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Sultan of Egypt

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Painting from 1779 of a councilor to the Sultan of Egypt duringMamlukrule.

Sultan of Egyptwas the status held by the rulers ofEgyptafter the establishment of theAyyubid dynastyofSaladinin 1174 until theOttoman conquest of Egyptin 1517. Though the extent of the Egyptian Sultanate ebbed and flowed, it generally includedShamandHejaz,with the consequence that the Ayyubid and laterMamluksultans were also regarded as the Sultans ofSyria.From 1914, the title was once again used by the heads of theMuhammad Ali dynastyofEgyptandSudan,later being replaced by the title ofKing of Egypt and Sudanin 1922.

Ayyubid dynasty

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Main article:Ayyubid dynasty

Prior to the rise ofSaladin,Egypt was the center of the ShiaFatimid Caliphate,the only period in Islamic history when acaliphatewas ruled by members of theShiabranch ofIslam.The Fatimids had long sought to completely supplant theSunniAbbasid Caliphatebased inIraq,and like their Abbasid rivals, they also took the titleCaliph,representing their claim to the highest status within the Islamic hierarchy. However, with Saladin's rise to power in 1169, Egypt returned to the Sunni fold and the Abbasid Caliphate. Recognizing the Abbasid Caliph as his theoretical superior, Saladin took the title ofSultanin 1174, though from this point until the Ottoman conquest, supreme power in the caliphate would come to rest with the Sultan of Egypt.

Mamluk dynasties

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Main article:Mamluk Sultanate

In 1250, the Ayyubids were overthrown by theMamluks,who established theBahri dynastyand whose rulers also took the title sultan. Notable Bahri sultans includeQutuz,who defeated the invadingMongolarmy ofHulaguat theBattle of Ain Jalut,andBaibars,who finally recaptured the last remnants of the CrusaderKingdom of Jerusalem.The Bahri were later overthrown by a rival Mameluke group, who established theBurji dynastyin 1382.

Ottoman Sultanate and autonomous Khedivate

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Main articles:Egypt EyaletandKhedivate of Egypt
Coat of Arms of the Sultan of Egypt (1914–1922)

The Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517 ended the Egyptian Sultanate, with Egypt henceforth a province of theOttoman Empire.It also marked the end of theMamluk Abbasid dynasty,as the Ottomans captured the current CaliphAl-Mutawakkil III,and forced him to relinquish the title to theOttoman SultanSelim I.The Ottomans subsequently paid little interest to Egyptian affairs, and the Mamelukes rapidly regained most of their power within Egypt. However, they remained vassals of the Ottoman Sultan and their leaders were limited to the title ofBey.

In 1523, the Ottoman-appointed Turkishgovernor of Egypt,Hain Ahmed Pasha,declared himself the Sultan of Egypt and Egypt independent from the Ottoman Empire. He struck his own coins to legitimize his rule, but soon thereafter, Ottoman forces underPargalı Ibrahim Pashacaptured him and executed him, with Ibrahim Pasha assuming the governorship until he found a more permanent replacement,Hadım Süleyman Pasha.

Following the defeat ofNapoleon I's forces in 1801,Muhammad Ali Pashaseized power, overthrowing the Mamelukes, and declaring himself ruler of Egypt. In 1805, the Ottoman SultanSelim IIIreluctantly recognized him asWāliunder Ottoman suzerainty. Muhammad Ali, however, styled himself asKhedive,and though technically avassalof the Ottoman Empire, governed Egypt as if it were an independent state. Seeking to rival and ultimately supplant the Ottoman Sultan, Muhammad Ali implemented a rapid modernization and militarization program, and expanded Egypt's borders south intoSudanand north intoSyria.Eventually, he waged war on the Ottoman Empire with the intention of overthrowing the rulingOsman Dynastyand replacing it with his own. Though the intervention of theGreat Powersprevented Muhammad Ali from realizing his grandiose ambitions of becoming sultan himself, obliging Egypt to remain technically part of the Ottoman Empire, Egypt's autonomy survived his death with thePorterecognizing theMuhammad Ali Dynastyas hereditary rulers of the country.

Hussein Kamel, Sultan ofEgypt,1914–1917.

