Sunda Kingdom

Sunda Kingdom ᮊᮛᮏᮃᮔ᮪ ᮞᮥᮔ᮪ᮓ Karajaan Sunda
669–1579
The territory of Sunda Kingdom
Capital	Kawali Pakuan Pajajaran
Common languages	Old Sundanese(main) Sanskrit
Religion	Hinduism Buddhism Sunda Wiwitan
Government	Monarchy
Maharaja
• 723–732	Sanjaya
• 1371–1475	Niskala Wastu Kancana
• 1482–1521	Sri Baduga Maharaja
• 1567–1579	Raga Mulya
History
• Coronation of king Tarusbawa and change the name from Tarumanagara to Sunda	669
•LostSunda KelapatoSultanate of Demakin 1527,Sultanate of Banteninvasion in the 1570s	1579
Currency	Native gold and silver coins
Preceded by Succeeded by Tarumanagara Kingdom of Sumedang Larang Sultanate of Banten Sultanate of Cirebon
Today part of	Indonesia

TheSunda Kingdom(Sundanese:ᮊ(ka)ᮛ(ra)ᮏ(ja)ᮃ(a)ᮔ᮪(n)ᮞᮥ(su)ᮔ᮪(n)ᮓ(da),romanized:Karajaan Sunda,Indonesian pronunciation:[sunˈda]) was aSundaneseHindukingdom located in the western portion of the island ofJavafrom 669 to around 1579, covering the area of present-dayBanten,Jakarta,West Java,and the western part ofCentral Java.The capital of the Sunda Kingdom moved several times during its history, shifting between theGaluh(Kawali) area in the east andPakuan Pajajaranin the west.

The Sunda Kingdom reached its peak during the reign of KingSri Baduga Maharaja,whose reign from 1482 to 1521 is traditionally remembered as an age of peace and prosperity among Sundanese people.

According to primary historical records such as theBujangga Manikmanuscript, the eastern border of the kingdom was thePamali River(Ci Pamali, the present-day Brebes River) and theSerayu River(Ci Sarayu) in Central Java. Most accounts of the Sunda Kingdom come from primary historical records from the 16th century. The kingdom's inhabitants were primarily the eponymous ethnicSundanese,while the majority religion wasHinduism.

Etymology

The wordSundawritten inSundanese script

The nameSundaderives from theSanskritprefixsu- which means "goodness" or "possessing good quality". The example issuvarna(lit: "good color" ) used to describe gold.Sundais also another name for Hindu GodVishnu.In Sanskrit, the termSundara(masculine) orSundari(feminine) means "beautiful" or "excellence".According toReinout Willem van Bemmelen,a Dutch geologist, the nameSundawas derived from Sanskrit termShuddha,which means "white" and "pure".The termSundaalso means bright, light, purity, cleanness and white.

The nameSundais also known in Hindu mythology ofSunda and Upasunda,as one of the powerfulAsurabrothers that received the boon of invulnerability fromBrahma.It is not clear, however, whether theeponymousSundawas derived from this Hindu myth.

It seems that by the 10th century, the nameSundawas used by foreigners, possibly by early Indian explorers, Malay Srivijayan traders and colonizer, as well as Javanese neighbours, as atoponymto identify the Western parts of Java. TheJuru Pangambat inscription,dated from 854 Saka (932 CE), confirmes this. The name is similarly used by theJavaneseto identify their western neighbour, also rival and enemy, as mentioned inHorren inscription(c. 11th century) from Kediri.

An early 13th-century Chinese account reported the pepper port ofSin-t'o(Sunda), which probably referred to the port of Banten or Sunda Kalapa. By the 15th to 16th century, after the consolidation of the kingdom bySri Baduga Maharaja,the nameSundahad shifted from a toponym, into a name that identified a kingdom and its people. TheSunda Straitis named after the Sunda Kingdom, the latter having once ruled the area on both coasts of the strait.

Historiography

Knowledge of the kingdom amongSundanese peoplehas been kept alive through SundanesePantunoral tradition, the chant of poetic verses about the golden age of Sunda Pajajaran, and the legend ofPrabu Siliwangi,the most popular king of Sunda.

Several stone inscriptions mention the kingdom, such asJuru Pangambat,Jayabupati,Kawali,andBatutulis.Most account and records of the Sunda Kingdom are derived from manuscripts dated from a later period circa 15th to 16th century, such asBujangga Manik,Sanghyang Siksakanda ng Karesian,Carita ParahyanganandKidung Sunda.

Local account

Batutulis inscription(dated 1533), inBogor,commemorate the great King of SundaSri Baduga Maharaja(rule 1482–1521).

