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Stuart London

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Stuart London
1603–1714
Map of London from Westminster to Wapping, with small pictures of London landmarks at the bottom
Map of London c.1690, afterWenceslaus Hollar
LocationLondon
Monarch(s)James VI and I,Charles I of England,Charles II of England,James II of England,William III of EnglandandMary II of England,Anne, Queen of Great Britain
Leader(s)Oliver Cromwell,Richard Cromwell
Key eventsEnglish Civil War,Great Plague of London,Great Fire of London
Chronology
Tudor London 18th-century London
Part ofa serieson the
History ofLondon
See also
iconLondon portal

TheStuart periodin London began with the reign ofJames VI and Iin 1603 and ended with the death of Queen Anne in 1714. London grew massively in population during this period, from about 200,000 in 1600 to over 575,000 by 1700, and in physical size, sprawling outside its city walls to encompass previously outlying districts such asShoreditch,Clerkenwell,andWestminster.The city suffered several large periods of devastation, including theEnglish Civil Warand theGreat Fire of London,but new areas were built from scratch in what had previously been countryside, such asCovent Garden,Bloomsbury,andSt. James's,andthe Citywas rebuilt after the Fire by architects such asChristopher Wren.

London was also struck by waves of disease during this time, most notably theGreat Plaguein 1665.The period saw several attempts to enforce uniformity of worship fromCatholics,AnglicansandPuritans.Both Catholics andNonconformistProtestants were persecuted during this period. This resulted in some of the most famous conflicts and uprisings of the period, such as the Catholic-ledGunpowder Plot,the anti-CatholicPopish Plot,and the ousting of the Catholic king,James II,in favour of the ProtestantWilliam IIIin theGlorious Revolution.Capital and corporal punishment was often used as a penalty for crimes, withTyburnbeing a popular location for hangings.

London's trade began to develop into a modern economy, with the founding of theBank of Englandin 1694, and the early development of thestock marketand insurance markets such asLloyd's of London.London's merchants often met in the newly-introducedcoffeehouses,and the city became the hub of an emerging global empire, with the headquarters of colonial institutions such as theEast India Company.

London saw a flourishing of literature, philosophy, theatre and art during this time, as the home of writers and artists such asWilliam Shakespeare,John Milton,John Dryden,John Bunyan,Aphra Behn,Thomas Hobbes,John Locke,Anthony van Dyck,Peter Lely,Peter Paul Rubens,andGrinling Gibbons.The first English opera,The Siege of Rhodes,was produced in London in 1656. The city was home to important scientists such asWilliam Harvey,Robert Hooke,Isaac Newton,John Flamsteed,andEdmond Halley.

Demography[edit]

London experienced massive population growth during this period. In 1600, London's population was about 200,000.[1]By 1650 it was about 375,000, and by 1700 it was 575,000, making it by far the largest city in England throughout the period.[2][1][3]Between 1670-1700, its population was 420% greater than the next ten largest places in England put together.[4]The average height for male Londoners was 5'7½ "(172 cm) and the average height for female Londoners was 5'2¼" (158cm).[5]

In 1639, the number of foreigners living in Westminster and the City was estimated at 1,688- mostly French and Dutch, with some Belgians, Italians, Spaniards, Germans, and Poles.[6]A number of Greek Christian refugees arrived in London in the 1670s fleeing persecution from theOttoman Empire,and were permitted to build their own church.[7]London had some inhabitants from Turkey, who brought new businesses such as London's first coffeeshop and its firstTurkish bath.[8]After the Revocation of theEdict of Nantesin 1685, thousands of French Protestants calledHuguenotsfled to Britain, many coming to London, and in particular, Spitalfields. In 1697, there were 22 French Protestant churches in London.[9]Dutch, Italian, and Danish communities were also permitted to establish their own churches.[9][10]Thanks in part to immigrant communities, the population of the East End increased over 400% in this period, from 21,000 in 1600 to 91,000 in 1700.[11]Short-term visitors arrived in London from further afield. In 1616, the Native American womanPocahontasand her sonThomas Rolfearrived fromVirginia;[12]in 1682, two ambassadors arrived fromBantenin Indonesia called Kyayi Ngabehi Naya Wipraja and Kyayi Ngabehi Jaya Seidana;[13]and in 1698, theRussian tsarPeter the Greatstayed inSayes CourtinDeptfordfor four months.[14]

Although Jewish people were officially forbidden from living in England at the beginning of the period, there was a small group of Jewish families from Portugal and Spain living in London, outwardly professing to have converted to Catholicism.[15]This group included the merchantAntonio Fernandez Carvajal.[15]In 1656, the Lord ProtectorOliver Cromwellmade it known that he would no longer enforce the ban, and invited Jews to return.[15]The firstsynagogueof this period was built in 1657 on Creechurch Lane,[16]the first Jewish burial ground opened in the same year onMile End Road,[17]andBevis Marks synagoguewas built 1700-1701.[18]In 1660, there were about 35 Jewish families, mostly Polish and German, living in theEast End.[19]

An anonymous black pageboy andElizabeth MaitlandofHam HouseinRichmond,painted c.1651 byPeter Lely.

There were small numbers of black people living in London during this period, mostly enslaved people working in the houses of people who owned plantations in the Caribbean, and freed domestic servants.[20]Charles II bought a black pageboy, and in 1662,Lord Sandwichbought "a little Turk and a negro" for his daughters.[21]The diaristSamuel Pepyshad a black kitchen maid, and the naval officerWilliam Battenhad a black manservant called Mingo.[21]In 1684, the Barbados planter Robert Rich brought an enslaved woman called Katherine Auker to his house in London. She was mistreated and thrown out onto the streets, where she was imprisoned for vagrancy. Rich and his wife then returned to Barbados, leaving Auker imprisoned. She petitioned to be discharged from his service, but the court only released her "until such time as the said Rich shall return from Barbados".[22]

Topography[edit]

In the Stuart period, theCity of Londonwas still surrounded by itsRoman city wallon three sides, with theriver Thamesmaking the fourth side to the south.[23]However, the inhabited region expanded well beyond the bounds of the walls toWappingin the east andWestminsterin the west. Settlements that had previously been separate from London, like Shoreditch andClerkenwell,began to be subsumed by London's sprawl.[24]

Ordinary houses were often built of wood, with each storey projecting out from the stories below, such that in some places, they almost touched over the road.[25]After 1662, main roads were required to have lanterns burning over the doors of houses until 9 p.m., an early form of street lighting.[26]Many of the landmarks in Stuart London dated from before the period, such as theTower of London,London Stone,theRoyal Exchange,Baynard's Castle,theGuildhall,andLondon Bridge.[27]

Cheapsideas it looked in 1638 before theGreat Fire,with wooden houses overhanging the street. A parade is being thrown to welcome the arrival ofMarie de' Medici.