Muhammad Ali's grandson, Ismail I, acceded to the Egyptian throne in 1863 and immediately set about achieving his grandfather's aims, though in a less confrontation manner. A combination of growing Egyptian power, deteriorating Ottoman strength, and outright bribery led to Ottoman SultanAbdulazizformally recognizing the Egyptian ruler as Khedive in 1867. As Ismail expanded Egypt's borders inAfrica,and the Ottoman Empire continued to decay, Ismail believed he was close to realizing formal Egyptian independence, and even contemplated using the opening of theSuez Canalin 1869 to declare himself Sultan of Egypt. He was persuaded otherwise by pressure from theGreat Powers,who feared the consequences of further disintegration of Ottoman power. Ultimately, Ismail's reign ended in failure, due to the massive debt his ambitious projects had incurred. European and Ottoman pressure forced his removal in 1879 and replacement by his far more pliant sonTewfik.The subsequentOrabi Revoltresulted inGreat Britaininvading Egypt in 1882 on the invitation of Khedive Tewfik, and beginning its decades long occupation of the country.

Restoration of Egyptian Sultanate

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Main article:Sultanate of Egypt
Further information:Kingdom of Egypt

From 1882 onwards, Egypt's status became deeply convoluted: officially a province of the Ottoman Empire, semi-officially a virtually independent state with its own monarchy, armed forces, and territorial possessions inSudan,and for practical purposes a British puppet. The legal fiction of Ottoman sovereignty in Egypt was finally ended in 1914 when the Ottoman Empire joined theCentral PowersinFirst World War.Alarmed that the anti-British KhediveAbbas IIwould side with the Ottomans, the British deposed him in favor of his uncleHussein Kameland declared Egypt a Britishprotectorate.Symbolizing the official end of Ottoman rule, Hussein Kamel took the title Sultan as did his brotherFuad Iwho succeeded him in 1917, though in reality Egypt remained under British domination. Both Hussein Kamel and Fuad maintained Egypt's claim toSudan,with Egyptian nationalists declaring both in turn to be the "Sultan of EgyptandSudan ".

Rising nationalist anger at the continued British occupation forced Britain toformally recognizeEgyptian independence, in 1922. However, the title of Sultan was dropped and replaced withKing. Nationalist leaderSaad Zaghlul,who was later exiled by the British, maintained that this was because the British refused to recognize a sovereign Egyptian ruler who outranked their own king (in the hierarchy of titles, sultan, likeshahin Iran, is comparable toemperor,being a sovereign who recognizes no secular superior). Another reason offered for the change in title, is that it reflected the growing secularization of Egypt at the time, as sultan hasIslamicovertones, whereas the Arabic word for king,malik,does not.[citation needed]

Upon overthrowing Fuad's son,King Farouk I,in theEgyptian revolution of 1952,theFree Officersbriefly considered declaring his infant son Sultan to reinforce Egypt's sovereignty over Sudan and demonstrate their rejection of British occupation. However, since the revolutionaries had already decided to abolish the Egyptian monarchy after a brief period of consolidating their hold on power, they determined that it would be an idle gesture and Farouk's son was duly declaredKing Fuad II.The following year, on 18 June 1953, the revolutionary government officially abolished the monarchy and Egypt became arepublic.

List of Sultans

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Ayyubid Dynasty

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Bahri Dynasty

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Salihi Mamluks Bahri dynasty Burji dynasty