The earliest reference to the name "Sunda" being used to identify a kingdom is theKebon Kopi II inscriptiondated 854 Saka (932 CE). This inscription is in theKawi script,but the language used isOld Malay.It translates as follows:

This memorial stone is to remark the saying of Rakryan Juru Pangambat (Royal Hunter), in 854 Saka, that the order of government is returned to the power of the king of Sunda.

Another reference to the kingdom is theJayabupati inscriptionwhich consists of 40 lines written on four pieces of stone, found on the Cicatih river bank in Cibadak,Sukabumi.This inscription is again written inKawi script,and mentions the establishment of a protected sacred area called Sanghyang Tapak by the King Jayabhupati of Sunda. The inscription is dated to 1030 CE.

Copperplate letters dating to the 15th century, including royal instructions, also support the existence of the Sunda Kingdom. The copperplate inscription of Kebantenan I (Jayagiri) reads that Raja Rahyang Niskala Wastu Kancana sent an order through Hyang Ningrat Kancana to the Susuhunan of Pakuan Pajajaran to take care ofdayohanin Jayagiri and Sunda Sembawa, banning the collection of collecting taxes from the residents, because they would be knowledgeable about the Hindu religion and worshipped the gods.

The Kebantenan II (or Sunda Sembawa I) copperplate inscription announcesSri Baduga Maharaja(1482–1521), the king in Pakuan, approved an already delineated sacred estate (tanah devasasana) put at the disposal of thewiku(priests), which must not be split as it houses facilities for worship, which belong to the king. The Kebantenan III (Sunda Sembawa II) copperplate inscription announces the king of Sunda's sanctions of holy construction in Sunda Sembawa. The Kebantenan IV inscription details that Sri Baduga Maharaja, who ruled in Pakuan, sanctioned a similar sacred estate at Gunung Samya (Mount Rancamaya).

TheBujangga Manikmanuscript is the primary source on the daily life of the Sunda Kingdom in the late 15th to early 16th century. Detailing place names, culture and customs, in great detail, it is considered one of the important specimens of OldSundaneseliterature. The manuscript tells the story of Jaya Pakuan alias Bujangga Manik, though a prince at the court ofPakuan Pajajaran,preferred to live a solitary life as a devout Hindu. As a hermit traveller, the book details two journeys fromPakuan Pajajaranto central and eastern Java and back, the second journey including a visit toBali.It is concluded that Jaya Pakuan practised asceticism on a mountain in western Java until his death.As manuscript dates from the pre-Islamic Sunda era, it is written in an older form of Sundanese. It does not contain any words traceable to Arabic. Islamic influence is absent from the content of the story as well. The specific mention ofMajapahit,MalaccaandDemak,allow us to date the writing of the story in the 15th century, probably the latter part of this century, or the early 16th century at the latest.

Chinese account

The Sundanese royal party sailed to Majapahit byJong sasanga wangunan ring Tatarnagari tiniru,a type of junk, which also incorporates Chinese techniques, such as using iron nails alongside wooden dowels, the construction of watertight bulkhead, and addition of central rudder.

Sundanese traditional housewithJulang Ngapakroof inGarutcirca 1920s. It was built on poles and having a thatched roof, as described in a12th-century Chinese source.

According to F. Hirt and W. W. Rockhill, there are Chinese sources concerning the Sunda Kingdom. At the time of the Southern Sung Dynasty, the inspector of trade with foreign countries,Chau Ju-kua,collected reports from sailors and merchants who had visited foreign countries. His report on far countries,Chu-fan-chi,written from 1178 to 1225 AD, mentions the deepwater harbour of Sin-t’o (Sunda). Chu-fan-chi reported that:

All along the shores, people are dwelling. The people are working in agriculture, their houses are on poles and the roofs are thatched with the bark of the leaves of palm trees and the walls were made with wooden boards tied together with rattan. Both men and women wrap around their loins a piece of cotton, and in cutting their hair they only leave it half an inch long. Thepeppergrown on the hills (of this country) is small-grained but heavy and superior to that ofTa-pan(Tuban in eastern Java). The country produces pumpkins, sugar cane,bottle gourd,beans andegg plants.As, however, there is no regular government in this country, the people are given to brigandage, on which account foreign traders rarely go there.

According to this source, the kingdom of Sunda produced high-quality black pepper. The kingdom located in the western parts of Java nearSunda Strait,corresponds to today Banten, Jakarta and the west part of West Java province. According to this source, the port of Sunda was underSrivijayamandala domination. This Port of Sunda was highly possible to refer toOld Banteninstead ofKalapa(present-dayNorth Jakarta). Its capital is located 10 kilometres inland southward inBanten Girangnear MountPulosari.

