal plain,[229]had been trying to divert the headwaters to deprive Israel of water resources, provokingtensionsbetween Israel on the one hand, and Syria and Lebanon on the other.Arab nationalistsled by Egyptian PresidentGamal Abdel Nasserrefused to recognize Israel and called for its destruction.[230][231][232]By 1966, Israeli-Arab relations had deteriorated to the point of battles taking place between Israeli and Arab forces.[233]
In May 1967, Egypt massed its army near the border with Israel, expelledUN peacekeepers,stationed in the Sinai Peninsula since 1957, and blocked Israel's access to the Red Sea.[234][235][236]Other Arab states mobilized their forces.[237]Israel reiterated that these actions were acasus belliand launched apre-emptive strikeagainst Egypt in June. Jordan, Syria and Iraq attacked Israel. In theSix-Day War,Israel captured and occupied the West Bank from Jordan, the Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, and theGolan Heightsfrom Syria.[238]Jerusalem's boundaries were enlarged, incorporatingEast Jerusalem.The 1949Green Linebecame the administrative boundary between Israel and theoccupied territories.[239]
Following the 1967 war and the "Three Nos"resolution of the Arab League, Israel faced attacks from the Egyptians in the Sinai Peninsula during the 1967–1970War of Attrition,and from Palestinian groups targeting Israelis in the occupied territories, globally, and in Israel. Most important among the Palestinian and Arab groups was thePalestinian Liberation Organization(PLO), established in 1964, which initially committed itself to "armed struggle as the only way to liberate the homeland".[240]In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Palestinian groups launchedattacks[241][242]against Israeli and Jewish targets around the world,[243]includinga massacre of Israeli athletesat the1972 Summer Olympicsin Munich. The Israeli government responded with anassassination campaignagainst the organizers of the massacre, abombingand araid on the PLO headquarters in Lebanon.
On 6 October 1973, the Egyptian and Syrian armies launcheda surprise attackagainst Israeli forces in the Sinai Peninsula and Golan Heights, opening theYom Kippur War.The war ended on 25 October with Israel repelling Egyptian and Syrian forces but suffering great losses.[244]Aninternal inquiryexoneratedthe governmentof responsibility for failures before and during the war, but public anger forced Prime MinisterGolda Meirto resign.[245][better source needed]In July 1976, an airliner was hijacked in flight from Israel to France by Palestinian guerrillas; Israeli commandosrescued102 out of 106 Israeli hostages.
Peace process
The1977 Knesset electionsmarked a major turning point in Israeli political history asMenachem Begin'sLikudparty took control from theLabor Party.[246]Later that year, Egyptian PresidentAnwar El Sadatmade a trip to Israel and spoke before theKnessetin what was the first recognition of Israel by an Arab head of state.[247]Sadat and Begin signed theCamp David Accords(1978) and theEgypt–Israel peace treaty(1979).[248]In return, Israel withdrew from the Sinai Peninsula and agreed to enter negotiations over autonomy for Palestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.[248]
On 11 March 1978, a PLO guerilla raid from Lebanon led to theCoastal Road massacre.Israel responded by launching aninvasion of southern Lebanonto destroy PLO bases. Most PLO fighters withdrew, but Israel was able to secure southern Lebanon until aUN forceand the Lebanese army could take over. The PLO soon resumed itsinsurgencyagainst Israel, and Israel carried out numerous retaliatory attacks.
Meanwhile, Begin's government provided incentives for Israelis tosettlein theoccupied West Bank,increasing friction with the Palestinians there.[249]TheJerusalem Law(1980) was believed by some to reaffirm Israel's 1967 annexation of Jerusalem by government decree, andreignited international controversyover thestatus of the city.No Israeli legislation has defined the territory of Israel and no act specifically included East Jerusalem therein.[250]In 1981 Israeleffectively annexedtheGolan Heights.[251]The international community largely rejected these moves, with the UN Security Council declaring both the Jerusalem Law and the Golan Heights Law null and void.[252][253]Several waves ofEthiopian Jewsimmigratedto Israel since the 1980s, while between 1990 and 1994,immigration from the post-Soviet statesincreased Israel's population by twelve percent.[254]
On 7 June 1981, during theIran–Iraq War,the Israeli air forcedestroyedIraq's solenuclear reactor,then under construction, in order to impede the Iraqi nuclear weapons program.[255]Following a series of PLO attacks in 1982, IsraelinvadedLebanon to destroy the PLO bases.[256]In the first six days, the Israelis destroyed the military forces of the PLO in Lebanon and decisively defeated the Syrians. An Israeli government inquiry (theKahan Commission) held Begin and several Israeli generals indirectly responsible for theSabra and Shatila massacreand heldDefense ministerAriel Sharonas bearing "personal responsibility".[257]Sharon was forced to resign.[258]In 1985, Israel responded to a Palestinianterrorist attackinCyprusbybombingthe PLO headquarters in Tunisia. Israel withdrew from most of Lebanon in 1986, but maintained aborderland buffer zonein southern Lebanon until 2000, from where Israeli forcesengaged in conflictwithHezbollah.TheFirst Intifada,a Palestinian uprising against Israeli rule,[259]broke out in 1987, with waves of uncoordinated demonstrations and violence in the occupied West Bank and Gaza. Over the following six years, the Intifada became more organized and included economic and cultural measures aimed at disrupting the Israeli occupation. Over a thousand people were killed.[260]During the 1991Gulf War,the PLO supportedSaddam Husseinand Iraqi missileattacks against Israel.Despite public outrage, Israel heeded American calls to refrain from hitting back.[261][262]
In 1992,Yitzhak Rabinbecame prime minister followingan electionin which his party called for compromise with Israel's neighbours.[263][264]The following year,Shimon Pereson behalf of Israel, andMahmoud Abbasfor the PLO, signed theOslo Accords,which gave thePalestinian National Authority(PNA) the right to governparts of the West Bankand the Gaza Strip.[265]The PLO alsorecognizedIsrael's right to exist and pledged an end to terrorism.[266][better source needed]In 1994, theIsrael–Jordan peace treatywas signed, making Jordan the second Arab country to normalize relations with Israel.[267]Arab public support for the Accords was damaged by the continuation of Israeli settlements[268]andcheckpoints,and the deterioration of economic conditions.[269]Israeli public support for the Accords waned afterPalestinian suicide attacks.[270]In November 1995, Yitzhak Rabinwas assassinatedbyYigal Amir,a far-right Jew who opposed the Accords.[271]
DuringBenjamin Netanyahu'spremiership at the end of the 1990s, Israel agreed towithdrawfromHebron,[272]though this was never ratified or implemented,[273]and signed theWye River Memorandum,giving greater control to the PNA.[274]Ehud Barak,electedPrime Minister in 1999, withdrew forces from Southern Lebanon and conducted negotiations with PNA ChairmanYasser Arafatand U.S. PresidentBill Clintonat the2000 Camp David Summit.Barak offered a plan for the establishment of aPalestinian state,including the entirety of the Gaza Strip and over 90% of the West Bank with Jerusalem as a shared capital.[275]Each side blamed the other for the failure of the talks.
21st century
 | This section needs to beupdated.The reason given is: the events of the last two decades outside of conflict is barely covered.(March 2023) |
In late 2000, after a controversial visit by Likud leaderAriel Sharonto theTemple Mount,the 4.5-yearSecond Intifadabegan.Suicide bombingswere a recurrent feature.[277]Some commentators contend that the Intifada was pre-planned by Arafat due to the collapse of peace talks.[278][279][280][281]Sharon became prime minister in a2001 election;he carried out his plan tounilaterally withdrawfrom the Gaza Strip and spearheaded the construction of theIsraeli West Bank barrier,[282]ending the Intifada.[283]Between 2000 and 2008, 1,063 Israelis, 5,517 Palestinians and 64 foreign citizens were killed.[284]
In 2006, a Hezbollah artillery assault on Israel's northern border communities and across-border abductionof two Israeli soldiers precipitated the month-longSecond Lebanon War.[285][286]In 2007, the Israeli Air Forcedestroyeda nuclear reactor in Syria. In 2008,a ceasefirebetweenHamasand Israel collapsed, resulting in the three-weekGaza War.[287][288]In what Israel described as a response toover a hundred Palestinian rocket attackson southern Israeli cities,[289]Israel beganan operation in the Gaza Stripin 2012, lasting eight days.[290]Israel started anotheroperationin Gaza following anescalation of rocket attacksby Hamas in July 2014.[291]In May 2021, anotherround of fightingtook place in Gaza and Israel, lasting eleven days.[292]
By the 2010s,increasing regional cooperationbetween Israel andArab Leaguecountries have been established, culminating in the signing of theAbraham Accords.The Israeli security situation shifted from the traditionalArab–Israeli conflicttowards theIran–Israel proxy conflictanddirect confrontation with Iran during the Syrian civil war.On 7 October 2023, Palestinian militant groups from Gaza, led byHamas,launcheda series of coordinated attackson Israel, leading to the start of theIsrael–Hamas war.[293]On that day, approximately 1300 Israelis, predominantly civilians, were killed in communities near the Gaza Strip border andduring a music festival.Over 200 hostageswere kidnapped and taken to the Gaza Strip.[294][295][296]
Geography
Israel is located in theLevantarea of theFertile Crescent.The country is at theeastern endof theMediterranean Sea,bounded by Lebanon to the north, Syria to the northeast, Jordan and the West Bank to the east, and Egypt and the Gaza Strip to the southwest. It lies between latitudes29°and34° N,and longitudes34°and36° E.
The sovereign territory of Israel (according to the demarcation lines of the1949 Armistice Agreementsand excluding all territories captured by Israel during the 1967Six-Day War) is approximately 20,770 square kilometers (8,019 sq mi), of which two percent is water.[297]However Israel is so narrow (100 km at its widest, compared to 400 km from north to south) that theexclusive economic zonein the Mediterranean is double the land area of the country.[298]The total area under Israeli law, includingEast Jerusalemand theGolan Heights,is 22,072 square kilometers (8,522 sq mi),[299]and the total area under Israeli control, including the military-controlled and partiallyPalestinian-governedterritory of theWest Bank,is 27,799 square kilometers (10,733 sq mi).[300]
Despite its small size, Israel is home to a variety of geographic features, from theNegevdesert in the south to the inland fertileJezreel Valley,mountain ranges of theGalilee,Carmeland toward theGolanin the north. TheIsraeli coastal plainon the shores of the Mediterranean is home to most of the nation's population.[301]East of the central highlands lies theJordan Rift Valley,a small part of the 6,500-kilometer (4,039 mi)Great Rift Valley.TheJordan Riverruns along the Jordan Rift Valley, fromMount Hermonthrough theHulah Valleyand theSea of Galileeto theDead Sea,thelowest pointon the surface of the Earth.[302]Further south is theArabah,ending with theGulf of Eilat,part of theRed Sea.Makhtesh,or "erosion cirques" are unique to theNegevand theSinai Peninsula,the largest being theMakhtesh Ramonat 38 km in length.[303]Israel has the largest number of plant species per square meter of the countries in theMediterranean Basin.[304]Israel contains four terrestrial ecoregions:Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests,Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests,Arabian Desert,andMesopotamian shrub desert.[305]
Forests accounted for 8.5% of the country's area in 2016, up from 2% in 1948, as the result of a large-scale forest planting program by theJewish National Fund.[306][307]
Tectonics and seismicity
TheJordan Rift Valleyis the result of tectonic movements within theDead Sea Transform(DSF) fault system. The DSF forms thetransform boundarybetween theAfrican Plateto the west and theArabian Plateto the east. The Golan Heights and all ofJordanare part of the Arabian Plate, while the Galilee, West Bank, Coastal Plain, and Negev along with the Sinai Peninsula are on the African Plate. This tectonic disposition leads to a relatively highseismic activity.The entire Jordan Valley segment is thought to have ruptured repeatedly, for instance during the last two majorearthquakesalong this structure in749and1033.The deficit inslipthat has built up since the 1033 event is sufficient to cause an earthquake of Mw ~7.4.[308]
The most catastrophic known earthquakes occurred in 31 BCE,363,749, and 1033 CE, that is everyca.400 years on average.[309]Destructive earthquakes leading to serious loss of life strike about every 80 years.[310]While stringent construction regulations are in place and recently built structures are earthquake-safe, as of 2007[update]many public buildings as well as 50,000 residential buildings did not meet the new standards and were "expected to collapse" if exposed to a strong earthquake.[310]
Climate
Temperatures in Israel vary widely, especially during the winter. Coastal areas, such as those ofTel AvivandHaifa,have a typicalMediterranean climatewith cool, rainy winters and long, hot summers. The area ofBeershebaand the Northern Negev have asemi-arid climatewith hot summers, cool winters, and fewer rainy days. The Southern Negev and the Arava areas have adesert climatewith very hot, dry summers, and mild winters with few days of rain. The highest temperature in the world outside Africa and North America as of 2021[update],54 °C (129 °F), was recorded in 1942 in theTirat Zvikibbutz in the northern Jordan River valley.[311][312]Mountainous regions can be windy and cold, and areas at elevation of 750 metres (2,460 ft) or more (same elevation as Jerusalem) usually receive at least onesnowfalleach year.[313]From May to September, rain in Israel is rare.[314][315]
There are four differentphytogeographicregions in Israel, due to the country's location between the temperate and tropical zones. For this reason, the flora and fauna are extremely diverse. There are 2,867 knownspecies of plants in Israel.Of these, at least 253 species areintroducedand non-native.[316]There are 380Israeli nature reserves.[317]
With scarce water resources, Israel has developed various water-saving technologies, includingdrip irrigation.[318][better source needed]The considerable sunlight available forsolar energymakesIsrael the leading nation in solar energyuse per capita—practically every house uses solar panels for water heating.[319]The IsraeliMinistry of Environmental Protectionhas reported thatclimate change"will have a decisive impact on all areas of life", particularly for vulnerable populations.[320]
Government and politics
Israel has aparliamentary system,proportional representationanduniversal suffrage.A member of parliament supported by a parliamentary majority becomes theprime minister—usually this is the chair of the largest party. The prime minister is thehead of governmentand ofcabinet.[321][322]Thepresidentishead of state,with limited and largely ceremonial duties.[321]
Israel is governed by a 120-member parliament, known as theKnesset.Membership of the Knesset is based on proportional representation ofpolitical parties,[323][better source needed]with a 3.25% electoral threshold, which in practice has resulted in coalition governments. Residents of Israeli settlements in the West Bank are eligible to vote[324]and after the2015 election,10 of the 120 members of the Knesset (8%) were settlers.[325]Parliamentaryelectionsare scheduled every four years, but unstable coalitions or ano-confidence votecan dissolve a government earlier.[36]The first Arab-led party was established in 1988[326]and as of 2022, Arab-led parties hold about 10% of seats.[327]The Basic Law: The Knesset (1958) and its amendments prevent a party list from running for election to the Knesset if its objectives or actions include the "negation of the existence of the State of Israel as the state of the Jewish people".