Number Royal title Name Reign start Reign end Ethnicity Background notes Coinage
1st Al-Malik al-Mu'izz Izz ad-Din Aybak 31 July 1250[1] 10 April 1257[2] Turkmen Middle-rankingmamlukofAyyubidsultanas-Salih Ayyub.Married the latter's widow,Shajar ad-Durr,who became sultan on 2 May 1250 until she abdicated in favor of Aybak.[1]
2nd Al-Malik al-Mansur Nur ad-Din Ali 15 April 1257[3] November 1259[3] Turkmen Son of Aybak.
3rd Al-Malik al-Muzaffar Sayf ad-Din Qutuz November 1259[3] 24 October 1260[3] Khwarazmian Turk[4] Amamlukof Aybak and head of Aybak'smamlukfaction, the Mu'izziya,[5]Aybak's chief deputy, and strongman of Ali's sultanate.[6]
4th Al-Malik az-Zahir Rukn ad-Din Baybars 24 October 1260[3] 1 July 1277[3] Kipchak Turk Bahrimamlukand founder of theBahri dynasty.[5]
5th Al-Malik as-Sa'id Nasir ad-Din Barakah 3 July 1277[3] August 1279[3] Kipchak Turk Son of Baybars and his wife, who was the daughter of Husam ad-Din Baraka Khan, a Khwarazmian warrior chief, after whom Barakah was named.[7][4][8]
6th Al-Malik al-Adil Badr ad-Din Salamish August 1279[3] November 1279[3] Kipchak Turk Son of Baybars.
7th Al-Malik al-Mansur Sayf ad-Din Qalawun November 1279[3] 10 November 1290[3] Kipchak Turk[9]: 394  Bahrimamlukand Baybars' chief deputy
8th Al-Malik al-Ashraf Salah ad-Din Khalil 12 November 1290[3] 12 December 1293[3] Kipchak Turk Son of Qalawun.
9th Al-Malik an-Nasir Nasir ad-Din Muhammad 14 December 1293[3] December 1294[3] Kipchak Turk Son of Qalawun. First reign.
10th Al-Malik al-Adil Zayn ad-Din Kitbugha December 1294[3] 7 December 1296[3] Mongol[10] Amamlukof Qalawun.[10]
11th Al-Malik al-Mansur Husam ad-Din Lajin 7 December 1296[3] 16 January 1299[3] Circassian[11] Amamlukof Qalawun.[10]Relative to Rukn ad-Din Baybars al-Jashnakir[11]
12th Al-Malik an-Nasir Nasir ad-Din Muhammad 16 January 1299[3] March 1309[3] Kipchak Turk Second reign.
13th Al-Malik al-Muzaffar Rukn ad-Din Baybars al-Jashnakir April 1309[3] 5 March 1310[3] Circassian[11] Amamlukof Qalawun.[12]Relative to Husam ad-Din Lajin[11]
14th Al-Malik an-Nasir Nasir ad-Din Muhammad 5 March 1310[3] 6 June 1341[3] Kipchak Turk Third reign.
15th Al-Malik al-Mansur Sayf ad-Din Abu Bakr 8 June 1341[3] August 1341[13] Kipchak Turk Son of an-Nasir Muhammad and his concubine Narjis.[14]Real power in Abu Bakr's sultanate was held by Qawsun, amamlukand senioremirof an-Nasir Muhammad.[13]
16th Al-Malik al-Ashraf Ala'a ad-Din Kujuk August 1341[15] 21 January 1342[16] Kipchak Turk andTatar Son of an-Nasir Muhammad and his Tatar concubine Ardu.[14]An infant when he was made sultan by strongman Qawsun.[13]
17th Al-Malik an-Nasir Shihab ad-Din Ahmad 21 January 1342[16] 27 June 1342[17] Kipchak Turk Son of an-Nasir Muhammad and his concubine Bayad, a freed slave girl.[14]
18th Al-Malik as-Salih Imad ad-Din Abu'l Fida Isma'il 27 June 1342[16] 3 August 1345[18] Kipchak Turk Son of an-Nasir Muhammad and one of his concubines, unnamed by the sources.[14]
19th Al-Malik al-Kamil Sayf ad-Din Sha'ban 3 August 1345[18] 18 September 1346[18] Kipchak Turk Son of an-Nasir Muhammad and one of his concubines, unnamed by the sources (same mother of as-Salih Isma'il).[14]
20th Al-Malik al-Muzaffar Sayf ad-Din Hajji 18 September 1346[18] 10 December 1347[18] Kipchak Turk Son of an-Nasir Muhammad and one of his other unnamed concubines.[14]
21st Al-Malik an-Nasir Badr ad-Din Hasan December 1347 21 August 1351[18] Kipchak Turk Son of an-Nasir Muhammad and his concubine Kuda, who died in Hasan's infancy. First reign. Hasan acceded to the sultanate as a young child and real power was shared by four senior emirs,Shaykhu an-Nasiri,Taz an-Nasiri, Manjak al-Yusufi andBaybugha al-Qasimi.Hasan was toppled when he challenged their power.
22nd Al-Malik as-Salih Salah ad-Din Salih 21 August 1351[18] 20 October 1354[18] Kipchak Turk Son of an-Nasir Muhammad and his wife Qutlumalik, daughter of EmirTankiz al-Husami.[14]
23rd Al-Malik an-Nasir Badr ad-Din Hasan 20 October 1354[18] 16 March 1361[18] Kipchak Turk Second reign. He was killed by EmirYalbugha al-Umari.[18]
24th Al-Malik al-Mansur Salah ad-Din Muhammad 17 March 1361[18] 29 May 1363[18] Kipchak Turk Son of Hajji. Real power was held by Emir Yalbugha al-Umari, who toppled him.[18]
25th Al-Malik al-Ashraf Zayn ad-Din Sha'ban(Sha'ban II) 29 May 1363[18] 15 March 1377[18] Kipchak Turk Son of al-Amjad Husayn (d. 21 January 1363), the last surviving son of an-Nasir Muhammad who never reigned,[19]and Khawand Baraka.[20]
26th Al-Malik al-Mansur Ala'a ad-Din Ali 15 March 1377[18] 19 May 1381[18] Kipchak Turk Son of Sha'ban II. Was an infant during his accession, and real power was initially held by emirs Ibek and Qartay until the latter was ousted by the former. Ibek was later killed and power passed toBarquq,a formermamlukof Yalbugha an-Nasiri.
27th Al-Malik as-Salih Salah ad-Din Hajji 19 May 1381[18] 26 November 1382[18] Kipchak Turk Son of al-Ashraf Sha'ban. Was an infant during his succession and real power was held by Barquq.