The Chinese book “Shun-Feng Hsiang-Sung" from around 1430 AD relates:

In this voyage eastward from Sunda, along the north coast of Java, ships steered 97 1/2 degrees for three watches to makeKalapa;they then followed the coast (past Tanjung Indramayu), finally steering 187 1/2 degrees for four watches to reach Cirebon. Ships from Banten proceeded eastward along the north coast of Java, pastKalapa,past Indramayu head, past Cirebon.

According to this source, the port of Sunda was located west ofKalapaand later identified as theport of Old Banten.

European account

Old map of Java still thought that land of Sunda in the west is separated from the rest of Java island. Here the capital of Sunda is calledDaiowhich refer to Dayeuh Pakuan Pajajaran

European explorers, mainly Portuguese based inMalacca,also reported the existence of the Sunda Kingdom.Tomé Pires(1513) mentioned a Western Java kingdom that had established trade relation with them asRegño de Çumda,which means "Kingdom of Sunda". Also the report ofAntonio Pigafetta(1522) that mentioned Sunda as apepperproducing region.

Tomé Pires from Portugal wrote in his reportSuma Oriental(1513–1515):

Some people affirm that the Sunda kingdom takes up half of the whole island of Java; others, to whom more authority is attributed, say that the Sunda kingdom must be a third part of the island and an eight more. It ends at the river chi Manuk. The river intersects the whole island from sea to sea in such a way that when the people of Java describe their own country, they say that it is bounded to the west by the island of Sunda. The people hold that whoever passes this strait (the river Cimanuk) into the South Sea is carried off by violent currents and unable to return.

The Portuguese report is dated from a later period of the kingdom, shortly before its fall to forces of theSultanate of Banten.

History

Main article:History of Sunda Kingdom

The ruin ofBojongmenjeHindu temple inPrianganhighlands, estimated was built in the 7th century.

The history of the Sunda Kingdom spanned for almost a millennium, between the 7th to 16th century. One of the few remnants is the 7th centuryBojongmenjeHindu temple nearBandung.It was one of the earliest temple structures in Java, older thantemples of Diengin Central Java, and linked to the Sunda Kingdom.

The earlier period is unclear, much owed to only two manuscripts dated from a much later period, theCarita Parahyangan.Its relations toTarumanagara,a previous kingdom in western Java is unknown. The history of later period, however, after the late 14th century, is clearer especially following the reign of King Wastu Kancana andSri Baduga Maharaja.This is contributed mainly to the availability of historical sources, including numbers of foreign reports, especially Portuguese'sSuma Oriental,several stone inscriptions (prasasti) especiallyBatutulis,and native primary historical manuscripts ofBujangga ManikandSanghyang Siksakanda ng Karesian.

Rakryan Juru Pangambat

According toKebon Kopi II inscription,dated from 932, discovered nearBogor,a skilled hunter namedRakryan Juru Pangambat,declared that the authority is restored to the king of Sunda.This inscription was written inKawi Alpha bet,however curiously the language being used isOld Malay.Archaeologist F.D.K. Bosch proposed that this suggestsSrivijayaninfluence over western Java. French historian, Claude Guillot proposed that this was a declaration of independence of the Sunda Kingdom, possibly from Srivijaya.

Jayabupati

Sanghyang Tapak inscription

According toSanghyang Tapak inscription,dated from 1030 found in Cibadak nearSukabumi,a king,Maharaja Sri Jayabupati,has established a sacred sanctuary of Sanghyang Tapak. Curiously, the style of the inscriptions reveal an East Javanese script, language, and style, akin toDharmawangsa's court ofMataram.This has led to suggestions that the Sunda Kingdom at this time probably was under the influence of Mataram, or probably Jayabupati subscribed to Javanese culture.

Sri Jayabupati in Carita Parahyangan is mentioned as Prabu Detya Maharaja. The 11th centuryHorren inscriptionfound in southern Kediri, reported thatçatru Sunda( "enemy from Sunda" ) had invaded and menacing villages in East Java.

After Sri Jayabupati, there is no stone inscription discovered mentioning the next ruler. There is no tangible evidence discovered from the period between the 11th to the 14th century. Most of our current knowledge about this period came from Carita Parahyangan.

TheSongChinese source,Chu-fan-chicirca 1200, mentioned that Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the Malay peninsula, andSin-to(Sunda). The source describes the port of Sunda as strategic and thriving,pepperfrom Sunda being among the best in quality. The people worked in agriculture and their houses were built on wooden poles (rumah panggung). However, robbers and thieves plagued the country.The port of Sunda referred by Chou Ju-kua probably referred toOld Banten,instead ofSunda Kelapa.It seems that by the early 13th century, the maritime trade was still dominated by Srivijayan mandala based in Sumatra.