Building destruction[edit]

See also:Great Fire of London
A gateway at night, with huge flames coming out of the top. People can be seen in the foreground removing their belongings, and in the background London's cathedral burns.
The Great Fire of London, painted c.1670 by an unknown artist.

Several of London's buildings suffered serious damage during the English Civil War and in theInterregnumperiod, as they were put to use by Parliament's army or destroyed for ideological reasons.Charing Crosswas demolished in 1647.[28]St. Paul's Cathedralwas in a state of disrepair throughout the first half of the period, having been struck by lightning in 1561. In 1648, soldiers from theNew Model Armyused it as a stable, smashing the stained glass, ripping up pews for firewood, and even baptising a foal in the font.[29]The removal of scaffolding caused sections of the roof to collapse, and slum houses were built against the outer walls.[29]Parliamentary soldiers rioted through the streets of London,[30]and destroyed theSalisbury Court Theatre.[31]

On Sunday, 2 September 1666 theGreat Fire of Londonbroke out at one o'clock in the morning at a house onPudding Lanein the southern part of the City. Fanned by a southeasterly wind the fire spread quickly among the timber and thatched-roof buildings, which were primed to ignite after an unusually hot and dry summer.[32]Burning for several days, the Fire destroyed about 60% of the City, includingOld St Paul's Cathedral,87 parish churches, 44livery companyhalls and theRoyal Exchange.An estimated 13,200 houses were destroyed across 400 different streets and courts, leaving 100,000 people homeless. Huge camps of displaced Londoners formed around the City atMoorfields,St. George's Fieldsin Southwark, and to the north extending as far asHighgate.[33]Despite the destruction, the official death toll was only 4 people, likely an inaccurately low number.[34]Because of London's centrality as a port and financial center, the destruction of the fire affected the entire national economy. Losses were estimated at between £7 and £10 million according to contemporary estimates.[35]

Although the Great Fire is by far the most well-known, it was by no means the only fire to destroy large parts of London in this period. Fires destroyedHungerford Housein 1669; the Theatre Royal in 1672; 30 houses inSeething Lane,and about 100 inShadwellin 1673;Goring Housein 1674; 624 properties in Southwark in 1676;Montagu Housein 1686;Bridgewater Housein 1687; andthe Palace of Whitehallin 1698.[36]

There were large storms which caused building damage in this period, including in 1662, 1678, and 1690.[37]In 1703, there was a hurricane which pulled the roofs off houses, toppled chimneys and church spires, pushed ships in the Thames from London Bridge down toLimehouse,and killed several people.[38]

New building work[edit]

See also:Great Fire of London § Rebuilding
The interior of a church, facing down the aisle towards the altar. The ceiling is white and intricately patterned like lace.
The interior ofSt. Mary Aldermarychurch, one of the last London churches built in the Gothic style of architecture.

London's first new church since 1550 was theQueen's Chapelopposite St. James' Palace, built in the 1620s and designed byInigo Jones.[39]Jones became theSurveyor to the King's Worksin 1615, and so constructed several important new buildings in the first part of this period, such as theQueen's HouseinGreenwichandBanqueting HouseinWhitehall Palace.[39]Jones brought a new style of architecture to London, based onItalian Renaissancestyles bySebastiano SerlioandAndrea Palladio.[39]London's architects began to abandon theGothic architecturestyle in favour of aclassicalone in this period.[40]However, some Gothic churches were still built, such asSt. Mary Aldemary(c.1629) andSt. Alban Wood Street(1633-34).[41]Towards the end of the period,Queen Anne's Bountysaw new churches built to cope with London's growth in population, includingSt. Anne's Limehouse,designed byNicholas Hawksmoor;andSt. Paul's Deptford,designed byThomas Archer.[42]The last church built in this period wasSt. John's Smith Square,also designed by Thomas Archer.[43]

During the English Civil War, Parliament's forces built forts around London to reinforce it against sieges. Earthworks were constructed in a ring around the City fromTothill Fieldsto the Tower in the north and fromVauxhalltoTooley Streetin the south.[44]

A sandy-coloured church with four large columns and a triangular pediment on top.
St. Paul's Covent Garden, designed byInigo Jonesand the only remaining part of the original square

This period saw the first major development of what is now known as London's West End. Aristocrats and land developers bought chunks of farmland and countryside around Westminster and built houses on it, hoping to turn a profit renting or leasing those houses. Unlike previous London townhouses, these new building efforts were generally in brick or stone rather than wood.[41]In particular, theEarl of Bedford, Francis Russell,commissioned Inigo Jones to turn fields and orchards west of the City intoCovent Garden,a square of aristocratic townhouses surrounding a marketplace.[45]Jones based the project on the piazza inLivornoin Italy and thePlace des Vosgesin Paris, making the houses identical in order to give the impression that they were a single large mansion.[39]This was to become the model for future efforts: In 1690, theReverend R. Kirkwrote, "Since the burning, all London is built uniformly, the streets broader, the houses all of one form and height".[46]Pall MallandThe Mallare built in 1661.[47]St. James' Squareis built in 1665 underHenry Jermyn, Earl of St. Albans.[48]Three large mansions were built alongPiccadilly-Burlington House,Clarendon House,andBerkeley House.[48]Leicester Square,Soho SquareandGolden Squareare built in the 1670s,[48]andDowning Streetwas built in 1682.[49]Queen Anne's Gatewas built c.1704.[50]From the 1670s,sash windowswere increasingly used on upmarket houses such asMontagu Houseand palaces likeHampton Court.[51]

Further west, in 1677,Thomas Grosvenormarried Mary Davies, and thus gained her inheritance of 500 acres of marshland to the west of London. The family would go on to turn this land into the districts ofMayfair,BelgraviaandPimlico,much of which is still owned by the family today.[52]The builderThomas Younglaid outKensington Squarein 1685, and the royal court moved to the newKensington Palacea few years later, increasing demand for houses in the area.[53]

The area known asBloomsburybegan to be built on in this period;Southampton Squarewas built in 1660.[54]Red Lion Squarewas built in the 1680s under the speculatorNicholas If-Jesus-Christ-had-not-died-for-thee-thou-hadst-been-damned Barbon.[48]Barbon also had George Street,Villiers Street,Duke Street,Of Alley,and Buckingham Street built around the area of theStrandbetween 1674 and 1676.[41]Lord Hatton had a row of townhouses built calledHatton Garden,andLincoln's Inn FieldsandGreat Queen Streetwere built under the landowner William Newton.[54]

A church with an elaborate white spire.
St. Mary-le-Bowchurch, rebuilt by Christopher Wren after the Great Fire of London.