Burji Dynasty

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Salihi Mamluks Bahri dynasty Burji dynasty

Number Royal title Name Reign start Reign end Ethnicity Background notes Coinage
28th Al-Malik az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Barquq 26 November 1382[18] 1 June 1389[18] Circassian Amamlukof Yalbugha al-Umari. Son of Anas, who was brought to Egypt by Barquq in 1381 and converted to Islam. First reign. Established theBurji dynasty.
29th Al-Malik as-Salih Salah ad-Din Hajji 1 June 1389[18] January 1390[18] Kipchak Turk Second reign. Installed during a rebellion against Barquq in which the latter was toppled.[18]When Barquq was restored, Hajji was allowed to continue residing in theCairo Citadel.
30th Al-Malik az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Barquq 21 January 1390[18] 20 June 1399[18] Circassian Second reign.
31st Al-Malik an-Nasir Nasir ad-Din Faraj 20 June 1399[18] 20 September 1405[18] Circassian Son of Barquq.[18]
32nd Al-Malik al-Mansur Izz ad-Din Abd al-Aziz 20 September 1405[18] November 1405[18] Circassian Son of Barquq.[18]
33rd Al-Malik an-Nasir Nasir ad-Din Faraj November 1405[18] 23 May 1412[18] Circassian Second reign.
34th Al-Malik al-Adil Al-Musta'in Billah 23 May 1412[18] 6 November 1412[18] Arab TheAbbasid caliphin Cairo. He was appointed by the Burji emir Shaykh Mahmudi as a figurehead, but then compelled him to abdicate.[18]
35th Al-Malik al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh al-Mahmudi 6 November 1412[18] 13 January 1421[18] Circassian Amamlukof Barquq.
36th Al-Malik al-Muzaffar Ahmad 13 January 1421[18] 29 August 1421[18] Circassian Son of Shaykh. Was an infant during accession.
37th Al-Malik az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Tatar 29 August 1421[18] 30 November 1421[18] Circassian Amamlukof Barquq[21]
38th Al-Malik as-Salih An-Nasir ad-Din Muhammad 30 November 1421[18] 1 April 1422[18] Circassian Son of Tatar. Was an infant during accession.[18]
39th Al-Malik al-Ashraf Sayf ad-Din Barsbay 1 April 1422[18] 7 June 1438[18] Circassian Amamlukof Barquq.[21]He was a tutor of Muhammad before he toppled him.[18]
40th Al-Malik al-Aziz Jamal ad-Din Abu al-Mahasin Yusuf 7 June 1438[18] 9 September 1438[18] Circassian Son of Barsbay. Was a child during accession.
41st Al-Malik az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Jaqmaq 9 September 1438[18] 1 February 1453[18] Circassian Amamlukof Barquq.[21]
42nd Al-Malik al-Mansur Fakhr ad-Din Uthman 1 February 1453[18] 15 March 1453[18] Circassian Son of Jaqmaq.[18]
43rd Al-Malik al-Ashraf Sayf ad-Din Inal 15 March 1453[18] 26 February 1461[18] Circassian Amamlukof Barquq.[21]
44th Al-Malik al-Mu'ayyad Shihab ad-Din Ahmad 26 February 1461[18] 28 June 1461[18] Circassian Son of Inal.[18]
45th Al-Malik az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Khushqadam 28 June 1461[18] 9 October 1467[18] Greek[18] Amamlukof Shaykh.[21]
45th Al-Malik az-Zahir Sayf ad-Din Bilbay 9 October 1467[18] 4 December 1467[18] Circassian Amamlukof Shaykh.[22]
46th Al-Malik az-Zahir Timurbugha 4 December 1467[18] 31 January 1468[18] Greek[23] Amamlukof Jaqmaq.[21]
47th Al-Malik al-Ashraf Sayf ad-Din Qa'itbay 31 January 1468[18] 7 August 1496[18] Circassian Amamlukof Barsbay.[24]
48th Al-Malik an-Nasir Muhammad 7 August 1496[18] 31 October 1498[18] Circassian Son of Qa'itbay[18]
49th Al-Malik az-Zahir Abu Sa'id Qansuh 31 October 1498[18] 30 June 1500[18] Circassian Amamlukof Qa'itbay.[25]
50th Al-Malik al-Ashraf Abu al-Nasir Janbalat 30 June 1500[18] 25 January 1501[18] Circassian Originally amamlukof Emir Yashbak min Mahdi, who gave Janbalat to Qa'itbay, who then freed him.[26]
51st Al-Malik al-Adil Sayf ad-Din Tumanbay 25 January 1501[18] 20 April 1501[18] Circassian Amamlukof Qa'itbay.[27]
52nd Al-Malik al-Ashraf Qansuh al-Ghawri 20 April 1501[18] 24 August 1516[18] Circassian Hismamlukorigins are unclear, but he was trained in the Ghawr Barracks of Cairo, hence his name "al-Ghawri".[28]Prior to his accession to the sultanate, he was an emir of ten and a provincial governor.[28]
53rd Al-Malik al-Ashraf Tumanbay II 17 October 1516[18] 15 April 1517[18] Circassian Last Mamluk sultan.