Golden age

The name Sunda appeared in Javanese source, thePararaton,reported that in 1336, during the inauguration of his newly appointed position as Prime Minister,Gajah Madadeclared thePalapa oath,which stated his foreign policy to unify the archipelago under Majapahit domination.Pararaton recorded what Gajah Mada had said:

"Sira Gajah Madapatih Amangkubhumi tan ayun amuktia palapa, sira Gajah Mada: Lamun huwus kalah nusantara isun amukti palapa, lamun kalah ring Gurun, ring Seran, Tañjung Pura, ring Haru, ring Pahang, Dompo, ring Bali,Sunda,Palembang, Tumasik, samana isun amukti palapa. "

Translation:

"He, Gajah Mada the Patih Amangkubumi, does not wish to cease his fasting. Gajah Mada:" If (I succeed) in defeating (conquering) Nusantara, (then) I will break my fast. If Gurun, Seram, Tanjung Pura, Haru, Pahang, Dompo, Bali, Sunda, Palembang, Temasek, are all defeated, (then) I will break my fast. "

Sunda was mentioned as one of the kingdoms targeted by Mada's overseas campaign. It seems by the early 14th century, the Kingdom of Sunda has grown quite prosperous and took part in international maritime trade.

Prabu Maharaja

Further information:Battle of Bubat

"Prabu Maharaja" written in both lontar Carita Parahiyangan (15 C AD) & Pararaton (19 C AD).

TheCarita ParahyanganandPararatonnamed him asPrěbu Maharaja,while the pseudohistorical Wangsakerta give a detailed name of Prabu Maharaja Lingga Buana. He ruled from Kawali Galuh, and died in theBattle of Bubatin 1357, fell victim to astratagemcrafted by the Majapahit prime minister,Gajah Mada.

Hayam Wuruk,the king of Majapahit, intended to marry PrincessDyah Pitaloka,the daughter of Prabu Maharaja. Delighted, the Sunda king and his royal family came to Majapahit, to marry off his daughter to Hayam Wuruk. The Sunda party erected the encampment on Bubat square in the northern part ofTrowulanand awaited the proper wedding ceremony. Gajah Mada however, saw this event as an opportunity to demand Sunda's submission to Majapahit overlordship and insisted that the princess was to be presented as a token of submission.

Angered and humiliated, the Sunda king decided to cancel the wedding and to return home, resulting in a skirmish between the Sunda royal family and the Majapahit army. Outnumbered, almost the entire Sundanese party, including the princess, perished in this tragedy. The tradition says Princess Dyah Pitalokacommitted suicide to defend the honourof her country. After his death, Prabu Maharaja was revered as Prabu Wangi (lit. 'King with pleasant fragrance') for the heroic defence of his honour. Thus his successors, the later kings of Sunda, were later calledSiliwangi(lit. successor of Wangi). The story is the main theme of the bookKidung Sunda,another source reporting this incident found in Bali.

Niskala Wastu Kancana

Main article:Niskala Wastu Kancana

One ofKawali inscriptions

The next king of Sunda wasNiskala Wastu Kancana,who was the youngest son of Prabu Maharaja and younger brother to Princess Dyah Pitaloka, who both perished in Bubat Incident. In 1371, Prince Wastu ascended to the throne, stylized as Prabu Raja Wastu Kancana. According to one ofAstana Gede inscriptions,approximately dated from the second half of the 14th century, the king ordered the construction of defensive structures, walls and moats surrounding Kawali city, and renovated Surawisesa palace.The construction of moats and other defensive measures, was probably as a response to a perceived foreign threat. Especially since the relations between Sunda and its powerful eastern neighbour Majapahit empire badly deteriorated following the Bubat incident.Niskala Wastu then resided in Kawali palace of Galuh.His reign is remembered as a long era of peace and prosperity.

The copperplate inscription of Kebantenan I reads that Raja Rahyang Niskala Wastu Kancana sent an order through Hyang Ningrat Kancana to the Susuhunan of Pakuan Pajajaran to take care ofdayohanin Jayagiri and Sunda Sembawa, banning the collection of taxes from the residents because they were knowledgeable about the Hindu religion and worshipped the gods.

According toBatutulis inscription,Rahyang Niskala Wastu Kancana was buried in Nusalarang, and supported by Carita Parahyangan manuscript that mentioned "Prebu Niskala Wastu Kancana surup di Nusalarang ring giri Wanakusumah".At this point, the capital was still located in Galuh, more precisely in Kawali city.