The East End was similarly developed, although with working-class houses rather than aristocratic ones.Hoxton Squareand the nearby Charles Square were both built in the 1680s.[55]The fields around St. Mary Spital church were filled in with houses, becomingSpitalfields,particularly after the influx of French Huguenot migrants in the 1680s and the establishment of a market in Spital Square in 1682.[55]

A great deal of rebuilding took place in the aftermath of theGreat Fire of Londonin 1666. St. Paul's Cathedral was rebuilt under the architectChristopher Wrenbetween 1670 and 1711.[1]He also rebuilt another 51 City churches, plus three outside the bounds of the Fire (St. Anne Soho,St. Clement Danes,andSt. James Piccadilly), for which he worked unpaid, although he did receive generous bribes from the parish authorities.[56]King Street and Queen Streetwere both created in the aftermath of the Fire, and many churches,livery hallsand the Royal Exchange were rebuilt.[57]After the Fire, laws were passed ensuring that new houses are built in stone or brick rather than wood.[57]TheMonument to the Firewas completed in 1676.[48]

In 1661, the King Charles Block of Greenwich Palace was built, designed byJohn Webb.[42]The old, disusedGreenwich Palacewas converted into theRoyal Hospital for Seamenin 1694, designed by Christopher Wren andNicholas Hawksmoor.This was not a hospital in the modern sense of the word, but a place where retired or disabled sailors could have somewhere affordable to live.[58]A similar project was theRoyal Hospital Chelsea,begun in 1682, but for soldiers rather than sailors.[42]

Other major new works in this period includeHam House(1610),[59]Charlton House(1612),[60]Forty Hall(begun 1629),[61]Eltham Lodge (1663),Lindsey House(1675),Gray's Inn(1676-1685),[62]Valentines Mansion(1690),[63]Fenton House(1693),[64]Schomberg House(1698),[14]Burgh House(1703),[38]andMarlborough House(1709).[65]

A row of ornate white porches hanging out from dark red brick houses.
Porches onQueen Anne's Gate,built at the end of the period
A brown brick house with large white rectangular windows.
The dark brown brick facade of 32Hoxton Square,part of the development of the East End.
A white building with columns and a grey dome.
St. Paul's Cathedral, designed byChristopher Wren
A long white building with very regular pilasters and rectangular windows.
The west face of King Charles Court in theGreenwich Hospital, London
An engraving of a large white mansion with a blue roof. People go past the front on horse and on foot.
Clarendon House,depicted in an engraving by William Skillman, c.1680

Transport[edit]

An old pub with galleries with white-painted balustrades.
The George Inn, the last coaching inn in London, built in the 1670s.

In the 1660s, there were about 9,000 horse-drawn coaches on the streets of London, both privately-owned and hired.[66]Londoners could hail one of 400hackney cabsthat operated on the streets.[67]To get to and from London from the rest of the country, there were about 300stage wagons,taking up to 20 people at a time.[68]There werestagecoachesoperating to towns such as Dover, Exeter, Bristol, Chester, York, and Edinburgh.[69]These would take passengers to and fromcoaching inns,the one remaining survival of which in London is theGeorge Inn,built from 1676.[70]In 1711, London saw its firstturnpike road,with toll booths placed on part of the modern-dayEdgware Roadin order to pay for the road's upkeep.[71]

Londoners often used boats to get across, or up and downriver,[68]particularly as there was only one bridge across the river in the city at this time.[72]Both the king and theLord Mayorhad goldenstate bargesto carry them about the Thames.[72]The most common boat on the Thames was awherry- a river taxi that can seat up to five people.[72]There was a ferry at Westminster called theHorseferry,which crossed the river back and forth at Westminster.[72]Construction began on turning theRiver Fleetinto a canal lined with wharves in 1670.[73]

War[edit]

See also:English Civil WarandGlorious Revolution
An 18th-century map showing the fortifications built around London during the English Civil War

By 1640, Charles I had not called a Parliament in 11 years, and was badly in need of funds. In this year, he asked the City of London for a loan of £100,000, and when that was refused, the demand increased to £200,000 and then £300,000.[74]Fouraldermenwere imprisoned as punishment for refusing to pay.[74]From 1642, tensions between King Charles I and his Parliament broke out into the English Civil War. London's pro-Royalist Lord Mayor,Richard Gurney,was impeached by its pro-ParliamentCommon Council,but refused to give up his insignia of office.[75]In that year,Royalistforces marched on London from the west. They seizedSyon Houseand bombarded Parliamentary barges on the Thames.[76]In November 1642, the RoyalistPrince Rupertlooted Brentford, but they were prevented from getting any closer to the capital.[76]In 1643, the City of London organised a ring of defences, often built by ordinary Londoners, including women and children.[77]Parliament captured the king, and in 1647 he was imprisoned inHampton Court Palacefor several months.[76]The ParliamentaryNew Model Armyused Putney as their headquarters from November 1647, and held a series of meetings there to discuss the future of the country called thePutney Debates.[76]

The arrival ofWilliam IIIinto London in 1688 depicted byRomeyn de Hooghe.Old St. Paul's Cathedralcan be seen on the horizon.

In 1648,Henry Richattempted to create an uprising in favour of the king, resulting in the Battle of Surbiton. However, he was summarily defeated and Londoners generally did not join the rebellion,[30]and Charles was executed on 30 January, 1649, outsideBanqueting House.[30]Without a king, England entered anInterregnumperiod in which the country was controlled by Parliament, particularly its military leader,Oliver Cromwell,until his death in 1659. The Lord Mayor of London refused to proclaim the abolition of the monarchy, and was imprisoned in the Tower as a result.[30]

Woolwichwas established as a military base in 1671, storing ordnance and experimental armaments.[58]

In 1685, the Catholic James II came to the throne, which angered anti-Catholic Anglicans and Dissenters.[78]After a failed rebellion by theDuke of Monmouth,James stationed troops outside London.[78]Seven bishops refused to accept a new law of his allowing greater toleration for Catholics and Nonconformists, and were imprisoned in the Tower of London, but were found not guilty. Londoners celebrated their release in the streets.[78]In 1688, several politicians contacted the husband of James' sister,William of Orange,inviting him to seize the throne.[78]He brought an army across theEnglish Channel,arriving in London in November in what was known as theGlorious Revolution.[78]Afterwards, Parliament passed a law banning Catholics from taking the throne, and supporters of James and his descendants, known asJacobites,continued to fight for the next 70 years.[78]

Health and medicine[edit]

See also:Great Plague of London
Two long medical tools, labelled "Rostrum anatis" and "forceps langa and terza".
A pair of obstetric forceps (right) illustrated inThe Expert Midwife,a midwifery text from 1637 published in London.