TheBasic Laws of Israelfunction as anuncodified constitution.In its Basic Laws, Israel defines itself as aJewish and democratic state,and thenation-state of exclusively the Jewish people.[328]In 2003, the Knesset began to draft an officialconstitutionbased on these laws.[297][329]
Israel has no official religion,[330][331][332]but the definition of the state as "Jewish and democratic" creates a strong connection with Judaism. On 19 July 2018, the Knesset passed a Basic Law that characterizes the State of Israel as principally a "Nation State of the Jewish People",and Hebrew as its official language. The bill ascribes, an undefined," special status "to the Arabic language.[333]The same bill gives Jews a unique right to national self-determination, and views the developing of Jewish settlement in the country as "a national interest", empowering the government to "take steps to encourage, advance and implement this interest".[334]
Administrative divisions
The State of Israel is divided into six main administrativedistricts,known asmehozot(Hebrew:מחוזות;sg.:mahoz)—Center,Haifa,Jerusalem,North,South,andTel Avivdistricts, as well as theJudea and Samaria Areain theWest Bank.All of the Judea and Samaria Area and parts of the Jerusalem and Northern districts are not recognized internationally as part of Israel. Districts are further divided into fifteen sub-districts known asnafot(Hebrew:נפות;sg.:nafa), which are themselves partitioned into fifty natural regions.[335]
| District | Capital | Largest city | Population, 2021[336] | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jews | Arabs | Total | note | |||
| Jerusalem | Jerusalem | 66% | 32% | 1,209,700 | a | |
| North | Nof HaGalil | Nazareth | 42% | 54% | 1,513,600 | |
| Haifa | Haifa | 67% | 25% | 1,092,700 | ||
| Center | Ramla | Rishon LeZion | 87% | 8% | 2,304,300 | |
| Tel Aviv | Tel Aviv | 92% | 2% | 1,481,400 | ||
| South | Beersheba | Ashdod | 71% | 22% | 1,386,000 | |
| Judea and Samaria Area | Ariel | Modi'in Illit | 98% | 0% | 465,400 | b |
- ^aIncluding 361,700 Arabs and 233,900 Jews inEast Jerusalem,as of 2020[update].[337]
- ^bIsraeli citizens only.
Israeli citizenship law
The two primary pieces of legislation relating to Israeli citizenship are the 1950Law of Returnand 1952 Citizenship Law. The law of return grants Jews the unrestrictedright to immigrateto Israel and obtain Israeli citizenship. Individuals born within the country receivebirthright citizenshipif at least one parent is a citizen.[338]
Israeli law defines Jewish nationality as distinct from Israeli nationality, and theSupreme Court of Israelhas ruled that an Israeli nationality does not exist.[339][340]Israeli law defines a Jewish national as any person practicing Judaism and their descendants.[339]Legislation has defined Israel as thenation stateof the Jewish people since 2018.[341]
Israeli-occupied territories
In 1967, as a result of theSix-Day War,Israel captured andoccupiedtheWest Bank,includingEast Jerusalem,theGaza Stripand theGolan Heights.Israel also captured theSinai Peninsula,but returned it to Egypt as part of the 1979Egypt–Israel peace treaty.[248]Between 1982 and 2000, Israel occupiedpart of southern Lebanon,in what was known as theSecurity Belt.Since Israel's capture of these territories,Israeli settlementsand military installations have been built within each of them, except Lebanon.
TheGolan HeightsandEast Jerusalemhave been fully incorporated into Israel under Israeli law, but not under international law. Israel has applied civilian law to both areas and granted their inhabitants permanent residency status and the ability toapply for citizenship.The UN Security Council has declared the annexation of the Golan Heights and East Jerusalem to be "null and void" and continues to view the territories as occupied.[342][343]Thestatusof East Jerusalem in any future peace settlement has at times been a difficult issue innegotiationsbetween Israeli governments and representatives of the Palestinians.
The West Bank excluding East Jerusalem is known in Israeli law as theJudea and Samaria Area.The almost 400,000 Israeli settlers residing in the area are considered part of Israel's population, have Knesset representation, are subject to alarge part of Israel's civil and criminal laws,and their output is considered part of Israel's economy.[344][fn 4]The land itself is not considered part of Israel under Israeli law, as Israel has consciously refrained from anne xing the territory, without ever relinquishing its legal claim to the land or defining a border.[344]Israeli political opposition to annexation is primarily due to the perceived "demographic threat" of incorporating the West Bank's Palestinian population into Israel.[344]Outside of the Israeli settlements, the West Bank remains under direct Israeli military rule, and Palestinians in the area cannot become Israeli citizens. The international community maintains that Israel does not have sovereignty in the West Bank, and considers Israel's control of the area to be the longest military occupation in modern history.[347]The West Bankwas occupied and annexedby Jordan in 1950, following the 1949 Armistice Agreements. Only Britain recognized this annexation and Jordan has sincecededits claim to the territory to the PLO. Thepopulationare mainlyPalestinians,includingrefugeesof the1948 Arab–Israeli War.[348]From their occupation in 1967 until 1993, the Palestinians living in these territories were underIsraeli military administration.Since theIsrael–PLO letters of recognition,most of the Palestinian population andcitieshave been under the internal jurisdiction of thePalestinian Authority,and only partial Israeli military control, although Israel has redeployed itstroopsand reinstated full military administration during periods of unrest. In response to increasing attacks during theSecond Intifada,the Israeli government started to construct the Israeli West Bank barrier.[349]When completed, approximately 13% of the barrier will be constructed on theGreen Lineor in Israel with 87% inside the West Bank.[350][351]
Israel's claim of universal suffrage has been questioned due to its blurred territorial boundaries and its simultaneous extension of voting rights to Israeli settlers in the occupied territories and denial of voting rights to their Palestinian neighbours, as well as the allegedethnocraticnature of the state.[352][353]
The Gaza Strip is considered to be a "foreign territory" under Israeli law. Israel and Egypt operate a land, air, and seablockade of the Gaza Strip.The Gaza Strip was occupied by Israel after 1967. In 2005, as part ofIsrael's unilateral disengagement plan,Israel removed its settlers and forces from the territory but continues to maintaincontrolof its airspace and waters. The international community, including numerous international humanitarian organizations and UN bodies, consider Gaza to remain occupied.[354][355][356][357][358]Following the2007 Battle of Gaza,whenHamas assumed power in the Gaza Strip,[359]Israel tightened control of the Gaza crossings alongits border,as well as by sea and air, and prevented persons from entering and exiting except for isolated cases it deemed humanitarian.[359]Gaza has aborder with Egypt,and an agreement between Israel, the EU, and the PA governs how border crossings take place.[360]The application of democracy to its Palestinian citizens, and the selective application of Israeli democracy in the Israeli-controlled Palestinian territories, has been criticized.[361][362]
International opinion
TheInternational Court of Justicesaid, in its2004 advisory opinionon the legality of the construction of theIsraeli West Bank barrier,that the lands captured by Israel in the Six-Day War, including East Jerusalem, are occupied territory and found that the construction of the wall within the occupied Palestinian territory violates international law.[363]Most negotiations relating to the territories have been on the basis ofUN Security Council Resolution 242,which emphasizes "the inadmissibility of the acquisition of territory by war", and calls on Israel to withdraw from occupied territories in return for normalization of relations with Arab states ( "Land for peace").[364][365][366]Israel has been criticized for engaging in systematic and widespread violations ofhuman rights in the occupied territories,including the occupation itself[367]andwar crimesagainst civilians.[368][369][370][371]The allegations include violations of international humanitarian law[372]by theUN Human Rights Council.[373]TheU.S. State Departmenthas called reports ofabuses of significant human rights of Palestinians"credible" both within Israel[374]and the occupied territories.[375]Amnesty Internationaland other NGOs have documented mass arbitrary arrests, torture, unlawful killings, systemic abuses and impunity[376][377][378][379]in tandem with a denial of the right toPalestinian self-determination.[380][381][382][383][384]Prime Minister Netanyahu has defended the country's security forces for protecting the innocent from terrorists[385]and expressed contempt for what he describes as a lack of concern about the human rights violations committed by "criminal killers".[386]
Theinternational communitywidely regards Israeli settlements in the occupied territoriesillegal under international law.[387]United Nations Security Council Resolution 2334(passed 2016) states that Israel's settlement activity constitutes a "flagrant violation" ofinternational lawand demands that Israel stop such activity and fulfill its obligations as anoccupying powerunder theFourth Geneva Convention.[388]AUnited Nations special rapporteurconcluded that the settlement program was awar crimeunder theRome Statute,[389]andAmnesty Internationalfound that the settlement program constitutes an illegal transfer of civilians into occupied territory and "pillage", which is prohibited by theHague ConventionsandGeneva Conventionsas well as being a war crime under the Rome Statute.[390]
Apartheid accusations
Israel's treatment of the Palestinians within the occupied territories have drawn widespreadaccusations that it is guiltyofapartheid,acrime against humanityunder the Rome Statute and theInternational Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid.[391][392]The Washington Post's 2021 survey of scholars and academic experts on the Middle East found an increase from 59% to 65% of these scholars describing Israel as a "one-state reality akin to apartheid".[393][394]The claim that Israel's policies forPalestinians within Israelamount to apartheid has been affirmed by Israeli human rights organizationB'tselemand international human rights organizations such asAmnesty InternationalandHuman Rights Watch.[392][395]Israeli human rights organizationYesh Dinhas also accused Israel of apartheid.[395]Amnesty's claim was criticised by politicians and representatives from Israel and its closest allies such as, the US,[396]the UK,[397]theEuropean Commission,[398]Australia,[399]Netherlands[400]and Germany,[401]while said accusations were welcomed by Palestinians,[402]representatives from other states,[which?]and organizations such as theArab League.[403]In 2022, Michael Lynk, a Canadian law professorappointed by the U.N. Human Rights Councilsaid that the situation met the legal definition of apartheid, and concluded: "Israel has imposed upon Palestine an apartheid reality in a post-apartheid world".[404][405]Subsequent reports from his successor,Francesca Albaneseand fromPermanent United Nations Fact Finding Mission on the Israel Palestine conflictchair Navi Pillay echoed the opinion.[406][407]
In February 2024, The ICJ held public hearings in regards to thelegal consequences arising from the policies and practices of Israel in the occupied Palestinian territory including East Jerusalem.During the hearings, 24 States and three international organizations said that Israeli practices amount to a breach of the prohibition of apartheid and/or amount to prohibited acts of racial discrimination.[408]
Foreign relations
Israel maintains diplomatic relations with 165UN member states,as well as with theHoly See,Kosovo,theCook IslandsandNiue.It has 107diplomatic missions;[409]countries with whom they have no diplomatic relations include most Muslim countries.[410]Six out of twenty-two nations in theArab Leaguehave normalized relations with Israel. Israel remains formally in astate of war with Syria,a status that dates back uninterrupted to 1948. It has been in a similarlyformal state of war with Lebanonsince the end of theLebanese Civil Warin 2000, with the Israel–Lebanon border remaining unagreed by treaty.