Hain Ahmed Pasha's Revolt

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Muhammad Ali dynasty (1914–1922)

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Further information:Muhammad Ali dynasty
  • Hussein Kamel(Sultan of Egypt and Sudan) – 19 December 1914 – 9 October 1917
  • Fuad I(Sultan of Egypt and Sudan) – 9 October 1917 – 16 March 1922

References

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  1. ^abNorthrup 1998, p. 69.
  2. ^Northrup 1998, p. 70.
  3. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaStewart, John (2006).African States and Rulers.McFarland & Company. p. 86.ISBN9780786425624.
  4. ^abHathaway, Jane (2003).Tale of Two Factions, A: Myth, Memory, and Identity in Ottoman Egypt and Yemen.State University of New York Press. pp. 50–52.ISBN9780791486108.
  5. ^abNorthrup, ed. Petry 1998, p. 250.
  6. ^Northrup 1998, p. 71.
  7. ^Thorau, Peter (1992).The Lion of Egypt: Sultan Baybars I and the Near East in the Thirteenth Century.Longman. p. 261.ISBN9780582068230.
  8. ^Holt 2004, p. 99.
  9. ^Yosef, Koby (2012). "Dawlat al-atrāk or dawlat al-mamālīk? Ethnic origin or slave origin as the defining characteristic of the ruling élite in the Mamlūk sultanate".Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam.39.Hebrew University of Jerusalem: 387–410.
  10. ^abcNorthrup, ed. Petry 1998, p. 252.
  11. ^abcdYosef 2012,p. 396.
  12. ^Tarikh, Volumes 5-6: Peoples and Kingdoms of West Africa in the Pre-Colonial Period.Longman. 1974. p. 9.ISBN9780582608733.
  13. ^abcDrory 2006, p. 20.
  14. ^abcdefgBauden 2009, p. 63.
  15. ^Levanoni 1995, p. 102.
  16. ^abcDrory 2006, p. 24.
  17. ^Drory 2006, p. 28.
  18. ^abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzaaabacadaeafagahaiajakalamanaoapaqarasatauavawaxayazbabbbcbdbebfbgbhbibjbkblbmbnbobpbqbrbsbtbubvbwbxbybzcacbcccdcecfChisholm, Hugh,ed. (1911)."Egypt/3 History".Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 09 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 80–130, see pages 101 to 103.Decline of the Bahri power
  19. ^Holt, eds. Vermeulen and De Smet, p. 319.
  20. ^Al-Harithy, Howayda (2005)."Female Patronage of Mamluk Architecture in Cairo".In Sonbol, Amira El Azhary (ed.).Beyond The Exotic: Women's Histories In Islamic Societies.Syracuse University Press. p. 332.ISBN9780815630555.
  21. ^abcdefGarcin, ed. Petry 1998, p. 293.
  22. ^Levanoni, eds. Winter and Levanoni 2004, p. 82.
  23. ^Ali, Abdul (1996).Islamic Dynasties of the Arab East: State and Civilization During the Later Medieval Times.M.D. Publications Private Limited. p. 64.ISBN9788175330085.
  24. ^Garcin, ed. Petry 1998, p. 295.
  25. ^Dobrowolski, Jarosław (2001).The Living Stones of Cairo.American University in Cairo Press. p. 60.ISBN9789774246326.
  26. ^Mayer, L. A.(1933).Saracenic Heraldry: A Survey.Clarendon Press. p.127.
  27. ^Garcin, ed. Petry 1998, p. 297.
  28. ^abPetry 1994, p. 20.
Regnal titles
Preceded by Style of the Egyptian sovereign
1171–1517 		Succeeded by
Preceded by Style of the Egyptian sovereign
1914–1922 		Succeeded by
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