In non-plague years, the biggest cause of death in London from the 1660s-1690s wastuberculosis,being named as the cause of 18% of all deaths on average.[79]The second-biggest was "convulsions", orfits;the third was "ague and fever", which includesmalaria;followed by "griping in the guts" (dysentery),smallpoxandmeasles,rotten or abscessed teeth, old age, anddropsy.[79]

The preparations for thecoronationofKing James IandAnne of Denmarkin 1603 were interrupted by a severeplagueepidemic (which may have killed over 30,000 people) and by threats of assassination.[80]TheRoyal Entryto London was deferred until 15 March 1604.[81]Major epidemics of plague occurred in 1603, 1625, and most notably, 1665, known as theGreat Plague.[82]Modern estimates place the number of deaths in the Great Plague at upwards of 100,000, over one-quarter of London's total population.[83][84]

London's two main hospitals wereSt. Bartholomew'sandSt. Thomas'.[85]There were a number ofleperhospitals, including atHighgate(closed in 1653), andKingslandinHackney.[86]London had several hospitals for the mentally ill. The most famous was also the most notorious-St. Mary of Bethlehem,better known as Bedlam.[87]Inmates at Bedlam were able to be viewed by the public in return for a donation.[87]During this period, the hospital moved from its first location onBishopsgateto a site inMoorfields.[87]In 1684, the hospital gained a new governor inEdward Tyson,who attempted to reform the institution somewhat by replacing the male warders with female nurses, and establishing a fund to provide clothing for the inmates.[88]

During this period, theChamberlenfamily of midwives pioneered the use offorcepsduring a difficult birth.[89]Before the use of forceps, a child who could not be born was pulled out of the mother with hooks or cut up into smaller pieces, whereas the Chamberlens' method offered a chance of saving the baby as well as the mother.[89]To preserve their trade secret, they transported the forceps in an overly large wooden case.[89]The secret was so well-kept that no one else discovered it until after the last member of the family died without an heir in 1728.[89]

The most prestigious medical practitioners were the Fellows of theRoyal College of Physicians,who could be hired to see private clients for large fees, and most of whom were based in London. The most celebrated single physician of the age may beThomas Sydenham,known as "the EnglishHippocrates"due to his relatively high success rate.[90]

In 1674, theWorshipful Society of Apothecariesfirst opened theirPhysic Gardenin Chelsea in order to grow plants for medicine.[52]The garden may have included England's firstgreenhouse,which was recorded there by John Evelyn in 1685.[91]

Education[edit]

Statues of students ofGrey Coat Hospitalin Westminster

In 1611, the former monastery buildings atLondon Charterhousewere bought byThomas Sutton,who died shortly afterwards. In Sutton's will, he left the bulk of his estate, including the buildings at Charterhouse, to establishCharterhouse Schoolfor 40 boys and almshouses for 80 pensioners.[92]These were opened in 1614.[93]In 1603, James I knighted 133 men in a single evening in its Great Hall, and its governors included famous figures of the day such asFrancis Bacon,William Laud,and theDuke of Monmouth.[94]

The boys atSt. Paul's Schoolwere known for their plays, which were attended by talent scouts from professional theatres such as theGlobe.[95]Famous pupils of the school from this era includeJohn Milton,Samuel Pepys,John Churchill,[95]andEdmond Halley.[96]

The Shakesperean actorEdward AlleynfoundedDulwich Collegeas a school for poor boys in the 1610s.[97]The Latymer SchoolinFulhamreceived its first students in 1627.[61]Colfe's Schoolwas refounded in 1652,[98]andHaberdashers' Aske's Schoolwas established in 1690.[63]

In 1698, a new group called theSociety for Promoting Christian Knowledgewas founded at St. Mary-le-Bow in Cheapside.[99]The society in turn founded several charity schools, at which the students received a free uniform in a distinctive colour, often gaining a nickname such as "Bluecoats"or" Greencoats ".[99]TheGrey Coat Hospital Schoolwas one of these, founded by eight Westminster shopkeepers in order to educate the beggar children of the area.[99]In the next 12 years, 80 such schools were founded across London.[99]

Crime and law enforcement[edit]

Eight men are having an animated conversation.
The Gunpowder Plot conspirators.Guy Fawkesis pictured third from the right.

In October 1605, a search carried out in the basement of theHouses of Parliamentrevealed a man calledGuy Fawkeswith matches in his pocket and 36 barrels of gunpowder.[100]Fawkes had been recruited to join theGunpowder Plotby a group of fellow Catholics includingRobert Catesby,Thomas Percy,and John Wright.[101]The king was due to visit Parliament and Fawkes' plan was to blow the place up with the king inside. Several of the conspirators, including Fawkes, werehanged, drawn and quarteredinOld Palace Yardin Westminster.[102]

A riot of London apprentices took place onShrove Tuesdayin 1617. TheCockpit TheatreonDrury Lanewas stormed, and the mob destroyed the actors' costumes, sets and scripts. InWapping,several houses were pulled down and the sheriff pelted with stones.[97]In 1661, a Christian sect called theFifth Monarchistsrioted in the streets for two days in London. They were led by a wine merchant called James Venner, and believed that they must pave the way for the return of Christ and the Fifth Monarchy prophesied byDanielin the Bible. They opposed theRestoration of Charles IIand theChurch of England.About 40 people were killed during the riots.[103]OnSt. David's Dayin 1662, the Welshmen of London celebrated by wearing a leek in their hats, while the English put up mocking dolls and scarecrows with leeks in their hats. While drunk, an English cook put a leek in his own hat and addressed a Welsh lord as his "fellow countryman". The mockery turned into a fight with swords drawn, and the Welsh lord and his retinue were forced to flee onto the Thames.[104]TheSacheverell Riotstook place in 1710 in support ofHenry Sacheverell,whose anti-Nonconformist sermons were thought seditious by the government. Nonconformist buildings and the homes of politicians were attacked. Sacheverell was found guilty, but given a very light sentence, and his supporters celebrated the verdict all over London.[105]