Ningrat Kancana

Niskala Wastu Kancana's son, named as Tohaan di Galuh (Lord of Galuh) in Carita Parahyangan, succeeded him as the king. He was mentioned in Kebantenan I inscription asHyang Ningrat Kancanaand in Batutulis inscription as Rahyang Dewa Niskala.

The new king, however, reigned for only seven years and subsequently demoted. Carita Parahyangan tells that"... kena salah twa(h) bogo(h) ka estri larangan ti kaluaran..,"which translate as "because (his) wrongdoing, fell in love with a forbidden outsider woman."Although it was unclear as to what the line mean, it was possible that the forbidden outsider woman was a muslim, signifying the presence ofIslamin western Java.

According to the Batutulis inscription, Rahyang Dewa Niskala was later buried in Gunatiga. This information is supported by Carita Parahyangan which mentioned that Tohaan di Galuh wasnu surup di Gunung Tilu'died or buried in Gunung Tilu (Tilu means three), which corresponds to Gunung Tilu mountain range located east of the town ofKuningan.

Sri Baduga Maharaja

Main article:Sri Baduga Maharaja

Statue of a Hindu god from Talaga near Kuningan, West Java, dated from the Sunda Kingdom.

Sang Ratu Jayadewata(reigned 1482 to 1521) or also known asSri Baduga Maharaja,is a grandson of Prabu Wastu Kancana. Jayadewata is often linked with a popular characterPrabu Siliwangiin theSundanese oral tradition of pantun.

King Jayadewata moved the government seat fromKawaliback toPakuanin 1482. It is not clear, however, the reason behind the transfer of capital westward; it might be a geopolitical move to secure the capital away from the eastern threat from the rising Muslim power ofDemakin Central Java. By 1482, according toPurwaka Caruban Nagari,a Cirebon chronicle,Cirebondeclared its independence from Sunda and no longer sent tribute to the Sunda court. Based on the Kebantenan copperplate inscription, he established atanah devasasanasacred estate at Mount Samya or Rancamaya. He also announced the construction of a sacred compound in Sunda Sembawa, stipulated as the resident of the priests.

According toBatutulis inscription,Sri Baduga Maharaja built defensivemoatssurroundingPakuan Pajajaran;he builtgugunungan(sacred mounds), established huts and sacred Samya forest, reserves for wood destined for offerings, and the artificial lake Talaga Rena Mahawijaya (which apparently served as a reservoir).Certainly, there was a good road toSunda Kalapa(present-day Jakarta), the most important harbour of the Sunda kingdom. At the time ofTome Pirés's visit to Pakuan, Sri Baduga Maharaja reigned over the Sunda kingdom.

The reign of King Jayadewata was hailed as the golden age of the Sundanese people. The kingdom consolidated its rule and exercised power throughout the western part of Java. It also marked the era of great prosperity resulting from efficient agriculture management and the thriving pepper trade in the region. This era of great wealth also marked the beginning of the Sunda kingdom's decline.

Decline

During the reign of King Jayadewata, there was already a group of Sunda inhabitants that had converted toIslam,as testified by Portuguese account. Tomé Pires in 1513 reported, there was a significant number ofMuslimsresiding in the port of Cimanuk (todayIndramayu), the easternmost port of Sunda Kingdom. According to a Portuguese report, the port ofCirebonwhich is located just east of Cimanuk is already a Muslim port by that time, ruled by Javanese.

These new converts most probably were the people referred to in Carita Parahyangan as "those who felt no peace because of having strayed fromSanghyang Siksa".Nevertheless, during this time, Islamic influence had not yet penetrated inland into the capital. As mentioned in Carita Parahyangan that"mana mo kadatangan ku musuh ganal, musu(h) alit",which means the capital is "safe from rough/coarse enemy, (as well as) soft/subtle enemy". The term "coarse enemy" refers to an actual invading foreign army, while "subtle enemy" refers to the propagation of a new faith or new religion that might upset the established spiritual order of the kingdom.

The kingdom anxiously watched the growing influence of the expansive IslamicSultanate of Demakthat finally succeeded in destroyingDaha,the remnant of the HinduMajapahitcourt in 1527. As a result of this event, onlyBlambanganin the eastern edge of Java, and Sunda in the western part remained Hindu kingdoms in Java. Meanwhile, in the land of Sunda, Muslim influences started to penetrate the kingdom.

Rise of Muslim Cirebon and Banten

Keraton KasepuhanofCirebon.By 1482, the Sunda kingdom lost its important eastern port ofCirebon.