Despite the peace treaty between Israel and Egypt, Israel is still widely considered an enemy country among Egyptians.[411]Iran withdrew its recognition of Israel during theIslamic Revolution.[412]Israeli citizens may not visit Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen without permission from theMinistry of the Interior.[413]As a result of the2008–09 Gaza War,Mauritania, Qatar, Bolivia, and Venezuela suspended political and economic ties with Israel,[414]though Bolivia renewed ties in 2019.[415]
TheUnited Statesand theSoviet Unionwere the first two countries to recognize the State of Israel, having declared recognition roughly simultaneously.[416]Diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union were broken in 1967, following theSix-Day War,and renewed in October 1991.[417]The United States regards Israel as its "most reliable partner in the Middle East",[418]based on "common democratic values, religious affinities, and security interests".[419]The US has provided $68 billion inmilitary assistanceand $32 billion in grants to Israel since 1967, under theForeign Assistance Act(period beginning 1962),[420]more than any other country for that period until 2003.[420][421][422]Most surveyed Americans have also held consistently favorable views of Israel.[423][424]The United Kingdom is seen as having a "natural"relationshipwith Israel because of the Mandate for Palestine.[425]By 2007[update],Germanyhad paid 25 billion euros inreparationsto the Israeli state and individual Israeli Holocaust survivors.[426]Israel isincludedin the European Union'sEuropean Neighbourhood Policy.[427]
Although Turkey and Israel did not establish full diplomatic relations until 1991,[428]Turkey hascooperatedwith the Jewish state since its recognition of Israel in 1949. Turkey's ties to other Muslim-majority nations in the region have at times resulted in pressure from Arab and Muslim states to temper its relationship with Israel.[429]Relations between Turkey and Israel took a downturn after the 2008–09 Gaza War and Israel'sraid of the Gaza flotilla.[430]Relations between Greece and Israelhave improved since 1995 due to the decline of Israeli–Turkish relations.[431]The two countries have a defense cooperation agreement and in 2010, theIsraeli Air Forcehosted Greece'sHellenic Air Forcein a joint exercise. The joint Cyprus-Israel oil and gas explorations centered on theLeviathan gas fieldare an important factor for Greece, given itsstrong linkswith Cyprus.[432]Cooperation in the world's longestsubmarine power cable,theEuroAsia Interconnector,has strengthenedCyprus–Israel relations.[433]
Azerbaijanis one of the few majority Muslim countries to develop strategic and economicrelationswith Israel.[434]Kazakhstan also has an economic and strategic partnership with Israel.[435]India established fulldiplomatic tieswith Israel in 1992 and has fostered a strong military, technological and cultural partnership with the country since then.[436]India is the largest customer of theIsraeli military equipmentand Israel is the second-largest military partner of India after Russia.[437]Ethiopiais Israel's main ally in Africa due to common political, religious and security interests.[438]
Foreign aid
Israel has a history of providing emergencyforeign aidand humanitarian response to disasters across the world.[439]In 1955 Israel began its foreign aid programme in Burma. The programme's focus subsequently shifted to Africa.[440]Israel's humanitarian efforts officially began in 1957, with the establishment ofMashav,the Israel's Agency for International Development Cooperation.[441]In this early period, whilst Israel's aid represented only a small percentage of total aid to Africa, its programme was effective in creating goodwill; however, following the 1967 war relations soured.[442]Israel's foreign aid programme subsequently shifted its focus to Latin America.[440]Since the late 1970s Israel's foreign aid has gradually decreased, although in recent years Israel has tried to reestablish aid to Africa.[443]There are additional Israeli humanitarian and emergency response groups that work with the Israel government, includingIsraAid,a joint programme run by Israeli organizations and North American Jewish groups,[444]ZAKA,[445]The Fast Israeli Rescue and Search Team,[446]Israeli Flying Aid,[447]Save a Child's Heart[448]andLatet.[449]Between 1985 and 2015, Israel sent 24 delegations of IDF search and rescue unit, theHome Front Command,to 22 countries.[450]Currently Israeli foreign aidrankslow amongOECDnations, spending less than 0.1% of itsGNIon development assistance.[451]The country ranked 38th in the 2018World Giving Index.[452]
Military
TheIsrael Defense Forces(IDF) is the sole military wing of theIsraeli security forcesand is headed by itsChief of General Staff,theRamatkal,subordinate to theCabinet.The IDF consists of thearmy,air forceandnavy.It was founded during the1948 Arab–Israeli Warby consolidating paramilitary organizations—chiefly theHaganah.[453]The IDF also draws upon the resources of theMilitary Intelligence Directorate(Aman).[454]The IDF have been involved in severalmajor warsand border conflicts, making it one of the most battle-trained armed forces in the world.[455]
Most Israelis areconscriptedat age 18. Men serve two years and eight months andwomentwo years.[456]Following mandatory service, Israeli men join the reserve forces and usually do up to several weeks ofreserve dutyevery year until their forties. Most women are exempt from reserve duty.Arab citizens of Israel(except theDruze) and those engaged in full-time religious studies areexempt,although theexemption of yeshiva studentshas been a source of contention.[457][458]An alternative for those who receive exemptions on various grounds isSherut Leumi,or national service, which involves a programme of service in social welfare frameworks.[459]A small minority of Israeli Arabs also volunteer in the army.[460]As a result of its conscription programme, the IDF maintains approximately 176,500 active troops and 465,000 reservists, giving Israel one of the world's highestpercentage of citizens with military training.[461]
The military relies heavily on high-techweaponssystemsdesigned and manufactured in Israelas well as some foreign imports. TheArrowmissile is one of the world's few operationalanti-ballistic missilesystems.[462]ThePythonair-to-air missile series is often considered one of the most crucial weapons in its military history.[463]Israel'sSpikemissile is one of the most widely exportedanti-tank guided missilesin the world.[464]Israel'sIron Domeanti-missile air defense system gained worldwide acclaim after intercepting hundreds ofrockets fired by Palestinian militantsfrom the Gaza Strip.[465][466]Since theYom Kippur War,Israel has developed a network ofreconnaissance satellites.[467]TheOfeqprogramme has made Israelone of seven countriescapable of launching such satellites.[468]
Israel is widely believed topossess nuclear weapons[469]and per a 1993 report, chemical and biologicalweapons of mass destruction.[470][needs update]Israel has not signed theTreaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons[471]and maintains apolicy of deliberate ambiguitytoward its nuclear capabilities.[472]The Israeli Navy'sDolphin submarinesare believed to be armed with nuclear missiles offeringsecond-strikecapability.[473]Since theGulf Warin 1991, all homes in Israel are required to have a reinforced security room,Merkhav Mugan,impermeable to chemical and biological substances.[474]
Since Israel's establishment, military expenditure constituted a significant portion of the country'sgross domestic product,with peak of 30.3% of GDP in 1975.[475]In 2021, Israel ranked 15th in the worldby total military expenditure,with $24.3 billion, and 6th by defense spending as a percentage of GDP, with 5.2%.[476]Since 1974, the United States has been a particularly notable contributor ofmilitary aid.[477]Under amemorandum of understandingsigned in 2016, the U.S. is expected to provide the country with $3.8 billion per year, or around 20% of Israel's defense budget, from 2018 to 2028.[478]Israel ranked 9th globally forarms exportsin 2022.[479]The majority of Israel's arms exports are unreported for security reasons.[480]Israel is consistently rated low in theGlobal Peace Index,ranking 134th out of 163 nations in 2022.[481]
Legal system
Israel has athree-tier court system.At the lowest level aremagistratecourts, situated in most cities across the country. Above them aredistrict courts,serving as bothappellatecourts andcourts of first instance;they are situated in five of Israel's sixdistricts.The third and highest tier is theSupreme Court,located in Jerusalem; it serves a dual role as the highest court of appeals and theHigh Court of Justice.In the latter role, the Supreme Court rules as a court of first instance, allowing individuals, both citizens and non-citizens, to petition against the decisions of state authorities.[482]
Israel's legal system combines three legal traditions:English common law,civil law,andJewish law.[297]It is based on the principle ofstare decisis(precedent) and is anadversarial system.Court cases are decided by professional judges with no role for juries.[483][better source needed]Marriageand divorce are under the jurisdiction of the religious courts:Jewish,Muslim,Druze, and Christian. The election of judges is carried out by aselection committeechaired by thejustice minister(currentlyYariv Levin).[484]Israel'sBasic Law: Human Dignity and Libertyseeks to defendhuman rights and liberties in Israel.TheUnited Nations Human Rights Counciland Israeli human rights organizationAdalahhave highlighted that this law does not in fact contain a general provision for equality and non-discrimination.[434][485]As a result of "Enclave law",large portions of Israelicivil laware applied to Israeli settlements and Israeli residents in the occupied territories.[486]
Economy
Israel is considered the most advanced country inWestern Asiaand the Middle East in economic and industrial development.[487][488]As of October 2023[update],the IMF estimated Israel's GDP at 521.7 billion dollars and Israel's GDP per capita at 53.2 thousand (ranking 13th worldwide).[489]It is the third richest country in Asiaby nominal per capitaincome.[490]Israel has the highest averagewealth per adultin the Middle East.[491]The Economistranked Israel as the 4th most successful economy among the developed countries for 2022.[492]It has themost billionairesin the Middle East, and the 18th most in the world.[493]In recent years Israel had one of the highest growth rates in the developed world.[494]In 2010, it joined theOECD.[42][495]The country is ranked 20th in theWorld Economic Forum'sGlobal Competitiveness Report[496]and 35th on theWorld Bank'sEase of Doing Businessindex.[497]Israel was also ranked 5th in the world by share of people in high-skilled employment.[498]Israeli economic data covers the economic territory of Israel, including the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank.[345]
Despite limited natural resources, intensive development of theagriculturaland industrial sectors over the past decades has made Israel largely self-sufficient in food production, apart from grains and beef. Imports to Israel, totaling $96.5 billion in 2020, include raw materials, military equipment, investment goods, rough diamonds, fuels, grain, and consumer goods.[297]Leading exports include machinery, equipment, software,cut diamonds,agricultural products, chemicals, textiles, and apparel; in 2020, Israeli exports reached $114 billion.[297]TheBank of Israelholds $201 billion offoreign-exchange reserves,the 17th highest in the world.[297]Since the 1970s, Israel has receivedmilitary aidfrom the United States, as well as economic assistance in the form ofloan guarantees,which account for roughly half of Israel'sexternal debt.Israel hasone of the lowestexternal debts in the developed world, and is a lender in terms of net external debt (assets vs. liabilities abroad), which in 2015[update]stood at a surplus of $69 billion.[499]
Israel has the second-largest number ofstartup companiesafter the United States,[500]and the third-largest number ofNASDAQ-listed companies.[501]It is the world leader for number of start-ups per capita.[502]Israel has been dubbed the "Start-Up Nation".[503][504][505][506]Intel[507]andMicrosoft[508]built their first overseasresearch and developmentfacilities in Israel, and other high-tech multinational corporations have openedresearch and development centres in the country.
The days which are allocated to working times in Israel are Sunday through Thursday (for a five-dayworkweek), or Friday (for a six-day workweek). In observance ofShabbat,in places where Friday is a work day and the majority of population is Jewish, Friday is a "short day". Several proposals have been raised to adjust the work week with the majority of the world.[509]
Science and technology
Israel's development of cutting-edge technologies in software, communications and the life sciences haveevoked comparisonswithSilicon Valley.[510][511]Israel is first in the world inexpenditure on research and developmentas a percentage of GDP.[512]It is ranked 14th in theGlobal Innovation Indexin 2023,[513]and fifth in the 2019Bloomberg Innovation Index.[514]Israel has 140 scientists, technicians, and engineers per 10,000 employees, the highest number in the world.[515][516][517]Israel has produced sixNobel Prize-winningscientists since 2004[518]and has been frequently ranked as one of the countries with the highest ratios ofscientific papersper capita.[519][520][521]Israeli universitiesare ranked among the top 50 world universities in computer science (TechnionandTel Aviv University), mathematics (Hebrew University of Jerusalem) and chemistry (Weizmann Institute of Science).[522]
In 2012, Israel was ranked ninth in the world by the Futron'sSpace Competitiveness Index.[523]TheIsrael Space Agencycoordinates all Israeli space research programmes with scientific and commercial goals, and have designed and built at least 13 commercial, research and spy satellites.[524]Some of Israel's satellites are ranked among the world's most advanced space systems.[525]Shavitis a spacelaunch vehicleproduced by Israel to launch smallsatellitesintolow Earth orbit.[526]It was first launched in 1988, making Israel theeighth nationto have a space launch capability. In 2003,Ilan Ramonbecame Israel's first astronaut, serving on thefatal missionofSpace ShuttleColumbia.[527]
The ongoingwater shortagehas spurred innovation inwater conservationtechniques, and a substantialagricultural modernization,drip irrigation,wasinvented in Israel.Israel is also at the technological forefront ofdesalinationandwater recycling.TheSorek desalination plantis the largest seawaterreverse osmosisdesalination facility in the world.[528]By 2014, Israel's desalination programmes provided roughly 35% of Israel's drinking water and it is expected to supply 70% by 2050.[529]As of 2015[update],over 50 percent of the water for Israeli households, agriculture and industry is artificially produced.[530]In 2011, Israel'swater technology industrywas worth around $2 billion a year with annual exports of products and services in the tens of millions of dollars. As a result of innovations in reverse osmosis technology, Israel is set to become a netexporter of water.[531]
Israel has embracedsolar energy;its engineers are on the cutting edge of solar energy technology[533]and its solar companies work on projects around the world.[534][535]Over 90% of Israeli homes use solar energy for hot water, the highest per capita.[319][536]According to government figures, the country saves 8% of its electricity consumption per year because of its solar energy use in heating.[537]The high annual incidentsolar irradianceat its geographiclatitudecreates ideal conditions for what is an internationally renowned solar research and development industry in theNegev Desert.[533][534][535]Israel had a modernelectric car infrastructureinvolving a countrywide network ofcharging stations.[538][539][540]However, Israel's electric car companyBetter Placeshut down in 2013.[541]
Energy
Israel began producing natural gas from its own offshore gas fields in 2004. In 2009, anatural gasreserve,Tamar,was found near the coast of Israel. A second reserve,Leviathan,was discovered in 2010.[542]The natural gas reserves in these two fields could make Israel energy-secure for more than 50 years. In 2013, Israel began commercial production of natural gas from the Tamar field. As of 2014[update],Israel produced over 7.5 billion cubic meters (bcm) ofnatural gasa year.[543]Israel had 199 billion bcm of proven reserves of natural gas as of 2016.[544]The Leviathan gas field started production in 2019.[545]
Ketura Sunis Israel's first commercial solar field. Built in 2011 by theArava Power Company,the field consists of 18,500photovoltaicpanels made bySuntech,which will produce about 9gigawatt-hours(GWh) of electricity per year.[546]In the next twenty years, the field will spare the production of some 125,000 metric tons of carbon dioxide.[547]
Transport
Israel has 19,224 kilometres (11,945 mi) of pavedroads[548]and 3 million motor vehicles.[549]Thenumber of motor vehicles per 1,000 personsis 365, relatively low among developed countries.[549]The country aims to have 30% of vehicles on its roads powered by electricity by 2030.[550]
Israel has 5,715 buses on scheduled routes,[551]operated by several carriers, the largest and oldest of which isEgged,serving most of the country.[552]Railwaysstretch across 1,277 kilometres (793 mi) and are operated by government-ownedIsrael Railways.[553]Following major investments beginning in the early to mid-1990s, the number of train passengers per year has grown from 2.5 million in 1990, to 53 million in 2015; railways transport 7.5 million tons of cargo per year.[553]
Israel is served by three internationalairports:Ben Gurion Airport,the country's main hub for international air travel;Ramon Airport;andHaifa Airport.Ben Gurion, Israel's largest airport, handled over 21.1 million passengers in 2023.[554]The country has three main ports: thePort of Haifa,the country's oldest and largest, on theMediterraneancoast,Ashdod Port;and the smallerPort of Eilaton theRed Sea.