In 1674, workmen at the Tower of London discovered a box underneath a staircase containing the skeletons of two children. These were presumed to be thePrinces in the Tower,15th-century royal boys who were thought to have been murdered on the orders ofRichard III.The bodies were buried in Westminster Abbey with royal honours.[52]

Duelling,either with pistols or with swords, was a popular way for upper-class men to settle arguments, although they were not legal. In 1694, a duel took place between John Law and Beau Wilson in Bloomsbury Square. Wilson was killed and Law convicted of his murder and sent toNewgate Prison.[64]

Each of the City's wards had a constable whose job was to keep order by breaking up fights and, if necessary, making arrests. There was a town watch made up of selected men who patrol the streets armed with halberds.[106]From the Interregnum period, London also had a trained band of soldiers who drilled inFinsbury Fieldswho marched about the city with pikes once a week. There were 800 Parliamentary soldiers who were stationed in theOld St Paul's Cathedralas it was a central meeting place at the time.[16]

Religious suppression[edit]

A print made in London in 1699 satirising aQuakermeeting. Prominent QuakersGeorge WhiteheadandWilliam Pennare present, and the journal ofGeorge Foxlies in front of them on a table.

Religion was very important in Stuart London, with one's chosen sect of Christianity often being a matter of life or death. Anti-Catholic feeling in particular was very strong. In 1662, theAct of Uniformityordered everyone to worship according to theChurch of England's1662Book of Common Prayer,and Charles II's attempts to introduce complete religious toleration in 1672 were thwarted due to anti-Catholic feeling, although non-demoninational Protestants were allowed to worship in licensed buildings, and Catholics were allowed to worship in private.[107]When the Catholic James II became king in 1688, London Catholics were able to openly celebrate Mass, with the diarist John Evelyn "not believing I should ever have lived to see such things in the King of England's palace, after it had pleased God to enlighten this nation".[78]

1678 saw the anti-Catholic mania of thePopish Plot.A man calledTitus Oateswent before the magistrateEdmund Godfreyto report a conspiracy of Catholics plotting to overthrow King Charles II in favour of his brother, the Catholic James II. Parliament empowered Oates with a band of armed men and permission to root out the conspirators. Godfrey was found murdered and an anti-Catholic panic quickly set in amongst Londoners. People were arrested simply for being in contact with Catholics, and Oates named five noblemen, one of whom,Lord Stafford,was executed. By 1681, 35 people had been executed as a result of Oates' fabrications.[108]

NonconformistProtestants were similarly heavily persecuted, particularly after the Restoration of 1660, as nonconformists were thought to be particularly anti-monarchy. Under the 1665Five Mile Act,nonconformist preachers and schools were banned from operating within five miles of the city walls, so chapels were often set up in London's outlying villages, in places likeHighgate,Hampstead,andChelsea.[109]England's firstBaptistchurch was built in Spitalfields in 1612.[60]TheQuakermovement was founded based on the preacherGeorge Fox'steachings in the 1640s, but was heavily suppressed both legally and socially. Meetings of five or more Quakers were made illegal from 1662, and so many were imprisoned in London based on this law. AQuaker meeting housewas built in London in 1668, despite the fact that attending meetings there did not become legal until theToleration Act 1688,20 years later.[110]The whole congregation of aSeventh Day Baptistchurch in Bulstake Alley, Whitechapel, was arrested and sent toNewgate Prison,and their preacher, John James, was found guilty of treason, andhanged, drawn and quarteredatTyburn.[111]

Punishments[edit]

A man wearing a long wig stands in the pillory, while surrounded by portraits of eight other men.
Titus Oates,the orchestrator of thePopish Plot,sentenced to stand in the pillory. He is surrounded by portraits of other characters in the events.

Capital and corporal punishments were widely used.Tyburn,the main execution ground after 1660,[112]had a unique three-sided gallows to allow 24 people to be hanged simultaneously.[113]For example, the famoushighwaymanClaude Duvalwas hanged at Tyburn in 1670.[73]Beheading was used as a punishment for those convicted of treason, such as the explorerWalter Raleigh,who was beheaded at the Old Palace Yard in Westminster in 1618.[114]A particularly famous executioner of the period wasJack Ketch,who beheaded theDuke of Monmouthin 1685.[53]The heads of people sentenced to be hanged, drawn and quartered were displayed on spikes overLondon Bridge[115]orTemple Bar.[116]When Charles II returned to London in 1660, those that had signed his father's death warrant were sentenced to be hanged, drawn and quartered atCharing Cross.[117]Burning at the stake was used as a punishment for women convicted of treason, such as Sarah Elston, who was burned atKennington Commonin 1678 for the murder of her husband.[7]Pirates, having committed their crimes outside the British mainland, were generally hanged atWappingon the water's edge, at low tide. Their bodies were left on the gallows until the tide had risen over them three times. Some were then dipped in tar and displayed in cages calledgibbetsalong the river's edge as a warning to other would-be pirates.[118]Captain William Kiddwas executed in this manner in 1701.[119]Those who refused to plead in court were sentenced to sufferpeine forte et dure- being crushed under heavy stones and starved to death.[120]This was carried out on two men called David Pearce and William Stoaks after they refused to swear at theOld Baileyin 1673.[120]

Transportationwas increasingly used throughout this period, generally to Virginia orMarylandin America. The ships which volunteered to transport prisoners could make money from contracting out their labour upon their arrival.[121]

Whipping and thepillorywere common punishments for lesser offences.[122]In 1690, a boy called Philip Clarke was sentenced to walk with his hands tied to the back of a cart fromNewgate PrisontoAldgate,being whipped along the way. His crime was stealing a pair of gloves.[122]Women and children were often sentenced to be whipped atBridewell,which was seen as less publicly humiliating than being whipped through the streets.[122]In 1698, a captain called Edward Rigby was sentenced to the pillory for buggery, after being caught in a sting operation at the George Tavern onPall Mallset up by theSociety for the Reformation of Manners.He was able to draw on his powerful connections and was allowed to stand next to the pillory rather than be locked in it, with a guard of constables to make sure the crowd didn't become violent.[123]