Bujangga Manikmanuscript, written circa the second half of the 15th century reported that the eastern boundary of Sunda Kingdom realm was the Cipamali river in present-dayBrebes.However, the PortugueseSuma Orientalin 1513 reported that the eastern border of Sunda Kingdom is located in the port ofChemano(Cimanuk), the estuarine ofManuk River.This means between 1450 and 1513 the kingdom has lost control of the area surrounding Cirebon, between Brebes and Indramayu on the northeastern part of the kingdom. This signifies the coastal Muslim Javanese push westward into once a traditional Sundanese territory, as Demak Sultanate was responsible as the patron for the rise of Cirebon.

The detail of the Sunda Kingdom and its relations with the rise ofCirebon Sultanate,mostly were taken from the account ofPurwaka Caruban Nagari,a manuscript of Cirebon chronicle which claimed Cirebon as the rightful successor of Sunda Kingdom.

According to Purwaka Caruban Nagari, a Sunda kingPrabu Siliwangimarried Nyai Subang Larang, daughter of Ki Gedeng Tapa, port master of Muara Jati (today Cirebon). They had three children: Prince Walangsungsang, Princess Rara Santang, and Prince Kian Santang.Although Prince Walangsungsang was the first-born son of the King, the prince did not earn the right as a crown prince of Sunda Kingdom. This was because his mother, Nyai Subang Larang was not thequeen consort.Another reason was because of his conversion to Islam, probably influenced by his mother as she is a Muslim. In the 16th century western Java, the prevalent faith practiced was Hinduism,Sundanese ancestral religion,and Buddhism. It was his half brother, Prabuwisesa, the king's son from his third wife Nyai Cantring Manikmayang, who was chosen as the crown prince.

Walangsungsang later moved to a settlement called Dukuh Alang-alang on 1445. After Ki Gedeng Alang-Alang's death in 1447, Walangsungsang appointed as the ruler of the town and established a court and assumed a new title as Prince Cakrabuana. King Siliwangi sent his envoy Tumenggung Jagabaya and Raja Sengara, to bestow Prince Carkrabuana with the title Tumenggung Sri Mangana. The settlement, now called Cirebon grew into a thriving port, yet Cakrabuana was still loyal to his father and sent tribute to the main court of Sunda. At that time Cirebon was still a principality within the Sunda Kingdom.

In 1479, Cakrabuana was succeeded by his nephew, Sharif Hidayatullah, the son of his sister Nyai Rara Santang. He married his cousin, Nyi Mas Pakungwati daughter of Cakrabuana. He is popularly known with his posthumously nameSunan Gunungjati.On 2 April 1482, Sunan Gunungjati stated that Cirebon will no longer send tribute toPajajaran,which marked the proclamation that theSultanate of Cirebonis independent from Sunda Pajajaran.

The character described in Purwaka Caruban Nagari, asPrabu Siliwangi,matched the historic character of Dewa Niskala or Ningrat Kancana, referred as Lord of Galuh in Carita Parahyangan. Tohaan di Galuh was the son and heir of Niskala Wastu Kancana.

The pressure from coastal Javan Islamic states drove the king of Sunda,Sri Baduga Maharaja,to seek assistance from the Portuguese atMalacca.In 1512 and again in 1521, he sent his son, the crown prince Surawisesa also known as Ratu Sang Hyang (Samian) to Malacca to request the Portuguese to sign an alliance treaty, to trade in pepper and to build a fort at his main port of Sunda Kalapa. Sunan Gunung Jati's son later also established theSultanate of Banten,which later become a menace for the Hindu Sunda Kingdom.

Surawisesa and Sunda–Portuguese Treaty 1522

Main article:Luso-Sundanese padrão

After Sri Baduga Maharaja's death in 1521, the succeeding kings, PrabuSurawisesaJayaperkosa, also known as Ratu Sang Hyang whom the Portuguese called Ratu Samian, faced the menace ofCirebonandDemak.Under this threat, Surawisesa, who reigned from 1521 to 1535, concluded the treaty withPortuguese from Malaccato establish a warehouse and fortress atSunda Kelapain return for protection against the menace of these Islamic Sultanates.

By 1522, the Portuguese were ready to form a coalition with the King of Sunda to get access to his lucrative pepper trade. The commander of Malacca,Jorge de Albuquerque,sent a ship, theSão Sebastião,under Captain Henrique Leme, to Sunda Kalapa with valuable gifts for the king of Sunda. Two written sources describe the concluding of the treaty in detail, the original Portuguese document of 1522 with the text of the treaty and the signatories of the witnesses, and a report on that event byJoão de Barrosin his bookDa Ásia,printed after 1777/78.