Tourism
Tourism, especiallyreligious tourism,is an important industry in Israel, with the country'sbeaches,archaeological,otherhistoricalandbiblicalsites, and unique geography also drawing tourists. Israel's security problems have taken their toll on the industry, but the number of tourists is on the rebound.[555]In 2017, a record 3.6 million tourists visited Israel, yielding a 25 percent growth since 2016 and contributed NIS 20 billion to the Israeli economy.[556][557][558][559]
Real estate
Housing prices in Israel are listed in the top third of all countries,[560]with an average of 150 salaries required to buy an apartment.[561]As of 2022, there are about 2.7 million properties in Israel, with an annual increase of over 50,000.[562]However, the demand for housing exceeds supply, with a shortage of about 200,000 apartments as of 2021.[563]As a result, by 2021 housing prices rose by 5.6%.[564]In 2021, Israelis took a record of NIS 116.1 billion in mortgages, an increase of 50% from 2020.[565]
Demographics
Israel has the largest Jewish population in the world and is the only country where Jews are the majority.[566]As of 31 May 2024[update],Israel's population was an estimated 9,907,100. In 2022, the government recorded 73.6% of the population asJews,21.1% asArabs,and 5.3% as "Others" (non-Arab Christians and people who have no religion listed).[12]Over the last decade, large numbers of migrant workers from Romania, Thailand, China, Africa, and South America have settled in Israel. Exact figures are unknown, as many of them are living in the country illegally,[567]but estimates run from 166,000 to 203,000.[568]By June 2012, approximately 60,000African migrantshad entered Israel.[569]About 93% of Israelis live in urban areas.[570]90% ofPalestinian Israelisreside in 139 densely populated towns and villages concentrated in the Galilee,TriangleandNegevregions, with the remaining 10% inmixed citiesand neighbourhoods.[571][572][573][574][575]TheOECDin 2016 estimated the averagelife expectancyat 82.5 years, the6th-highest in the world.[576]Israeli Arab life expectancy lags by 3 to 4 years[577][578]and is higher than in most Arab and Muslim countries.[579][580]Retention of Israel's population since 1948 is about even or greater, when compared to other countries with mass immigration.[581]Jewish emigration from Israel (calledyerida), primarily to the United States and Canada, is described by demographers as modest,[582]but is often cited by Israeli government ministries as a major threat to Israel's future.[583][584]
Approximately 80% ofIsraeli Jewsareborn in Israel,14% are immigrants from Europe and the Americas, and 6% are immigrants from Asia and Africa.[585]Jews from Europe and the formerSoviet Unionand their descendants born in Israel, includingAshkenazi Jews,constitute approximately 44% of Jewish Israelis.Jews from Arab and Muslim countriesand their descendants, including bothMizrahiandSephardiJews,[586]form most of the rest of the Jewish population.[587][588]Jewish intermarriage rates run at over 35% and recent studies suggest that the percentage of Israelis descended from both Sephardi and Ashkenazi Jews increases by 0.5 percent yearly, with over 25% of schoolchildren now originating from both.[589]Around 4% of Israelis (300,000), ethnically defined as "others", areRussian descendantsof Jewish origin or family who are not Jewish according to rabbinical law, but were eligible for citizenship under the Law of Return.[590][591][592]
The total number ofIsraeli settlersbeyond theGreen Lineis over 600,000 (≈10% of the Jewish Israeli population).[593]In 2016[update],399,300 IsraelislivedinWest Banksettlements,[336]including those that predated the establishment of the State of Israel and which were re-established after theSix-Day War,in cities such asHebronandGush Etzionbloc. Additionally there were more than 200,000 Jews living inEast Jerusalem,[337]and 22,000 in theGolan Heights.[336]Approximately 7,800 Israelislived in settlementsin the Gaza Strip, known asGush Katif,until they were evacuated by the government as part of its 2005disengagement plan.[594]
Israeli Arabs (including the Arab population of East Jerusalem and the Golan Heights) comprise 21.1% of the population or 1,995,000 people.[595]In a 2017 poll, 40% of Arab citizens of Israel identified as "Arab in Israel" or "Arab citizen of Israel", 15% identified as "Palestinian", 8.9% as "Palestinian in Israel" or "Palestinian citizen of Israel", and 8.7% as "Arab"; a poll found that 60% of Israeli Arabs have a positive view of the state.[596][597]
Major urban areas
Israel has four major metropolitan areas:Gush Dan(Tel Aviv metropolitan area; population 3,854,000),Jerusalem(population 1,253,900),Haifa(924,400), andBeersheba(377,100).[598]
Israel's largest municipality, in population and area, isJerusalemwith 981,711 residents in an area of 125 square kilometres (48 sq mi).[599]Israeli government statistics on Jerusalem include the population and area ofEast Jerusalem,the status of which is in international dispute.[600]Tel AvivandHaifarank as Israel's next most populous cities, with populations of 474,530 and 290,306, respectively.[599] The (mainlyHaredi) city ofBnei Brakis the most densely populated city in Israel and one of the10 most densely populated citiesin the world.[601]
Israel has 16citieswith populations over 100,000. As of 2018[update]there are 77 Israeli localities granted"municipalities" (or "city" ) statusby the Ministry of the Interior,[602]four of which are in the West Bank.[603]
| Rank | Name | District | Pop. | Rank | Name | District | Pop. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Jerusalem  Tel Aviv |
1 | Jerusalem | Jerusalem | 981,711a | 11 | Ramat Gan | Tel Aviv | 172,486 |  Haifa  Rishon LeZion |
| 2 | Tel Aviv | Tel Aviv | 474,530 | 12 | Beit Shemesh | Jerusalem | 154,694 | ||
| 3 | Haifa | Haifa | 290,306 | 13 | Ashkelon | Southern | 153,138 | ||
| 4 | Rishon LeZion | Central | 260,453 | 14 | Rehovot | Central | 150,748 | ||
| 5 | Petah Tikva | Central | 255,387 | 15 | Bat Yam | Tel Aviv | 128,465 | ||
| 6 | Netanya | Central | 233,104 | 16 | Herzliya | Tel Aviv | 106,741 | ||
| 7 | Ashdod | Southern | 226,827 | 17 | Hadera | Haifa | 103,041 | ||
| 8 | Bnei Brak | Tel Aviv | 218,357 | 18 | Kfar Saba | Central | 101,556 | ||
| 9 | Beersheba | Southern | 214,162 | 19 | Modi'in-Maccabim-Re'ut | Central | 99,171 | ||
| 10 | Holon | Tel Aviv | 197,957 | 20 | Lod | Central | 85,351 | ||
^aThis number includesEast JerusalemandWest Bankareas, which had a total population of 573,330 inhabitants in 2019.[604]Israeli sovereignty over East Jerusalem isinternationally unrecognized.
Language
Israel's official language isHebrew.Hebrew is the primary language of the state and is spoken daily by the majority of the population. Prior to 1948,oppositiontoYiddish,the historical language of the Ashkenazi Jews, was common among supporters of the Zionist movement, including the Yishuv, who sought to promoteHebrew's revivalas a unifying national language.[605]These sentiments were reflected in the early policies of the Israeli government, which largely bannedYiddish theatre performancesand publications.[606]Until 2018,Arabicwas also an official language of Israel;[11]in 2018it was downgradedto having a "special status in the state".[9][10]Arabic is spoken by the Arab minority, with Hebrew taught in Arab schools.
Due to mass immigration from the former Soviet Union andEthiopia(some 130,000Ethiopian Jews live in Israel),[607][608]RussianandAmharicare widely spoken.[609]Over one million Russian-speaking immigrantsarrivedin Israel between 1990 and 2004.[610]French is spoken by around 700,000 Israelis,[611]mostly originatingfrom Franceand North Africa (seeMaghrebi Jews). English was an official language during the Mandate period; it lost this status after the establishment of Israel, but retains a role comparable to that of an official language.[612][613][614]Many Israelis communicate reasonably well in English, as many television programmes are broadcast in English withsubtitlesand the language is taught from the early grades in elementary school. Israeli universities offer courses in the English language on various subjects.[615][better source needed]
Religion
The religious affiliation of the Israeli population as of 2022 was 73.6% Jewish, 18.1%Muslim,1.9%Christian,and 1.6%Druze.The remaining 4.8% included faiths such asSamaritanismandBaháʼí,as well as "religiously unclassified".[616]
Thereligious affiliationofIsraeli Jewsvaries widely: a 2016 survey byPew Researchindicates that 49% self-identify asHiloni(secular), 29% asMasorti(traditional), 13% asDati(religious) and 9% asHaredi(ultra-Orthodox).[617]Haredi Jews are expected to represent over 20% of Israel's Jewish population by 2028.[618]
Muslimsconstitute Israel's largest religious minority, making up about 17.6% of the population. About 2% of the population isChristianand 1.6% isDruze.[297]The Christian population comprises primarilyArab ChristiansandAramean Christians,but also includes post-Soviet immigrants, foreign laborers, and followers ofMessianic Judaism,considered by most Christians and Jews to be a form of Christianity.[619]Members of many other religious groups, includingBuddhistsandHindus,maintain a presence in Israel, albeit in small numbers.[620]Out of over one millionimmigrantsfrom the former Soviet Union, about 300,000 are considered not Jewish by theChief Rabbinate of Israel.[621]
Israel comprises a major part of theHoly Land,a region of significant importance to allAbrahamic religions.The city ofJerusalemis ofspecial importanceto Jews, Muslims, and Christians, as it is the home ofsitesthat are pivotal to their religious beliefs, such as theOld Citythat incorporates theWestern Walland theTemple Mount(Al-Aqsa Mosque compound) and theChurch of the Holy Sepulchre.[622]Other locations of religious importance areNazareth(site of theAnnunciationofMary),TiberiasandSafed(two of theFour Holy Citiesin Judaism), theWhite MosqueinRamla(shrine of the prophetSaleh), and theChurch of Saint George and Mosque of Al-Khadr, Lod(tomb ofSaint GeorgeorAl Khidr). A number of other religious landmarks are located in theWest Bank,includingJoseph's Tomb,thebirthplace of Jesus,Rachel's Tomb,and theCave of the Patriarchs.Theadministrative centerof theBaháʼí Faithand theShrine of the Bábare located at theBaháʼí World CentreinHaifa;the leader of the faith isburiedinAcre.[623][624][625]TheMahmood Mosqueis affiliated with the reformistAhmadiyyamovement.Kababir,Haifa's mixed neighbourhood of Jews and Ahmadi Arabs, is one of a few of its kind in the country.[626][627]
Education
Education is highly valued in the Israeli culture and was viewed as afundamental block of ancient Israelites.[628]In 2015, the countryrankedthird amongOECDmembers for the percentage of 25–64 year-olds that have attainedtertiary educationwith 49% compared with the OECD average of 35%.[629]In 2012, the country ranked third in the number of academic degrees per capita (20 percent of the population).[630]
Israel has aschool life expectancyof 16 years and aliteracy rateof 97.8%.[297]The State Education Law (1953) established five types of schools: state secular, state religious, ultra orthodox, communal settlement schools, and Arab schools. The public secular is the largest school group, and is attended by the majority of Jewish and non-Arab pupils. Most Arabs send their children to schools where Arabic is the language of instruction.[631]Education is compulsory for children between the ages of three and eighteen.[632]Schooling is divided into three tiers—primary school (grades 1–6),middle school(grades 7–9), and high school (grades 10–12)—culminating withBagrutmatriculation exams. Proficiency in core subjects such as mathematics, theHebrew language,Hebrew and general literature, theEnglish language,history, Biblical scripture and civics is necessary to receive a Bagrut certificate.[633]
Israel's Jewish population maintains a relatively high level of educational attainment where just under half of all Israeli Jews (46%) hold post-secondary degrees.[634][635]Israeli Jews (among those ages 25 and older) have average of 11.6 years of schooling making them one of the most highly educated of all major religious groups in the world.[636][637]In Arab, Christian andDruzeschools, the exam on Biblical studies is replaced by an exam on Muslim, Christian or Druze heritage.[638]In 2020, 68.7% of all Israeli twelfth graders earned a matriculation certificate.[639]
Israel has a tradition of higher education where its quality university education has been largely responsible in spurring the nation's modern economic development.[640]Israel hasnine public universities subsidized by the state and 49 private colleges.[633][641][642]TheHebrew University of Jerusalemhouses theNational Library of Israel,the world's largest repository of Judaica and Hebraica.[643]TheTechnionand the Hebrew University consistently ranked among world's 100 top universities byARWUranking.[522]Other major universities include theWeizmann Institute of Science,Tel Aviv University,Ben-Gurion University of the Negev,Bar-Ilan University,theUniversity of Haifa,and theOpen University of Israel.
Culture
Israel's cultural diversity stems from its diverse population: Jews from various diaspora communities brought their cultural and religious traditions with them.[644]Arab influencesare present in many cultural spheres,[645]such asarchitecture,[646]music,[647]andcuisine.[648]Israel is the only country where life revolves around theHebrew calendar.Holidaysare determined by theJewish holidays.The official day of rest is Saturday, theJewish Sabbath.[649]
Literature
Israeli literatureis primarilypoetryand prose written inHebrew,as part of therenaissanceof Hebrew as a spoken language since the mid-19th century, although a small body of literature is published in other languages. By law, two copies of all printed matter published in Israel must be deposited in theNational Library of Israel.In 2001, the law was amended to include audio and video recordings, and other non-print media.[650]In 2016, 89 percent of the 7,300 books transferred to the library were in Hebrew.[651]
In 1966,Shmuel Yosef Agnonshared theNobel Prize in Literaturewith German Jewish authorNelly Sachs.[652]Leading Israeli poets includeYehuda Amichai,Nathan Alterman,Leah Goldberg,andRachel Bluwstein.[653]Internationally famous contemporary Israeli novelists includeAmos Oz,Etgar KeretandDavid Grossman.[654][655]
Music and dance
Israeli musicincludesMizrahiandSephardic music,Hasidicmelodies,Greek music,jazz,andpop rock.[656][657]TheIsrael Philharmonic Orchestra[658][659]has been in operation for over seventy years and performs more than two hundred concerts each year.[660]Itzhak Perlman,Pinchas ZukermanandOfra Hazaare among the internationally acclaimed musicians born in Israel.Israel has participatedin theEurovision Song Contestnearly every year since 1973, winning the competition four times and hosting it twice.[661][662]Eilathas hosted its own international music festival, theRed Sea Jazz Festival,every summer since 1987.[663]The nation's canonicalfolk songsare known as "Songs of the Land of Israel".[664]
Cinema and theatre
Ten Israeli filmshave been final nomineesforBest Foreign Language Filmat theAcademy Awards.Palestinian Israeli filmmakers have made films dealing with the Arab-Israeli conflict and status of Palestinians within Israel, such asMohammed Bakri's 2002 filmJenin, JeninandThe Syrian Bride.