London had several places to imprison those convicted of crimes and those awaiting a hearing, including theTower of London,Ludgate,Newgate,Ely Place(from 1642),Poultry Compter,Wood Street Compter,theFleet,Bridewell,Clerkenwell Bridewell,theGatehouseat Westminster,Tothill Fields Bridewell,theClink,theMarshalsea,the Clink Compter, and theKing's Bench.[124]When prisons were overcrowded, it was easy for "gaol fever" (a form oftyphus) to spread between inmates,[125]with Newgate in particular having such poor sanitary conditions that shops in the local area closed in warm weather because of the smell.[126]TheFleet Prisonwas known for its priests who could perform speedy or secret marriages.[127]Debtors' prisonssuch as the Fleet existed to incarcerate people who could not pay off their debts. Until 1670, debtors had to pay for bed and board inside the gaol; after this date, any debtor who had less than £10 could have their creditors pay for their upkeep. In 1671, the publisherMoses Pittwrote a condemnation of his time in the Fleet Prison calledThe Cry of the Oppressed.[128]

There are also examples of Londoners carrying out extra-legal punishments in this period. For example, in 1696, a tailor breached thesanctuaryof theSavoyin order to collect a debt he was owed. He wastarred and featheredand tied to the localmaypole.[129]

Trade and industry[edit]

10 men wearing long wigs gather around a desk, looking at some paperwork.
The charter of the Bank of England being sealed, 1694, as illustrated by Lady Jane Lindsay in 1905

This period saw the establishment of many large and important banking institutions in London.Francis ChildestablishedChild's Bank;Richard HoareestablishedC. Hoare & Co.;John Freameand Thomas Gould established what would becomeBarclays Bank,and John Campbell foundedCoutts Bankin 1692.[130]TheBank of Englandwas founded in 1694, and it soon began issuing its firstbanknotes.[131]In 1659, the first cheque was paid out, by the bankers Clayton & Morris on Cornhill.[132]In the 1690s, England's coinage was in crisis due to large amounts ofcoin clipping.The scientistIsaac Newtonwas put in charge of theRoyal Mintin theTower of London,and under his leadership it produced an entirely new coinage.[133]

Edward Lloyd's Coffee House opened in the 1680s and was particularly popular with ship captains and insurance underwriters. By 1692, Lloyd was producing a newsletter which went on to becomeLloyd's List,and the coffee house still lends its name toLloyd's of London,one of the largest insurance markets in the world.[134]In 1698, John Castaing began to list stock prices forjoint-stock companiesin a newsletter calledThe Course of the Exchange(referring to theRoyal Exchange),presaging the development of thestock market.[134]

Certain streets were often known for a particular kind of shop or trade. For example,Thames Streetwas known for candlemakers,Cheapsidefor goldsmiths,Cannon Streetfor linen shops, andLittle Britainfor second-hand book stalls.[135]There were four large Exchanges which acted as luxury shopping centres as well as meeting places for merchants; theRoyal ExchangeonCornhill,and the New Exchange, the Middle Exchange, and theExeter Exchangeon theStrand.[136]The two main general markets were onCheapsideandGracechurch Street.[137]There was a fruit and vegetable market onAldersgate Street,a fish market onBillingsgate,a cloth market atBlackwell Hall,a meat market onEastcheap,a fish market onFish Street Hill,a meat and leather market atLeadenhall,a meal market onNewgate Street,a fish market on Old Fish Street, a meal and flour market atQueenhithe,a meat market atSt. Nicholas Shambles,a fruit and vegetable market inSt. Paul's Churchyard,a livestock market atSmithfield,and a meat and fish market atStocks.[137]From 1670, Covent Garden became an important fruit, vegetable and flower market for the newly-built West End.[138]

London became a major hub at the centre of a burgeoning empire. TheEast India Companywas established just before the beginning of the period, in 1600, and continued to operate from various London headquarters throughout, establishing trading posts in India.[55]In 1607, they opened a shipbuilding yard atBlackwall.[139]In 1606, a voyage from Blackwall set off to colonise Virginia in America.[140]Goods flowed into London's port from colonies in North America, including colonies in theWest Indieswhich relied on slave labour.[55]As the amount of shipping coming into London grew, the wharves in thePool of London- the part of the Thames next to the City- grew increasingly crowded, and so docks further downstream in places likeDeptford,GreenwichandPoplarbecame more important.[139]

Culture and entertainment[edit]

A young man turned to face the viewer, with a large puffy hat and a ruffled shirt with big, billowing sleeves.
The rope-dancerJacob Hall,by Pierre de Bruyn afterJacob van Oost the Younger

Several large fairs were held throughout the year around London, with the largest beingBartholomew FairinSmithfield,held at the end of August.[141]It featured acrobats, circus acts, freak shows and theatrical performances alongside market stalls. Famous performers in London included the acrobatJacob Hall.[142]St. Margaret's Fair took place in Southwark in September,[143]and a May Fair was held in the region of modern-day Mayfair. Its most famous character was agingerbreadseller called Tiddy Doll, who dressed like a gentleman with a suit trimmed in gold lace.[65]In January 1684, afrost fairwas held on the Thames, which had frozen solid enough not only to walk on, but to drive a coach, erect tents, and even roast an ox on.[144]Many of the traditional celebrations for religious festivals such as Christmas were banned or suppressed during the Interregnum period.[98]

Blood sports such asbear-baiting,bull-baitingandcockfightswere popular, and there is even a recorded instance of lion-baiting in 1604, when threemastiffswere pitted against a lion from the Tower of London with the king and queen in attendance. The lion and one of the dogs survived; the dog was adopted bySt. James's Palaceas a reward.[145]

In Lambeth, visitors could see Tradescant's Ark, a collection of rare plants and other curios put together byJohn Tradescant the ElderandJohn Tradescant the Younger.[146]Other private houses had similar collections of curiosities, such as that belonging toThomas Browne,William Charlton, theRoyal Society,andHans Sloane,the latter of which went on to become the core of theBritish Museum.[146]

Tourists came to London for sightseeing, particularly Whitehall Palace, the Royal Exchange, Westminster Abbey,Nonsuch Palace,St. Paul's Cathedral, Hampton Court Palace, the tapestry makers atMortlake,and theTower of London.[147]

1661 saw the opening ofVauxhall Gardens,which featured ornamental plantings, concerts, food and spectacles, and was known as a place to have secret liaisons.[47]

Literature[edit]

The writerAphra Behn,painted byPeter Lelyc.1670.