The king welcomed them warmly upon their arrival. The crown prince had succeeded his father and was now King Prabu Surawisesa, although Barros called him King Samião. This Sunda ruler agreed to an arrangement of friendship with the King of Portugal and granted a fortress at the mouth of the Ciliwung River where the Portuguese could load as many peppers as they wished. In addition, he pledged, dating from the start of construction on the fortress, each year he would donate one thousand sacks of pepper to the Portuguese king. The contract document was drafted into two copies and signed. On the said day in 1522, Henrique Leme of Portuguese and his entourage together with deputies of the King of Sunda erected a commemoration stone at the mouth of theCiliwung River.

The fall of Sunda Kalapa

Statue of Ganesha, discovered in Warung Buncit, Pasar Minggu, South Jakarta, Sunda Kingdom period

Thistrade and defence treatywas fallen apart tremendously due to Portuguese failure to deliver their promise to construct the fortress in Kalapa. The delay was caused by troubles inGoa.To make things worse, in 1527Fatahillah,a military commander sent from Demak, managed to capture theSunda Kalapaharbour just before the Portuguese returned.

The army of Fatahillah, comprising around Cirebon-Demak troops, conquered Sunda Kalapa. The Sunda authority stationed in the port were fallen. The harbour chief and his family, the royal minister, and all of the people working in the harbour were slaughtered. The port city was completely destroyed and razed, as the Sundanese reinforcements sent from Pakuan was too weak and retreated. The Sunda Kingdom has lost its most important port, thus subsequently Sunda Kalapa was renamedJayakartaby its Muslim conqueror.

Thirty Portuguese sailors, shipwrecked by storms, swam to the beach at Kalapa only to be killed by Fatahillah's men. The Portuguese recognised the political leadership had changed when they were not allowed to set foot on the land. As they were too weak for a battle, they set sail back to Malacca. The next year, a second attempt failed because of striking sailors angry at not having been paid.

The port ofSunda Kalapa,the cradle ofJakarta.For centuries it was the royal port of Sunda Kingdom serving the capitalDayeuh Pakuan Pajajaran60 kilometres inland to the south until it fell to Demak and Cirebon forces in 1527.

The failure to rely on Portuguese assistance has led Sunda to fend for their own survival by themselves. Carita Parahyangan mentioned that during his 14 years of reign (1521–1535), King Sang Hyang (Surawisesa) has fought in 15 battles. Unbeatable, all in which he managed to repel the series of invading Muslim forces from Cirebon and Demak. He fought in Kalapa, Tanjung, Ancol Kiji,Wahanten Girang,Simpang, Gunung Batu, Saung Agung, Rumbut, Gunung, Gunung Banjar, Padang, Panggoakan, Muntur, Hanum, Pagerwesi, and Medangkahyangan.

The war between Cirebon-Demak forces and the Sunda kingdom lasted for almost five years. The king lost thousands of his men. During this war, after Sunda Kalapa, Sunda Kingdom also lost thePort of Banten.Sunan Gunungjatiof Cirebon later crowned his son,Hasanuddin,as the king of Banten under the auspices of the Sultan of Demak who, in turn, offered Hasanudin his sister's hand in marriage.Bantenwas established as the capital of this new sultanate, held as a vassal underSultanate of Cirebon.Finally, in 1531, a peace treaty was concluded between King Surawisesa of Sunda and Syarif Hidayatullah of Cirebon.

In an apparent sorrow after the tremendous defeat and the loss of his two most important ports, Prabu Surawisesa established theBatutulis inscriptionin 1533 to commemorate his late father.This action was probably an attempt to spiritually appeal for ancestral guidance and protection against the powerful Muslim enemy that now loomed by the gates. Because of ongoing battles, he often could not stay in his palace inPakuan Pajajaran.

Jaya Dewata

Prabu Ratu Dewata also known asSang Ratu Jaya Dewata,was the successor of Prabu Surawisesa. He was, however, not his son. The reign of Prabu Ratu Dewata between 1535 and 1543 was known as a chaotic and difficult one full of hardship, as Islamic forces from Cirebon and Banten tried multiple times to capture the Dayeuh Pakuan capital.

During Ratu Dewata reign, the Carita Parahyangan reported several calamities befell the kingdom; there was a sudden attack, a lot of enemies razed the city,thus mass combat erupted in the grand yard (buruan ageung).In this battle, the noble princes were killed. The chaos has widespread across the kingdom, the attack also occurred in Ciranjang andSumedang.Another terror was the assassination of therishis,hermits and Hindu priests that resides in the hermitage sanctuaries. It was reported that the Hindu priests and hermits of mandala Jayagiri, were captured and drowned in the sea.It is highly possible that the attack was launched by Muslim states of Banten or Cirebon.This was a devastating attack straight to the spiritual core of the Sundanese Hindu community.