Continuing the strong theatrical traditions of theYiddish theatrein Eastern Europe, Israel maintains a vibrant theatre scene. Founded in 1918,Habima Theatrein Tel Aviv is Israel's oldestrepertory theatercompany and national theater.[665]Other theatres includeOhel,the CameriandGesher.[666][667]
Arts
Israeli Jewish art has been particularly influenced by theKabbalah,theTalmudand theZohar.Another art movement that held a prominent role in the 20th century was theSchool of Paris.In the late 19th and early 20th century, theYishuv's art was dominated by art trends emanatingBezalel.Beginning in the 1920s, the local art scene was heavily influenced by modern French art, first introduced byIsaac Frenkel Frenel.[668][669]Jewish masters of theschool of Paris,such asSoutine,Kikoine,Frenkel,Chagallheavily influenced the subsequent development of Israeli art.[670][671]Israeli sculpture took inspiration from modernEuropean sculptureas wellMesopotamian,Assyrianand local art.[672][673]Avraham Melnikov's roaring lion, David Polus' Alexander Zaid andZe'ev Ben Zvi's cubist sculpture exemplify some of the different streams in Israeli sculpture.[672][674][675]
Common themes in Israeli art are the mystical cities ofSafedandJerusalem,the bohemian café culture ofTel Aviv,agricultural landscapes, biblical stories and war. Today Israeli art has delved intoOptical art,AI art,digital artand the use of salt in sculpture.[671]
Architecture
Due to the immigration of Jewish architects, architecture in Israel has come to reflect different styles. In the early 20th century Jewish architects sought to combine Occidental and Oriental architecture producing buildings that showcase a myriad of infused styles.[676]Theeclecticstyle gave way to the modernistBauhausstyle with the influx of German Jewish architects (among themErich Mendelsohn) fleeingNazi persecution.[677][678]TheWhite City of Tel Avivis aUNESCO heritage site.[679]Following independence, multiple government projects were commissioned, a grand part built in a brutalist style with heavy emphasis on the use of concrete and acclimatization to the Israel's desert climate.[680][681]
Several novel ideas such as theGarden Citywere implemented Israeli cities; theGeddes planof Tel Aviv became renowned internationally for its revolutionary design and adaptation to the local climate.[682]The design of kibbutzim also came to reflect ideology, such as the planning of the circular kibbutzNahalalbyRichard Kauffmann.[683]
Media
In the 2024Press Freedom IndexbyReporters Without Borders,Israel was placed 101st of 180 countries, second in the Middle East and North Africa region behindQatar.[684][685]Reporters Without Borders noted that theIsrael Defense Forceshad killed more than 100 journalists in Gaza and that since the start of the 2023Israel–Hamas war,Israel had been "been trying to suppress the reporting coming out of the besieged enclave while disinformation infiltrates its own media ecosystem."[685]On 5 May 2024, Israel shut down the local offices ofAl Jazeera;later that month, Israel briefly seized equipment belonging to theAssociated Press,prompting an intervention from the U.S. government.[686]
Museums
TheIsrael Museumin Jerusalem is one of Israel's most important cultural institutions[687]and houses theDead Sea Scrolls,[688]along with an extensive collection ofJudaicaandEuropean art.[687]Israel's nationalHolocaustmuseum,Yad Vashem,is the world central archive of Holocaust-related information.[689]ANU - Museum of the Jewish Peopleon the campus ofTel Aviv University,is an interactive museum devoted to the history of Jewish communities around the world.[690]
Israel has the highest number of museums per capita.[691]Several Israeli museums are devoted to Islamic culture, including theRockefeller Museumand theL. A. Mayer Institute for Islamic Art,both in Jerusalem. The Rockefeller specializes in archaeological remains from Middle East history. It is also the home of the firsthominidfossil skull found in Western Asia, calledGalilee Man.[692]
Cuisine
Israeli cuisineincludes local dishes as well asJewish cuisinebrought to the country by immigrants. Particularly since the late 1970s, an Israelifusion cuisinehas developed.[693]Israeli cuisine has adopted, and continues to adapt, elements of theMizrahi,Sephardi,andAshkenazistyles of cooking. It incorporates many foods traditionally eaten in theLevantine,Arab,Middle EasternandMediterraneancuisines, such asfalafel,hummus,shakshouka,couscous,andza'atar.Schnitzel,pizza,hamburgers,French fries,riceandsaladare common in Israel.
Roughly half of the Israeli-Jewish population attests to keepingkosherat home.[694][695]Kosher restaurantsmake up around a quarter of the total as of 2015[update].[693]Together with non-kosher fish, rabbits and ostriches,pork—often called "white meat" in Israel[696]—is produced and consumed, thoughit is forbiddenby both Judaism and Islam.[697]
Sports
The most popular spectator sports in Israel areassociation footballandbasketball.[698]TheIsraeli Premier Leagueis the country's premier football league, and theIsraeli Basketball Premier Leagueis the premier basketball league.[699]Maccabi Haifa,Maccabi Tel Aviv,Hapoel Tel AvivandBeitar Jerusalemare the largestfootball clubs.Maccabi Tel Aviv, Maccabi Haifa and Hapoel Tel Aviv have competed in theUEFA Champions Leagueand Hapoel Tel Aviv reached theUEFA Cupquarter-finals. Israel hosted and won the1964 AFC Asian Cup;in 1970 theIsrael national football teamqualified for theFIFA World Cup,the only time it participated in the World Cup. The1974 Asian Games,held in Tehran, were the last Asian Games in which Israelparticipated,plagued by Arab countries thatrefusedto compete with Israel. Israel was excluded from the1978 Asian Gamesand since then has not competed in Asian sport events.[700]In 1994,UEFAagreed to admit Israel, and its football teams now compete in Europe.Maccabi Tel Aviv B.C.has won theEuropean championshipin basketball six times.[701]
Israel has wonnine Olympic medalssince its first winin 1992,including a gold medal inwindsurfingat the2004 Summer Olympics.[702]Israel has wonover 100gold medals in theParalympic Gamesand is ranked 20th in theall-time medal count.The1968 Summer Paralympicswere hosted by Israel.[703]TheMaccabiah Games,an Olympic-style event forJewishand Israeli athletes, was inaugurated in the 1930s, and has been held every four years since then.Krav Maga,a martial art developed by Jewish ghetto defenders during the struggle againstfascismin Europe, is used by the Israeli security forces and police.[704]
Chessis a leading sport in Israel. There are many Israeli grandmasters andIsraeli chess playershave won a number of youth world championships.[705]Israel stages an annual internationalchampionshipand hosted theWorld Team Chess Championshipin 2005.
See also
References
Notes
- ^Recognition by other UN member states: Russia (West Jerusalem),[1]theCzech Republic(West Jerusalem),[2]Honduras,[3]Guatemala,[4]Nauru,[5]and the United States.[6]
- ^Jerusalem is Israel's largest city if includingEast Jerusalem,which is widely recognized as occupied territory.[7]If East Jerusalem is not counted, the largest city would beTel Aviv.
- ^Arabic has a "special status" as set by theBasic Law of 2018,which allows it to be used by official institutions.[9][10]Prior to that law's passage, Arabic had been an official language alongside Hebrew.[11]
- ^abcIsraeli population and economic data covers the economic territory of Israel, including the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank.[345][346]
- ^Thepersonal name "Israel"appears much earlier, in material fromEbla.[63]
- ^/ˈɪzri.əl,-reɪ-/;Hebrew:יִשְׂרָאֵלYīsrāʾēl[jisʁaˈʔel];Arabic:إِسْرَائِيلʾIsrāʾīl
- ^Hebrew:מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵלMedīnat Yīsrāʾēl[mediˈnatjisʁaˈʔel];Arabic:دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيلDawlat Isrāʾīl
- ^TheJerusalem Lawstates that "Jerusalem, complete and united, is the capital of Israel" and the city serves as the seat of the government, home to the President's residence, government offices, supreme court, andparliament.United Nations Security Council Resolution 478(20 August 1980; 14–0, U.S. abstaining) declared the Jerusalem Law "null and void" and called on member states to withdraw their diplomatic missions from Jerusalem.[23]SeeStatus of Jerusalemfor more information.
Citations
- ^"Foreign Ministry statement regarding Palestinian-Israeli settlement".mid.ru.6 April 2017.Archivedfrom the original on 4 January 2020.Retrieved15 December2018.
- ^"Czech Republic announces it recognizes West Jerusalem as Israel's capital".The Jerusalem Post.6 December 2017.Archivedfrom the original on 3 March 2020.Retrieved6 December2017.
The Czech Republic currently, before the peace between Israel and Palestine is signed, recognizes Jerusalem to be in fact the capital of Israel in the borders of the demarcation line from 1967. "The Ministry also said that it would only consider relocating its embassy based on" results of negotiations.
- ^"Honduras recognizes Jerusalem as Israel's capital".The Times of Israel.29 August 2019.Archivedfrom the original on 3 December 2019.Retrieved29 August2019.
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- ^Kellerman 1993,p. 140.
- ^Akram, Susan M., Michael Dumper, Michael Lynk, and Iain Scobbie, eds. 2010.International Law and the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict: A Rights-Based Approach to Middle East Peace.Routledge. p. 119: "UN General Assembly Resolution 181 recommended the creation of an international zone, or corpus separatum, in Jerusalem to be administered by the UN for a 10-year period, after which there would be a referendum to determine its future. This approach applies equally to West and East Jerusalem and is not affected by the occupation of East Jerusalem in 1967. To a large extent it is this approach that still guides the diplomatic behaviour of states and thus has greater force in international law."
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The fear of territorial displacement and dispossession was to be the chief motor of Arab antagonism to Zionism down to 1948 (and indeed after 1967 as well).
Also quoted, among many, by Mark M. Ayyash (2019).Hermeneutics of Violence: A Four-Dimensional Conception.University of Toronto Press, p.195Archived22 March 2024 at theWayback Machine,ISBN1487505868.Accessed 22 March 2024. - ^Fildis, Ayse; Nisanci, Ensar (2019)."British Colonial Policy" Divide and Rule ": Fanning Arab Rivalry in Palestine"(PDF).International Journal of Islamic and Civilizational Studies.6(1). UTM Press.Archived(PDF)from the original on 10 May 2024.Retrieved10 May2024.
- ^Honaida Ghanim,Poetics of Disaster: Nationalism, Gender, and Social Change Among Palestinian Poets in Israel After Nakba,Archived6 November 2021 at theWayback MachineInternational Journal of Politics, Culture, and SocietyMarch 2009 Vol. 22, No. 1 pp.23-39 p.37
- ^Stern, Yoav (13 May 2008)."Palestinian refugees, Israeli left-wingers mark Nakba"Archived17 May 2021 at theWayback Machine.Haaretz.Nakba 60Archived12 June 2008 at theWayback Machine,BADIL Resource Center for Palestinian Residency and Refugee Rights; Cleveland, William L.A History of the Modern Middle East,Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 2004, p. 270.ISBN978-0-8133-4047-0
- ^Ghanim, Honaida (March 2009). "Poetics of Disaster: Nationalism, Gender, and Social Change Among Palestinian Poets in Israel After Nakba".International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society.22(1): 23–39 [25–26].doi:10.1007/s10767-009-9049-9.JSTOR40608203.S2CID144148068.
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The mass immigration from Arab countries began in mid-1949 and included three communities that relocated to Israel almost in their entirety: 31,000 Jews from Libya, 50,000 from Yemen, and 125,000 from Iraq. Additional immigrants arrived from Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia, Turkey, Iran, India, and elsewhere. Within three years, the Jewish population of Israel doubled. The ethnic composition of the population shifted as well, as immigrants from Muslim counties and their offspring now comprised one third of the Jewish population—an unprecedented phenomenon in global immigration history. From 1952–60, Israel regulated and restricted immigration from Muslim countries with a selective immigration policy based on economic criteria, and sent these immigrants, most of whom were North African, to peripheral Israeli settlements. The selective immigration policy ended in 1961 when, following an agreement between Israel and Morocco, about 100,000 Jews immigrated to the State. From 1952–68 about 600,000 Jews arrived in Israel, three quarters of whom were from Arab countries and the remaining immigrants were largely from Eastern Europe. Today fewer than 30,000 remain in Muslim countries, mostly concentrated in Iran and Turkey.
- ^Fischbach 2008,p. 26–27.
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- ^Noah Rayman (29 September 2014)."Mandatory Palestine: What It Was and Why It Matters".Time.Archivedfrom the original on 18 May 2019.Retrieved5 December2015.
- ^"Popular Opinion".The Palestine Post.7 December 1947. p. 1. Archived fromthe originalon 15 August 2012.
- ^Elli Wohlgelernter (30 April 1998)."One Day that Shook the world".The Jerusalem Post.Archived fromthe originalon 12 January 2012.
- ^"On the Move".Time.31 May 1948. Archived fromthe originalon 16 October 2007.Retrieved6 August2007.
- ^Levine, Robert A. (7 November 2000)."See Israel as a Jewish Nation-State, More or Less Democratic".The New York Times.Archivedfrom the original on 22 July 2016.Retrieved19 January2011.
- ^Geoffrey W. Bromiley (1995)."Israel".International Standard Bible Encyclopedia:E–J.Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 907.ISBN978-0-8028-3782-0.
- ^Barton & Bowden 2004,p. 126. "The Merneptah Stele... is arguably the oldest evidence outside the Bible for the existence of Israel as early as the 13th century BCE."
- ^Tchernov, Eitan(1988). "The Age of 'Ubeidiya Formation (Jordan Valley, Israel) and the Earliest Hominids in the Levant".Paléorient.14(2): 63–65.doi:10.3406/paleo.1988.4455.
- ^Rincon, Paul (14 October 2015)."Fossil teeth place humans in Asia '20,000 years early'".BBC News.Archivedfrom the original on 17 August 2017.Retrieved4 January2017.
- ^Bar-Yosef, Ofer(7 December 1998)."The Natufian Culture in the Levant, Threshold to the Origins of Agriculture"(PDF).Evolutionary Anthropology.6(5): 159–177.doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6505(1998)6:5<159::AID-EVAN4>3.0.CO;2-7.S2CID35814375.Archived(PDF)from the original on 16 July 2021.Retrieved4 January2017.