Poetry was the most important form of literature in this period.[148]Famous poets of the period includedWilliam Shakespeare,John Denham,Margaret Cavendish,John Milton,andJohn Dryden.[148]In 1668, Charles II appointed John Dryden as the very firstPoet Laureate.He was succeeded byThomas ShadwellandNahum Tate.[148]

The form of the novel began to coalesce in the latter half of the period, with works by London authors such asJohn Bunyan'sThe Pilgrim's ProgressandAphra Behn'sOroonoko.[149]There were also important works of philosophy being written such asThomas Hobbes'LeviathanandJohn Locke'sTwo Treatises of Government.[150]

London saw several wealthy men accrue large private libraries in this period.Lambeth Palace Librarywas founded in 1610 by theArchbishop of Canterbury,Richard Bancroft.[59]The largest private library in the country was owned by theEarl of Anglesey, Arthur Annesley,at his house nearDrury Lane.It was broken up after his death in 1686.[151]TheBishop of Worcester's house inTwickenhamhad 6,000 books in 1689, and the diaristJohn Evelynhad 5,000.[151]St. James' Palacehad the "Old Royal Library",containing 2,000 medieval manuscripts.[151]

Other important publications from this period include Britain's first daily newspaper,TheDaily Courant,which began publication in London in 1702, and could be bought near the Fleet Bridge;[119]andThe Tatler,which was first published in 1709, and contained society gossip and caricatures of prominent figures.[65]

Theatre[edit]

See also:Shakespearean theatreandRestoration Theatre
A black man wearing a turban clutches his head, and a white woman holds a handkerchief. There is a second woman hiding behind a column.
A scene fromOthello,painted in 1859 byDaniel Maclise.

The playwrightWilliam Shakespearewas working in London at the beginning of this period, and some of his most famous tragedies come from the 1600s, such asOthello,King Lear,andMacbeth.[152]Within ten days of taking the throne,King James Igave Shakespeare's theatre troupe his royal patronage, making them the "King's Men".[153]In 1608, the company moved into a site atBlackfriarsand built their firstindoor theatre.[154]It had 700 seats, was lit by candlelight, and had a roof, meaning the company could put on plays during winter.[154]In 1623, after Shakespeare's death, his colleaguesJohn HemingesandHenry Condellpublished a collected version of his plays known as theFirst Folio.[155]

James I was particularly fond of a type of theatre called amasque.[156]These featured courtiers, or occasionally even the king himself, dressed as allegorical concepts and included song, dance, and live animals.[156]They were the only mode of theatre at the beginning of the period open to women.[156]The playwrightBen Jonsonalso wrote masques, such asSatyrandThe Masque of Blackness.[157]The opening of the New Exchange on 11 April 1609,[158]a market and retail centre, was celebrated with a masque,The Entertainment at Britain's Burse,[159]and theLord Mayor's Show,which had been discontinued for some years, was revived by order of the king. In 1610,Prince Henrywas madePrince of Wales.The event was celebrated by anothermasque,Tethys' FestivalatWhitehall Palaceand a pageant on theRiver Thames,London's Love to Prince Henry.[160]

Three men looking at each other. One is dressed in tartan, one is wearing a large wig and bows on his shoes, and one is wearing black and white.
The Theatre Royal actor John Lacy in three of his most celebrated roles: the title role fromSauny the Scot;Monsieur Device fromThe Country Chaplain;and Parson Scruple fromThe Cheats.

During theInterregnumperiod, masques[161]and maypoles were prohibited.[16]All London playhouses, including theGlobe Theatre,were closed in 1642, and either converted to other uses or destroyed.[162]The theatrical producerWilliam Davenantwas able to circumvent the law on theatre by adding music to his play and advertising it as a concert. It becameThe Siege of Rhodes,the first true English opera, and premiered in London in 1656.[163]It was also the first English production to use scenery.[163]After the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660,Thomas Killigrewand William Davenant were given an exclusive royal licence to stage plays in London.[164]They formed theKing's Companyand theDuke's Company,the two main acting troupes in the capital.[164]The King's Company initially had their home atGibbon's Tennis Courtin Vere Street, and in 1663 opened theirTheatre Royalin Bridges Street, which burned down in 1672.[164]The Duke's Company was first based in theSalisbury Court Theatre,then in the Duke's Theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields, and from 1671 in theDorset Garden Theatre.[164]In 1682 the two companies merged to form theUnited Company,[164]putting on operas at the Dorset Garden Theatre and straight plays at the Theatre Royal.[164]In 1695, a group of actors from the United Company split off to form their own company at the Duke's Theatre.[164]

Successful playwrights of the Restoration period included John Dryden,George Etherege,Charles Sedley,William Wycherley,Thomas Shadwell,Thomas Otway,John Vanbrugh,William Congreve,and Aphra Behn (often called the first British woman to make a living from writing).[165]The most famous actor of the Restoration period wasThomas Betterton.[166]Women actresses began to appear onstage in London from 1661, and the most famous areNell Gwyn,Elizabeth BarryandAnne Bracegirdle.[167]

The Italian theatrical form ofcommedia dell'artecame to London, featuring half-masked actors or puppets playing recurring characters such as Harlequin, Columbine, and Pierrot.[168]The traditionalPunch and Judypuppet show grew out of the commedia dell'arte tradition, and was first recorded in London in 1662.[168]

Sports[edit]

Bowlingwas incredibly popular, with bowling greens and alleys set up in theFleet Prison,and even on a boat floating on the Thames.[169]The diaristSamuel Pepysplayed with his wife in 1661.[169]Its popularity came from it being one of the few sports that men and women could play together, and many people gambled large sums on the outcome of games.[169]

Pepys also attended afencingdisplay at the New Theatre near Lincoln's Inn Fields. These were popular forms of entertainment, and the fencers used swords that were only slightly blunted, so both participants were liable to be covered in blood by the end.[170]Wrestling matches took places in Moorfields or in the Bear Garden on Bankside, and saw some of the largest amounts of gambling outside of horse races. In 1667, a team ofWest Countrymenwon a wrestling competition against a team ofnorthernersinSt. James's Parkfor a cash prize of £1000.[147]

Music[edit]

"Dido's Lament" fromDido and Aeneasby Henry Purcell, performed by Les Arts Florissants in 2020

Most forms of music were forbidden during the Interregnum period, but after Charles II returned to the throne in 1660, church music, cathedral choirs, church organs, and tavern music were reinstated.[161]Nicholas Lanierwas the Master of the King's Music for Charles I and Charles II, and was succeeded byLouis Grabu.[171]The public concert was developed in this period, with the first example often cited asJohn Banister's1672 violin recital nearTemple Churchin London.[172]Significant London composers includeMatthew Locke,Henry Lawes,Pelham Humfrey,William Turner,John Blow,and most famously,Henry Purcell.[172]

Art[edit]

Grinling Gibbonswas a master woodcarver working in London in this period, living in a small thatched cottage in Deptford.[173]

The art-form of portraiture was particularly strong in this period, fuelled by major court painters such asAnthony van Dyck,Peter Lely,andGodfrey Kneller.[174]The court painterJohn Rileypainted full-length portraits of servants at the court ofKing WilliamandQueen Mary,including one ofBridget Holmes,the woman who emptied the king's chamber pot.[175]London saw its first professional female artists in this period, such asMary Beale.[176]

Peter Paul Rubenswas active in London during this period, painting the ceiling of Banqueting House in the Palace of Whitehall.