- ^Steiglitz, Robert (1992)."Migrations in the Ancient Near East".Anthropological Science.3(101): 263.Archivedfrom the original on 26 March 2023.Retrieved12 June2020.
- ^"Canaanites".obo.Archivedfrom the original on 3 April 2023.Retrieved1 December2023.
- ^Glassman, Ronald M. (2017), Glassman, Ronald M. (ed.),"The Political Structure of the Canaanite City-States: Monarchy and Merchant Oligarchy",The Origins of Democracy in Tribes, City-States and Nation-States,Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 473–477,doi:10.1007/978-3-319-51695-0_49,ISBN978-3-319-51695-0,archivedfrom the original on 29 April 2024,retrieved1 December2023
- ^Braunstein, Susan L. (2011). "The Meaning of Egyptian-Style Objects in the Late Bronze Cemeteries of Tell el-Farʿah (South)".Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research.364(364): 1–36.doi:10.5615/bullamerschoorie.364.0001.JSTOR10.5615/bullamerschoorie.364.0001.S2CID164054005.
- ^Dever, William G.Beyond the Texts,Society of Biblical Literature Press, 2017, pp. 89–93
- ^S. Richard, "Archaeological sources for the history of Palestine: The Early Bronze Age: The rise and collapse of urbanism",The Biblical Archaeologist(1987)
- ^K.L. Noll,Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: A Textbook on History and Religion,A&C Black, 2012, rev.ed. pp. 137ff.
- ^Thomas L. Thompson,Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written & Archaeological Sources,Brill, 2000 pp. 275–276: 'They are rather a very specific group among the population of Palestine which bears a name that occurs here for the first time that at a much later stage in Palestine's history bears a substantially different signification.'
- ^Hasel, Michael G. (1 January 1994). "Israel in the Merneptah Stela".Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research.296(296): 45–61.doi:10.2307/1357179.JSTOR1357179.S2CID164052192.
*Bertman, Stephen (14 July 2005).Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-518364-1.
*Meindert Dijkstra (2010). "Origins of Israel between history and ideology". InBecking, Bob;Grabbe, Lester (eds.).Between Evidence and Ideology Essays on the History of Ancient Israel read at the Joint Meeting of the Society for Old Testament Study and the Oud Testamentisch Werkgezelschap Lincoln, July 2009.Brill. p. 47.ISBN978-90-04-18737-5.As a West Semitic personal name it existed long before it became a tribal or a geographical name. This is not without significance, though is it rarely mentioned. We learn of a maryanu named ysr "il (*Yi¡sr—a" ilu) from Ugarit living in the same period, but the name was already used a thousand years before in Ebla. The word Israel originated as a West Semitic personal name. One of the many names that developed into the name of the ancestor of a clan, of a tribe and finally of a people and a nation.
- ^Lemche, Niels Peter (1998).The Israelites in History and Tradition.Westminster John Knox Press. p. 35.ISBN978-0-664-22727-2.
- ^Miller, James Maxwell; Hayes, John Haralson (1986).A History of Ancient Israel and Judah.Westminster John Knox Press.ISBN978-0-664-21262-9.
- ^Mark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000 BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (Eerdman's)
- ^Rendsberg, Gary (2008). "Israel without the Bible". In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5
- ^Gnuse, Robert Karl (1997).No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel.Sheffield Academic Press Ltd. pp. 28, 31.ISBN978-1-85075-657-6.
- ^Steiner, Richard C. (1997), "Ancient Hebrew", in Hetzron, Robert (ed.),The Semitic Languages,Routledge, pp. 145–173,ISBN978-0-415-05767-7
- ^Killebrew 2005,p. 230.
- ^Shahin 2005,p. 6.
- ^Dever, William (2001).What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It?.Eerdmans. pp. 98–99.ISBN978-3-927120-37-2.
After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible "historical figures" [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.
- ^Faust 2015,p. 476: "While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt.."
- ^Redmount 2001,p. 61: "A few authorities have concluded that the core events of the Exodus saga are entirely literary fabrications. But most biblical scholars still subscribe to some variation of the Documentary Hypothesis, and support the basic historicity of the biblical narrative."
- ^Dever, William (2001).What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It?.Eerdmans. pp. 98–99.ISBN978-3-927120-37-2.
After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible "historical figures" [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.
- ^Lipschits, Oded (2014)."The History of Israel in the Biblical Period".In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi (eds.).The Jewish Study Bible(2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-997846-5.Archivedfrom the original on 9 April 2023.Retrieved1 December2018.
- ^Kuhrt, Amiele (1995).The Ancient Near East.Routledge. p.438.ISBN978-0-415-16762-8.
- ^Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001).The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories(1st Touchstone ed.). Simon & Schuster.ISBN978-0-684-86912-4.
- ^Wright, Jacob L. (July 2014)."David, King of Judah (Not Israel)".The Bible and Interpretation.Archived fromthe originalon 1 March 2021.Retrieved15 May2021.
- ^Finkelstein, Israel, (2020)."Saul and Highlands of Benjamin Update: The Role of Jerusalem",in Joachim J. Krause, Omer Sergi, and Kristin Weingart (eds.),Saul, Benjamin, and the Emergence of Monarchy in Israel: Biblical and Archaeological Perspectives,SBL Press, Atlanta, GA, p. 48, footnote 57: "...They became territorial kingdoms later, Israel in the first half of the ninth century BCE and Judah in its second half..."
- ^The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995Archived9 April 2023 at theWayback MachineQuote: "For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date."
- ^Finkelstein & Silberman 2002,pp. 146–7: Put simply, while Judah was still economically marginal and backward, Israel was booming.... In the next chapter we will see how the northern kingdom suddenly appeared on the ancient Near Eastern stage as a major regional power.
- ^Finkelstein, Israel (2013).The Forgotten Kingdom: the archaeology and history of Northern Israel.pp. 65–66, 73, 78, 87–94.ISBN978-1-58983-911-3.OCLC880456140.
- ^Finkelstein, Israel (1 November 2011). "Observations on the Layout of Iron Age Samaria".Tel Aviv.38(2): 194–207.doi:10.1179/033443511x13099584885303.ISSN0334-4355.S2CID128814117.
- ^Israel., Finkelstein.The forgotten kingdom: the archaeology and history of Northern Israel.p. 74.ISBN978-1-58983-910-6.OCLC949151323.
- ^Broshi, Maguen (2001).Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls.Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 174.ISBN978-1-84127-201-6.Archivedfrom the original on 10 February 2023.Retrieved1 December2018.
- ^abBroshi, M., & Finkelstein, I. (1992)."The Population of Palestine in Iron Age II"Archived5 March 2023 at theWayback Machine.Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research,287(1), 47–60.
- ^Finkelstein & Silberman 2002,p. 307: "Intensive excavations throughout Jerusalem have shown that the city was indeed systematically destroyed by the Babylonians. The conflagration seems to have been general. When activity on the ridge of the City of David resumed in the Persian period, the-new suburbs on the western hill that had flourished since at least the time of Hezekiah were not reoccupied."
- ^Lipschits, Oded (1999). "The History of the Benjamin Region under Babylonian Rule".Tel Aviv.26(2): 155–190.doi:10.1179/tav.1999.1999.2.155.ISSN0334-4355.
- ^Wheeler, P. (2017). "Review of the book Song of Exile: The Enduring Mystery of Psalm 137, by David W. Stowe".The Catholic Biblical Quarterly.79(4): 696–697.doi:10.1353/cbq.2017.0092.S2CID171830838.
- ^ab"Second Temple Period (538 BCE to 70 CE) Persian Rule".Biu.ac.il.Archivedfrom the original on 16 January 1999.Retrieved15 March2014.
- ^Harper's Bible Dictionary,ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103
- ^Grabbe, Lester L. (2004).A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud – A History of the Persian Province of Judah v. 1.T & T Clark. p. 355.ISBN978-0-567-08998-4.Archivedfrom the original on 19 December 2023.Retrieved1 December2018.
- ^Helyer, Larry R.; McDonald, Lee Martin (2013). "The Hasmoneans and the Hasmonean Era". In Green, Joel B.; McDonald, Lee Martin (eds.).The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts.Baker Academic. pp. 45–47.ISBN978-0-8010-9861-1.OCLC961153992.
The ensuing power struggle left Hyrcanus with a free hand in Judea, and he quickly reasserted Jewish sovereignty... Hyrcanus then engaged in a series of military campaigns aimed at territorial expansion. He first conquered areas in the Transjordan. He then turned his attention to Samaria, which had long separated Judea from the northern Jewish settlements in Lower Galilee. In the south, Adora and Marisa were conquered; (Aristobulus') primary accomplishment was anne xing and Judaizing the region of Iturea, located between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains
- ^Ben-Sasson, H.H. (1976).A History of the Jewish People.Harvard University Press. p. 226.ISBN978-0-674-39731-6.
The expansion of Hasmonean Judea took place gradually. Under Jonathan, Judea annexed southern Samaria and began to expand in the direction of the coast plain... The main ethnic changes were the work of John Hyrcanus... it was in his days and those of his son Aristobulus that the annexation of Idumea, Samaria and Galilee and the consolidation of Jewish settlement in Trans-Jordan was completed. Alexander Jannai, continuing the work of his predecessors, expanded Judean rule to the entire coastal plain, from the Carmel to the Egyptian border... and to additional areas in Trans-Jordan, including some of the Greek cities there.
- ^Ben-Eliyahu, Eyal (30 April 2019).Identity and Territory: Jewish Perceptions of Space in Antiquity.Univ of California Press. p. 13.ISBN978-0-520-29360-1.OCLC1103519319.
From the beginning of the Second Temple period until the Muslim conquest—the land was part of imperial space. This was true from the early Persian period, as well as the time of Ptolemy and the Seleucids. The only exception was the Hasmonean Kingdom, with its sovereign Jewish rule—first over Judah and later, in Alexander Jannaeus's prime, extending to the coast, the north, and the eastern banks of the Jordan.
- ^abSchwartz, Seth (2014).The ancient Jews from Alexander to Muhammad.Cambridge University Press. pp. 85–86.ISBN978-1-107-04127-1.OCLC863044259.Archivedfrom the original on 3 April 2024.Retrieved4 February2024.
The year 70 ce marked transformations in demography, politics, Jewish civic status, Palestinian and more general Jewish economic and social structures, Jewish religious life beyond the sacrificial cult, and even Roman politics and the topography of the city of Rome itself. [...] The Revolt's failure had, to begin with, a demographic impact on the Jews of Palestine; many died in battle and as a result of siege conditions, not only in Jerusalem. [...] As indicated above, the figures for captives are conceivably more reliable. If 97,000 is roughly correct as a total for the war, it would mean that a huge percentage of the population was removed from the country, or at the very least displaced from their homes. Nevertheless, only sixty years later, there was a large enough population in the Judaean countryside to stage a massively disruptive second rebellion; this one appears to have ended, in 135, with devastation and depopulation of the district.
- ^Werner Eck, "Sklaven und Freigelassene von Römern in Iudaea und den angrenzenden Provinzen", Novum Testamentum 55 (2013): 1–21
- ^Raviv, Dvir; Ben David, Chaim (2021)."Cassius Dio's figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account?".Journal of Roman Archaeology.34(2): 585–607.doi:10.1017/S1047759421000271.ISSN1047-7594.S2CID245512193.
Scholars have long doubted the historical accuracy of Cassius Dio's account of the consequences of the Bar Kokhba War (Roman History 69.14). According to this text, considered the most reliable literary source for the Second Jewish Revolt, the war encompassed all of Judea: the Romans destroyed 985 villages and 50 fortresses, and killed 580,000 rebels. This article reassesses Cassius Dio's figures by drawing on new evidence from excavations and surveys in Judea, Transjordan, and the Galilee. Three research methods are combined: an ethno-archaeological comparison with the settlement picture in the Ottoman Period, comparison with similar settlement studies in the Galilee, and an evaluation of settled sites from the Middle Roman Period (70–136 CE). The study demonstrates the potential contribution of the archaeological record to this issue and supports the view of Cassius Dio's demographic data as a reliable account, which he based on contemporaneous documentation.
- ^abMor, Menahem (18 April 2016).The Second Jewish Revolt.BRILL. pp. 483–484.doi:10.1163/9789004314634.ISBN978-90-04-31463-4.
Land confiscation in Judaea was part of the suppression of the revolt policy of the Romans and punishment for the rebels. But the very claim that the sikarikon laws were annulled for settlement purposes seems to indicate that Jews continued to reside in Judaea even after the Second Revolt. There is no doubt that this area suffered the severest damage from the suppression of the revolt. Settlements in Judaea, such as Herodion and Bethar, had already been destroyed during the course of the revolt, and Jews were expelled from the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba. However, it should not be claimed that the region of Judaea was completely destroyed. Jews continued to live in areas such as Lod (Lydda), south of the Hebron Mountain, and the coastal regions. In other areas of the Land of Israel that did not have any direct connection with the Second Revolt, no settlement changes can be identified as resulting from it.
- ^Oppenheimer, A'haron and Oppenheimer, Nili.Between Rome and Babylon: Studies in Jewish Leadership and Society.Mohr Siebeck, 2005, p. 2.
- ^H.H. Ben-Sasson,A History of the Jewish People,Harvard University Press, 1976,ISBN978-0-674-39731-6,page 334: "In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature."
- ^Ariel Lewin.The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine.Getty Publications, 2005 p. 33. "It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name – one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus – Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land."ISBN978-0-89236-800-6
- ^Eusebius,Ecclesiastical History.4:6.3-4
- ^Cohn-Sherbok, Dan (1996).Atlas of Jewish History.Routledge. p. 58.ISBN978-0-415-08800-8.
- ^Lehmann, Clayton Miles (18 January 2007)."Palestine".Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces.University of South Dakota. Archived fromthe originalon 7 April 2013.Retrieved9 February2013.
- ^Judaism in late antiquity, Jacob Neusner, Bertold Spuler, Hady R Idris, Brill, 2001, p. 155
- ^The Darkening Age: The Christian Destruction of the Classical World by Catherine Nixey 2018
- ^abהר, משה דוד (2022). "היהודים בארץ-ישראל בימי האימפריה הרומית הנוצרית" [The Jews in the Land of Israel in the Days of the Christian Roman Empire].ארץ-ישראל בשלהי העת העתיקה: מבואות ומחקרים[Eretz Israel in Late Antiquity: Introductions and Studies] (in Hebrew). Vol. 1. ירושלים: יד יצחק בן-צבי. pp. 210–212.ISBN978-965-217-444-4.
- ^abEhrlich, Michael (2022).The Islamization of the Holy Land, 634–1800.Arc Humanities Press. pp. 3–4.ISBN978-1-64189-222-3.OCLC1302180905.
The Jewish community strove to recover from the catastrophic results of the Bar Kokhva revolt (132–135 CE). Although some of these attempts were relatively successful, the Jews never fully recovered. During the Late Roman and Byzantine periods, many Jews emigrated to thriving centres in the diaspora, especially Iraq, whereas some converted to Christianity and others continued to live in the Holy Land, especially in Galilee and the coastal plain. During the Byzantine period, the three provinces of Palestine included more than thirty cities, namely, settlements with a bishop see. After the Muslim conquest in the 630s, most of these cities declined and eventually disappeared. As a result, in many cases the local ecclesiastical administration weakened, while in others it simply ceased to exist. Consequently, many local Christians converted to Islam. Thus, almost twelve centuries later, when the army led by Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in the Holy Land, most of the local population was Muslim.
- ^David Goodblatt (2006). "The Political and Social History of the Jewish Community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638". In Steven Katz (ed.).The Cambridge History of Judaism.Vol. IV. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–430.ISBN978-0-521-77248-8.
Few would disagree that, in the century and a half before our period begins, the Jewish population of Judah () suffered a serious blow from which it never recovered. The destruction of the Jewish metropolis of Jerusalem and its environs and the eventual refounding of the city... had lasting repercussions. [...] However, in other parts of Palestine the Jewish population remained strong [...] What does seem clear is a different kind of change. Immigration of Christians and the conversion of pagans, Samaritans and Jews eventually produced a Christian majority
- ^Bar, Doron (2003). "The Christianisation of Rural Palestine during Late Antiquity".The Journal of Ecclesiastical History.54(3): 401–421.doi:10.1017/s0022046903007309.ISSN0022-0469.
The dominant view of the history of Palestine during the Byzantine period links the early phases of the consecration of the land during the fourth century and the substantial external financial investment that accompanied the building of churches on holy sites on the one hand with the Christianisation of the population on the other. Churches were erected primarily at the holy sites, 12 while at the same time Palestine's position and unique status as the Christian 'Holy Land' became more firmly rooted. All this, coupled with immigration and conversion, allegedly meant that the Christianisation of Palestine took place much more rapidly than that of other areas of the Roman empire, brought in its wake the annihilation of the pagan cults and meant that by the middle of the fifth century there was a clear Christian majority.
- ^Kohen, Elli (2007).History of the Byzantine Jews: A Microcosmos in the Thousand Year Empire.University Press of America.pp. 26–31.ISBN978-0-7618-3623-0.Archivedfrom the original on 19 December 2023.Retrieved30 March2023.
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- ^abלוי-רובין, מילכה; Levy-Rubin, Milka (2006). "The Influence of the Muslim Conquest on the Settlement Pattern of Palestine during the Early Muslim Period / הכיבוש כמעצב מפת היישוב של ארץ-ישראל בתקופה המוסלמית הקדומה".Cathedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv / קתדרה: לתולדות ארץ ישראל ויישובה(121): 53–78.ISSN0334-4657.JSTOR23407269.
- ^abEllenblum, Ronnie (2010).Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-511-58534-0.OCLC958547332.
From the data given above it can be concluded that the Muslim population of Central Samaria, during the early Muslim period, was not an autochthonous population which had converted to Christianity. They arrived there either by way of migration or as a result of a process of sedentarization of the nomads who had filled the vacuum created by the departing Samaritans at the end of the Byzantine period [...] To sum up: in the only rural region in Palestine in which, according to all the written and archeological sources, the process of Islamization was completed already in the twelfth century, there occurred events consistent with the model propounded by Levtzion and Vryonis: the region was abandoned by its original sedentary population and the vacuum was apparently filled by nomads who, at a later stage, gradually became sedentarized
- ^Gil, Moshe (1997).A History of Palestine, 634–1099.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-59984-9.
- ^Broshi, Magen (1979). "The Population of Western Palestine in the Roman-Byzantine Period".Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research.236(236): 1–10.doi:10.2307/1356664.ISSN0003-097X.JSTOR1356664.S2CID24341643.
- ^"crusades".Oxford English Dictionary(Online ed.).Oxford University Press.(Subscription orparticipating institution membershiprequired.)
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- ^abJoel Rappel, History of Eretz Israel from Prehistory up to 1882 (1980), vol. 2, p. 531. "In 1662 Sabbathai Sevi arrived to Jerusalem. It was the time when the Jewish settlements of Galilee were destroyed by the Druze: Tiberias was completely desolate and only a few of former Safed residents had returned...."
- ^D. Tamar, "On the Jews of Safed in the Days of the Ottoman Conquest" Cathedra 11 (1979), cited Dan Ben Amos, Dov Noy (eds.),Folktales of the Jews, V. 3 (Tales from Arab Lands),Jewish Publication Society 2011 p.61, n.3:Tamar..challenges David's conclusion concerning the severity of the riots against the Jews, arguing that the support of the Egyptian Jews saved the community of Safed from destruction'.
- ^The Solomon Goldman lectures.Spertus College of Judaica Press. 1999. p. 56.ISBN978-0-935982-57-2.
The Turks' conquest of the city in 1517, was marked by a violent pogrom of murder, rape, and plunder of Jewish homes. The surviving Jews fled to the "land of Beirut",not to return until 1533.
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- ^Moris, Beni (2001).Righteous victims: a history of the Zionist-Arab conflict, 1881 – 2001(1. Vintage Books ed.). New York, NY: Vintage Books.ISBN9780679744757.
Many of these newcomers possessed a mixture of socialist and nationalist values, and they eventually succeeded in setting up a separate Jewish economy, based wholly on Jewish labor.
- ^Romano 2003,p. 30.
- ^Moris, Beni (2001).Righteous victims: a history of the Zionist-Arab conflict, 1881 – 2001(1. Vintage Books ed.). New York, NY: Vintage Books.ISBN9780679744757.
Another major cause of antagonism was the labor controversy. The hard core of Second Aliyah socialists, who were to become the Yishuv's leaders in the 1920s and 1930s, believed that the settler economy must not depend on or exploit Arab labor... But, in reality, rather than "meshing," the nationalist ethos had simply overpowered and driven out the socialist ethos... There were other reasons for the "conquest of labor." The socialists of the Second Aliyah used the term to denote three things: overcoming the Jews' traditional remove from agricultural labor and helping them transform into the "new Jews"; struggling against employers for better conditions; and replacing Arabs with Jews in manual jobs.
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- ^Scharfstein 1996,p. 269. "During the First and Second Aliyot, there were many Arab attacks against Jewish settlements... In 1920,Hashomerwas disbanded andHaganah( "The Defense" ) was established. "
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- ^Walter Laqueur (2009).A History of Zionism: From the French Revolution to the Establishment of the State of Israel.Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.ISBN978-0-307-53085-1.Archivedfrom the original on 19 December 2023.Retrieved15 October2015.
- ^Hughes, M (2009)."The banality of brutality: British armed forces and the repression of the Arab Revolt in Palestine, 1936–39"(PDF).English Historical Review.CXXIV(507): 314–354.doi:10.1093/ehr/cep002.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 21 February 2016.
- ^Levenberg, Haim (1993).Military Preparations of the Arab Community in Palestine: 1945–1948.Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7146-3439-5, pp. 74–76
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- ^Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics, Village Statistics, 1945.
- ^Fraser 2004,p. 27.
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- ^The Terrorism Ahead: Confronting Transnational Violence in the Twenty-First | By Paul J. Smith | M.E. Sharpe, 2007 | p. 27
- ^Encyclopedia of Terrorism,Harvey W. Kushner,Sage, 2003 p. 181
- ^Encyclopædia BritannicaArchived17 April 2015 at theWayback Machinearticle on the Irgun Zvai Leumi
- ^The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945–1951: Arab Nationalism, the United States, and Postwar Imperialism. William Roger Louis, Oxford University Press, 1986, p. 430
- ^abClarke, Thurston.By Blood and Fire,G.P. Puttnam's Sons, 1981
- ^abBethell, Nicholas (1979).The Palestine Triangle.Andre Deutsch.
- ^"A/RES/106 (S-1)".General Assembly resolution.United Nations. 15 May 1947. Archived fromthe originalon 6 August 2012.Retrieved12 August2012.
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- ^Hoffman, Bruce:Anonymous Soldiers(2015)
- ^"British Colonial Office Statement upon Termination of the Mandate for Palestine - English (1948)".ecf.org.il.p. 10.Retrieved20 June2024.
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- ^Avneri, Aryeh L. (1984).The Claim of Dispossession: Jewish Land-Settlement and the Arabs, 1878–1948.Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-0-87855-964-0. Retrieved 2 May 2009, p. 224.
- ^Stein, Kenneth W. (1987) [Original in 1984]. The Land Question in Palestine, 1917–1939. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-4178-5. pp. 3–4, 247
- ^Nathan Thrall,The Only Language They Understand: Forcing Compromise in Israel and PalestineArchived19 December 2023 at theWayback Machine,Henry Holt and Company2017ISBN978-1-627-79710-8pp. 41,227 n.9.
- ^Imseis 2021,pp. 13–14: 'As to territorial boundaries, under the plan the Jewish State was allotted approximately 57 percent of the total area of Palestine even though the Jewish population comprised only 33 percent of the country. In addition, according to British records relied upon by the ad hoc committee, the Jewish population possessed registered ownership of only 5.6 percent of Palestine, and was eclipsed by the Arabs in land ownership in every one of Palestine's 16 sub-districts. Moreover, the quality of the land granted to the proposed Jewish state was highly skewed in its favour. UNSCOP reported that under its majority plan "[t]he Jews will have the more economically developed part of the country embracing practically the whole of the citrus-producing area" —Palestine's staple export crop—even though approximately half of the citrus-bearing land was owned by the Arabs. In addition, according to updated British records submitted to the ad hoc committee's two sub-committees, "of the irrigated, cultivable areas" of the country, 84 per cent would be in the Jewish State and 16 per cent would be in the Arab State ".'
- ^Morris 2008,p. 75: "The night of 29–30 November passed in the Yishuv's settlements in noisy public rejoicing. Most had sat glued to their radio sets broadcasting live from Flushing Meadow. A collective cry of joy went up when the two-thirds mark was achieved: a state had been sanctioned by the international community."
- ^abMorris 2008,p. 396: "The immediate trigger of the 1948 War was the November 1947 UN partition resolution. The Zionist movement, except for its fringes, accepted the proposal."
- ^Matthews, John:Israel-Palestine land divisionArchived5 October 2023 at theWayback Machine
- ^Imseis 2021,pp. 14–15: 'Although the Zionists had coveted the whole of Palestine, the Jewish Agency leadership pragmatically, if grudgingly, accepted Resolution 181(II). Although they were of the view that the Jewish national home promised in the Mandate was equivalent to a Jewish state, they well understood that such a claim could not be maintained under prevailing international law..Based on its own terms, it is impossible to escape the conclusion that the partition plan privileged European interests over those of Palestine's indigenous people and, as such, was an embodiment of the Eurocentricity of the international system that was allegedly a thing of the past. For this reason, the Arabs took a more principled position in line with prevailing international law, rejecting partition outright..This rejection has disingenuously been presented in some of the literature as indicative of political intransigence,69 and even hostility towards the Jews as Jews'
- ^Morris 2008,p. 66: at 1946 "The League demanded independence for Palestine as a" unitary "state, with an Arab majority and minority rights for the Jews.", p. 67: at 1947 "The League's Political Committee met in Sofar, Lebanon, on 16–19 September, and urged the Palestine Arabs to fight partition, which it called" aggression, "" without mercy. "The League promised them, in line with Bludan, assistance" in manpower, money and equipment "should the United Nations endorse partition.", p. 72: at December 1947 "The League vowed, in very general language," to try to stymie the partition plan and prevent the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine. ""
- ^Bregman 2002,pp. 40–41.
- ^Gelber, Yoav (2006).Palestine 1948.Sussex Academic Press. p. 17.ISBN978-1-902210-67-4.
- ^Morris 2008,p. 77–78.
- ^Tal, David (2003).War in Palestine, 1948: Israeli and Arab Strategy and Diplomacy.Routledge. p. 471.ISBN978-0-7146-5275-7.
- ^Morris 2008.
- ^Clifford, Clark, "Counsel to the President: A Memoir", 1991, p. 20.
- ^Henry Laurens(2007).La Question de Palestine.Vol. 3. Paris:Fayard.p. 104.
L'entrée en guerre des pays arabes pose un problem juridique complexe. Le franchissement des frontières peut constituer un acte d'aggression ou une menace contre la paix, justifiant une condannation et une intervention des Nations unies, mais si les armées pénètrent seulement dans la partie arabe du plan de partage, elles peuvent être considérées comme appelées par la population et à ce stade leur intervention ne serait pas par elle-même une menace contre la paix. Elle ne commencerait qu'avec l'attaque de la partie juive. Or, en certains points, les armées arabes menacent directement le territoire juif et dans d'autres les Juifs se sont déjà largement installés en territoire arabe.
[The entry into (the) war of the Arab countries poses a complex legal problem. The crossing of the borders can constitute an act of aggression or a threat against peace, justifying a condemnation and an intervention by the United Nations, but if the armies penetrate only the Arab part of the partition plan, they can be considered as called on (to do so) by the population and at this stage theirinterventionwould not in itself be a threat against the peace. That would only start were the Jewish part attacked. Now, the Arab armies do directly threaten Jewish territory at certain points while in others the Jews have already largely taken up positions in Arab territory.] - ^Karsh, Efraim (2002).The Arab–Israeli conflict: The Palestine War 1948.Osprey Publishing. p. 50.ISBN978-1-84176-372-9.
- ^Ben-Sasson 1985,p. 1058.