A wreath of flowers, apples, grapes and plums made out of wood.
Grinling Gibbons' work inHampton Court Palace
Charles I riding a white horse through an archway. A man in red carries his helmet.
"Charles I with M. de St Antoine" by Anthony van Dyck, painted 1636
On a painted ceiling, angels surround a king dressed in red.
"The Apotheosis of James I" byPeter Paul Rubenson the ceiling ofBanqueting House
A woman wearing a white hood and apron holds a broom. A boy wearing a rich blue suit pulls back a curtain to look at her.
"Bridget Holmes" by John Riley, painted 1686
A woman in a purple dress and a red robe looks at the viewer. She is holding a half-finished painting of two children.
Self-portrait by Mary Beale, painted c.1665

Food and drink[edit]

Interior of a London Coffee-house, 17th century

One important feature of London culture were thecoffeehouseswhich opened up from the 1650s onwards. London's first coffeehouse opened in 1652, and by 1663, there were 82 in London.[177]The first coffeehouses were harassed by city authorities as public nuisances,[15]but the 1660s saw their business explode with the restoration of the monarchy and the development of a lively political culture.[178]Coffee and tea were novelty refreshments in England, but the purpose of the coffeehouse expanded well beyond serving exotic drinks to serve as multi-functional venues for socializing, debate, to trade gossip, and conduct business. Coffee houses also functioned as shops where customers could post and receive mail, and buy the latest books, gazettes, and stationery.[179]In London, certain coffeehouses were defined by the professionals who met there to conduct business; some businessmen even maintained regular "office hours" at their coffeehouses of choice. Both Batson's onCornhillandGarraway'sinChange Alleywere known for their doctors, surgeons, and apothecaries; the former served as an informal consulting room for doctors and their patients.[180]The Grecianwas attended by lawyers, the Jerusalem was a meeting place for West Indian traders, and the Baltic onThreadneedle Streetwas a meeting place for Russian traders.[181]One such business,Lloyd's Coffee House(established 1686), became an exchange for merchants and shipowners who met there daily to insure ships and cargoes, and to trade intelligence on world trade, shipping disasters, and maritime news.[182]This coffee house would go on to lend its name to the insurance marketLloyd's of London.[179][183]Other coffeehouses were distinctly political in character: the St. James's onSt. James's StreetandOld Slaughter'swere frequented byWhigs,while theToriesandJacobitespreferred the Coffee-Tree on the corner of St. James's Street andPall Mall.[181][184]In 1706, Tom's Coffee House off the Strand was bought byThomas Twining,who began selling tea there as well as coffee, and later founded theTwiningstea company.[185]

Besides coffeehouses, the main public eating and meeting areas werealehousesand victualling-houses, of which London had around 1,000 during the Stuart era.[16]The word "restaurant" did not yet exist, but London had many eateries in the form of inns, cookshops, ordinaries, taverns and eating houses.[66]The largest inn in London was theAngel,with 20 rooms.[186]The most exclusive establishments were based on French cooking, like Chatelin's in Covent Garden, and Pontac's Head in Abchurch Lane.[66]The long-standing gentlemen's clubWhite'swas founded in 1693 as White's Chocolate House onSt. James's Street.[64]

Britain's strengthening connections to the wider world meant that Londoners were able to access and afford foreign foods like coffee, tea, chocolate, and sugar cane more easily.[187]

TheBlack Eagle BreweryonBrick Lanewas founded in 1661.[73]

Science[edit]

An illustration of a flea fromRobert Hooke'sMicrographia,published 1665.

In 1609,William Harveywas appointed physician at St. Bartholomew's Hospital, and in 1618, he became a physician to the king himself.[188]In 1628, Harvey publishedDe Motu Cordis,a landmark step in the knowledge of howblood circulationworks.[188]The physicianEdward Tysonperformed animal dissections to show the relationships between various species, founding the study of comparative anatomy.[88]In 1680, he bought the body of aporpoisewhich had swum up the Thames, and publicly dissected it atGresham College,discovering that it was not a fish, but a mammal.[88]He published a book calledAnatomy of a Porpessdetailing his findings later that year.[88]In 1698, he dissected a chimpanzee (which he misidentified as an orangutan) which had been brought from Africa, and showed the similarities between apes and humans.[88]

TheRoyal Societywas formed in 1662 in London, as a club for gentlemen to share scientific knowledge and new understanding.[189]They hiredRobert Hooketo perform new experiments each week, making him the world's first paid professional research scientist.[190]In 1665, Hooke publishedMicrographia,showing detailed illustrations of things that could only be seen through a microscope.[191]In 1687, the Society publishedIsaac Newton'sseminalPhilosophae Naturalis Principia Mathematica,[192]and Newton was madePresidentof the Society in 1695.[193]

Flamsteed House in theRoyal ObservatoryinGreenwich,completed in 1675.

New inventions and experiments were trialled out or displayed in London, particularly towards the end of the period. London was one of the few places where scientific instruments like thermometers, barometers, telescopes and accurate clocks could be bought.[191]The famous clockmakerThomas Tompionhad a shop at the junction ofFleet Streetand Water Lane.[135]In 1660, a set of water-lifting machines were put on public display inSt. James's Park.[194]In 1698,Thomas Saverydemonstrated a steam engine for pumping water out of mines before the Royal Society.[194]

In 1675, Charles II established theRoyal Observatoryin Greenwich,[58]withJohn Flamsteedas its firstAstronomer Royal.[195]Later that year, Flamsteed was visited by the astronomerEdmond Halley.In 1678, Halley published a catalogue of stars of the southern hemisphere that he had compiled during a voyage toSt. Helena,and became a Fellow of the Royal Society.[88]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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