- ^Morris 2008,p. 205.
- ^Rabinovich, Itamar; Reinharz, Jehuda (2007).Israel in the Middle East: Documents and Readings on Society, Politics, and Foreign Relations, Pre-1948 to the Present.Brandeis. p.74.ISBN978-0-87451-962-4.
- ^David Tal (2004).War in Palestine, 1948: Israeli and Arab Strategy and Diplomacy.Routledge. p. 469.ISBN978-1-135-77513-1.Archivedfrom the original on 19 December 2023.Retrieved1 December2018.
some of the Arab armies invaded Palestine in order to prevent the establishment of a Jewish state, Transjordan...
- ^Morris 2008,p. 187: "A week before the armies marched, Azzam told Kirkbride:" It does not matter how many [Jews] there are. We will sweep them into the sea. "... Ahmed Shukeiry, one of Haj Amin al-Husseini's aides (and, later, the founding chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization), simply described the aim as" the elimination of the Jewish state. "... al-Quwwatli told his people:" Our army has entered... we shall win and we shall eradicate Zionism ""
- ^"PDF copy of Cablegram from the Secretary-General of the League of Arab States to the Secretary-General of the United Nations: S/745: 15 May 1948".Un.org. 9 September 2002. Archived fromthe originalon 7 January 2014.Retrieved13 October2013.
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- ^Shulewitz, Malka Hillel (2001).The Forgotten Millions: The Modern Jewish Exodus from Arab Lands.Continuum.ISBN978-0-8264-4764-7.
- ^Laskier, Michael "Egyptian Jewry under the Nasser Regime, 1956–70" pp. 573–619 fromMiddle Eastern Studies,Volume 31, Issue # 3, July 1995 p. 579.
- ^"Population, by Religion".Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. 2016.Archivedfrom the original on 18 September 2016.Retrieved4 September2016.
- ^Bard, Mitchell (2003).The Founding of the State of Israel.Greenhaven Press. p. 15.
- ^Hakohen, Devorah (2003).Immigrants in Turmoil: Mass Immigration to Israel and Its Repercussions in the 1950s and After.Syracuse University Press.ISBN978-0-8156-2969-6.;for ma'abarot population, see p. 269.
- ^Clive Jones, Emma Murphy,Israel: Challenges to Identity, Democracy, and the State,Routledge2002 p. 37: "Housing units earmarked for the Oriental Jews were often reallocated to European Jewish immigrants; Consigning Oriental Jews to the privations ofma'aborot(transit camps) for longer periods. "
- ^Segev 2007,pp. 155–157.
- ^Shindler 2002,pp. 49–50.
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Fedayeen to attack...almost always against civilians
- ^Gilbert 2005,p. 58.
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the removal of the Egyptian blockade of the Straits of Tiran at the entrance of the Gulf of Aqaba. The blockade closed Israel's sea lane to East Africa and the Far East, hindering the development of Israel's southern port of Eilat and its hinterland, the Nege. Another important objective of the Israeli war plan was the elimination of the terrorist bases in the Gaza Strip, from which daily fedayeen incursions into Israel made life unbearable for its southern population. And last but not least, the concentration of the Egyptian forces in the Sinai Peninsula, armed with the newly acquired weapons from the Soviet bloc, prepared for an attack on Israel. Here, Ben-Gurion believed, was a time bomb that had to be defused before it was too late. Reaching the Suez Canal did not figure at all in Israel's war objectives.
- ^Dominic Joseph Caraccilo (2011).Beyond Guns and Steel: A War Termination Strategy.ABC-CLIO. pp. 113–.ISBN978-0-313-39149-1.Archivedfrom the original on 19 December 2023.Retrieved1 December2018.
The escalation continued with the Egyptian blockade of the Straits of Tiran, and Nasser's nationalization of the Suez Canal in July 1956. On October 14, Nasser made clear his intent: "I am not solely fighting against Israel itself. My task is to deliver the Arab world from destruction through Israel's intrigue, which has its roots abroad. Our hatred is very strong. There is no sense in talking about peace with Israel. There is not even the smallest place for negotiations." Less than two weeks later, on October 25, Egypt signed a tripartite agreement with Syria and Jordan placing Nasser in command of all three armies. The continued blockade of the Suez Canal and Gulf of Aqaba to Israeli shipping, combined with the increased fedayeen attacks and the bellicosity of recent Arab statements, prompted Israel, with the backing of Britain and France, to attack Egypt on October 29, 1956.
- ^Alan Dowty (2005).Israel/Palestine.Polity. pp. 102–.ISBN978-0-7456-3202-5.Archivedfrom the original on 19 December 2023.Retrieved1 December2018.
Gamal Abdel Nasser, who declared in one speech that "Egypt has decided to dispatch her heroes, the disciples of Pharaoh and the sons of Islam and they will cleanse the land of Palestine....There will be no peace on Israel's border because we demand vengeance, and vengeance is Israel's death."...The level of violence against Israelis, soldiers and civilians alike, seemed to be rising inexorably.
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- ^Benny Morris (25 May 2011).Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–1998.Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 300, 301.ISBN978-0-307-78805-4.
[p. 300] In exchange (for Israeli withdrawal) the United states had indirectly promised to guarantee Israel's right of passage through the straits (to the Red sea) and its right to self defense if the Egyptian closed them....(p 301) The 1956 war resulted in a significant reduction of...Israeli border tension. Egypt refrained from reactivating the Fedaeen, and...Egypt and Jordan made great effort to curb infiltration
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Although Eshkol denounced the Egyptians, his response to this development was a model of moderation. His speech on 21 May demanded that Nasser withdraw his forces from Sinai but made no mention of the removal of UNEF from the Straits nor of what Israel would do if they were closed to Israeli shipping. The next day Nasser announced to an astonished world that henceforth the Straits were, indeed, closed to all Israeli ships
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The compromise, therefore, was to choose constructive ambiguity: as surprising as it may seem, there is no law that declares Judaism the official religion of Israel. However, there is no other law that declares Israel's neutrality toward all confessions. Judaism is not recognized as the official religion of the state, and even though the Jewish, Muslim and Christian clergy receive their salaries from the state, this fact does not make Israel a neutral state. This apparent pluralism cannot dissimulate the fact that Israel displays a clear and undoubtedly hierarchical pluralism in religious matters.... It is important to note that from a multicultural point of view, this self-restrained secularism allows Muslim law to be practiced in Israel for personal matters of the Muslim community. As surprising as it seems, if not paradoxical for a state in war, Israel is the only Western democratic country in which Sharia enjoys such an official status.
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It is true that Jewish Israelis, and secular Israelis in particular, conceive of religion as shaped by a state-sponsored religious establishment. There is no formal state religion in Israel, but the state gives its official recognition and financial support to particular religious communities, Jewish, Islamic and Christian, whose religious authorities and courts are empowered to deal with matters of personal status and family law, such as marriage, divorce, and alimony, that are binding on all members of the communities.
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Although there is no official religion in Israel, there is also no clear separation between religion and state. In Israeli public life, tensions frequently arise among different streams of Judaism: Ultra-Orthodox, National-Religious,Mesorati(Conservative), Reconstructionist Progressive (Reform), and varying combinations of traditionalism and non-observance. Despite this variety in religious observances in society, Orthodox Judaism prevails institutionally over the other streams. This boundary is an historical consequence of the unique evolution of the relationship between Israel nationalism and state building.... Since the founding period, in order to defuse religious tensions, the State of Israel has adopted what is known as the 'status quo,' an unwritten agreement stipulating that no further changes would be made in the status of religion, and that conflict between the observant and non-observant sectors would be handled circumstantially. The 'status quo' has since pertained to the legal status of both religious and secular Jews in Israel. This situation was designed to appease the religious sector, and has been upheld indefinitely through the disproportionate power of religious political parties in all subsequent coalition governments.... On one hand, the Declaration of Independence adopted in 1948 explicitly guarantees freedom of religion. On the other, it simultaneously prevents the separation of religion and state in Israel.
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- ^See for example:
*Hajjar, Lisa (2005).Courting Conflict: The Israeli Military Court System in the West Bank and Gaza.University of California Press. p. 96.ISBN978-0-520-24194-7.The Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza is the longest military occupation in modern times.
*Anderson, Perry(July–August 2001)."Editorial: Scurrying Towards Bethlehem".New Left Review.10.Archived fromthe originalon 1 October 2018.Retrieved9 January2015.longest official military occupation of modern history—currently entering its thirty-fifth year
*Makdisi, Saree(2010).Palestine Inside Out: An Everyday Occupation.W.W. Norton & Company.ISBN978-0-393-33844-7.longest-lasting military occupation of the modern age
*Kretzmer, David(Spring 2012)."The law of belligerent occupation in the Supreme Court of Israel"(PDF).International Review of the Red Cross.94(885): 207–236.doi:10.1017/S1816383112000446.S2CID32105258.This is probably the longest occupation in modern international relations, and it holds a central place in all literature on the law of belligerent occupation since the early 1970s
*Alexandrowicz, Ra'anan (24 January 2012)."The Justice of Occupation".The New York Times(opinion).Israel is the only modern state that has held territories under military occupation for over four decades
*Weill, Sharon (2014).The Role of National Courts in Applying International Humanitarian Law.Oxford University Press. p. 22.ISBN978-0-19-968542-4.Although the basic philosophy behind the law of military occupation is that it is a temporary situation modem occupations have well demonstrated thatrien ne dure comme le provisoireA significant number of post-1945 occupations have lasted more than two decades such as the occupations of Namibia by South Africa and of East Timor by Indonesia as well as the ongoing occupations of Northern Cyprus by Turkey and of Western Sahara by Morocco. The Israeli occupation of the Palestinian territories,which is the longest in all occupation's historyhas already entered its fifth decade.
* Azarova, Valentina. 2017,Israel's Unlawfully Prolonged Occupation: Consequences under an Integrated Legal Framework,European Council on Foreign Affairs Policy Brief: "June 2017 marks 50 years of Israel's belligerent occupation of Palestinian territory, making it the longest occupation in modern history." - ^"UNRWA in Figures: Figures as of 30 June 2009"(PDF).United Nations. June 2009.Retrieved27 September2007.
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- ^Yiftachel, O. (1999)."'Ethnocracy': The Politics of Judaizing Israel/Palestine "(PDF).Constellations.6(3): 364–390.doi:10.1111/1467-8675.00151.
Israel's political structure and settlement activity have [...] in effect undermined the existence of universal suffrage (as Jewish settlers in the Occupied Territories can vote to the parliament that governs them, but their Palestinian neighbours cannot).
[permanent dead link] - ^Ghanem, A. A.; Rouhana, N.; Yiftachel, O. (1998). "Questioning" ethnic democracy ": A response to Sammy Smooha".Israel Studies.3(2): 253–267.doi:10.2979/ISR.1998.3.2.253.JSTOR30245721.S2CID3524173.
settlers remain fully enfranchised Israeli citizens while their Palestinian neighbors have no voting rights and no impact on Israeli policies
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It is now clear that Israel is a true democracy in its broadest sense only for its Jewish citizens. The Arab-Israeli (or, as some prefer, the Palestinian-Israeli) peoples, roughly 20 percent of the total population of Israel its pre-1967 boundaries, are citizens and have voting rights, but they face political, economic, and social discrimination. And, of course, Israeli democracy is inapplicable to the nearly 4 million Palestinian Arabs in the West Bank and Gaza, conquered by Israel in June 1967, who are occupied, repressed, and in many ways, directly and indirectly, effectively ruled by Israel.
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- ^'A Threshold Crossed,'Archived3 March 2022 at theWayback MachineHuman Rights Watch27 April 2021 pp.7,57–63:' This policy, which aims to maximize Jewish Israeli control over land, concentrates the majority of Palestinians who live outside Israel's major, predominantly Jewish cities into dense, under-served enclaves and restricts their access to land and housing, while nurturing the growth of nearby Jewish communities.'
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(p.28) "The positions of the participants in the focus groups reflect the strength of Palestinian-Arab identity among Arab citizens and the fact that they do not see a contradiction between Palestinian-Arab national identity and Israeli civic identity. The designation" Israeli-Arab "aroused great opposition in the focus groups, as did Israel's Independence Day. A comparison of views expressed in the focus groups with the general results of the survey points to differences between collective positions and memory and individual feelings and attitudes. The collective position presented in the focus group discussions finds expression in the public sphere and emphasizes the Palestinian national identity. Conversely, the responses of the survey participants reveal individual attitudes that assign a broader (albeit secondary, identity) dimension to the component of Israeli civic identity"; quote (p.25): "Amongst the participants there was consensus that Palestinian identity occupies a central place in their consciousness. The definition" Palestinian "has national and emotional importance, as it embodies the heritage of Arab citizens and their culture. This was expressed explicitly in the words of the participants:" We are Palestinian Arabs and we say this with pride; "" We are Palestinian citizens of Israel. The emphasis is on the word 'Palestinians' ";" I am first and foremost a Palestinian and nothing more. "The designation" Arab citizens of Israel "was acceptable to them on the basis of the understanding that it is impossible to live without citizenship, and as long as Israeli citizenship does not harm the national consciousness. Conversely, the participants spoke out against the designation" Arab-Israeli "and made statements such as" I am an Arab, I belong to a larger culture than the State of Israel ";" We are not the Arabs of Israel, I am an Arab who does not belong to the State of Israel. My roots and my Arabness existed before them. "" [Arab-Israeli] is an inappropriate expression because our ancestors were here before '48. "
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In 1948, the newly independent state of Israel took over the old British regulations that had set English, Arabic, and Hebrew as official languages for Mandatory Palestine but, as mentioned, dropped English from the list. In spite of this, official language use has maintained a de facto role for English, after Hebrew but before Arabic.
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English is not considered official but it plays a dominant role in the educational and public life of Israeli society.... It is the language most widely used in commerce, business, formal papers, academia, and public interactions, public signs, road directions, names of buildings, etc. English behaves 'as if' it were the second and official language in Israel.
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In terms of English, there is no connection between the declared policies and statements and de facto practices. While English is not declared anywhere as an official language, the reality is that it has a very high and unique status in Israel. It is the main language of the academy, commerce, business, and the public space.
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- States and territories established in 1948
- West Asian countries
- States with limited recognition