Unable to control the kingdom, instead of fulfilling his duty by maintaining the law and order, Prabu Ratu Dewata retreated himself to become aRaja Pandita(priestly king), submitted himself deeply into religious rituals as an apparently desperate appeal for gods' salvation.By this time, Sunda Kingdom were already isolated and confined to the inland.

Last kings and the fall of Sunda kingdom

ThePort of Bantenin the 16th century. The IslamicSultanate of Bantenwas responsible for the demise of Hindu Sunda Kingdom, and supplant it as the dominant polity in western parts of Java in the following centuries.

Series of last Sunda kings were notoriously known as incompetent rulers. The successor of Ratu Dewata, KingRatu Saktireigned from 1543 to 1551, was known as a ruthless king, who indulges himself with sensual pleasure.

The next successor that ruled from 1551 to 1567, KingNilakendra,also known as Tohaan di Majaya, is also an incompetent ruler. Instead of fulfilling his duty as a king, he renovates and beautifies the palace. Squander kingdom's fortune by indulging himself in pleasures and luxury.

Because of ongoing battles, ironically Tohaan di Majaya could not stay in his newly renovated palace. The last kings of Sunda could no longer reside in Pakuan Pajajaran, since in the 1550sHasanuddin,the sultan of Banten has launched a successful attack on Dayeuh Pakuan, captured and razed the capital.

The surviving Sunda royalties, nobles and common people fled the fallen city, heading to the mountainous wilderness. After the fall of Pakuan Pajajaran, the royal regalia of Sunda Kingdom was evacuated to the eastern principality ofSumedang Larang.Among these regalias areMakuta Binokasih Sanghyang Paké,the royal crown of Sunda. Thus the member of the Sunda dynasty established a surviving minor regional kingdom of Sumedang Larang where Sundanese aristocracy would survive for a few more centuries to come until conquered byMataram Sultanatein the 17th century.

From 1567 to 1579, under the last king Raja Mulya, also known asPrabu Surya Kencana,the kingdom declined substantially. In Carita Parahyangan, his name is Nusiya Mulya. He ruled further inland inPulasari,nearPandeglang,at the slope of Mount Palasari. The kingdom has fallen apart, particularly after 1576 due to constant pressure from Banten, and finally collapsed completely in 1579. Thereafter, theSultanate of Bantentook over most of the former Sunda Kingdom's territory, thus ultimately put an end to a millennium of Hindu-Buddhist Dharmic civilization of West Java.By this time, Java has turned more and more Islamic. Only the kingdom ofBlambanganon the eastern edge was the last surviving Hindu kingdom in Java, well until its demise in the early 18th century.

Capital

Throughout Sunda's history, the centre of cultural and political power often oscillated between the WesternPrianganregion; initially identified as "Sunda", and Eastern Priangan region; traditionally identified as "Galuh". The two traditional sites are located in and around modernBogorcity and the town ofCiamis.The two most important capitals arePakuan Pajajaran,the capital of Sunda; andKawali,the capital of Galuh.

Kawali

Main article:Kawali

Hindu Brahmin's ritual objects, including bronze bell and holy water container from Kawali, the historic capital of Galuh Kingdom.

The capital of the Galuh Kingdom of the easternPrianganregion, has moved several times. In the older period, the capital was located around the Karang Kamulyan site by the banks ofCitanduyriver. By the early 14th century, the capital was moved further northwest upstream, in the area now known asAstana Gede,near the current town of Kawali,Ciamis Regency.The city was located on the eastern slope of Mount Sawal near the source of the Citanduy river. AKawali inscriptionwas discovered here. According to tradition, the keraton in Kawali is calledSurawisesa,expanded and renovated by KingNiskala Wastu Kancana.Kawali served as the capital of the kingdom for several generations until Sri Baduga Maharaja moved the government back to Pakuan in 1482.

Pakuan Pajajaran

Main article:Pakuan Pajajaran

Location of Pakuan Pajajaran copied from book "Kabudayaan Sunda Zaman Pajajaran" Part 2 ", 2005

After the fall ofTarumanagarain the 7th century, King Tarusbawa built a new capital city inland near the source of the Cipakancilan river in present-dayBogor.According toCarita Parahyangan,a manuscript from the 15th or 16th century, King Tarusbawa was only mentioned asTohaan(Lord/King) of Sunda. He was the ancestor of a series of Sunda kings that reigned until 723. Pakuan served as the capital of Sunda during the reign of several kings, and the court shifted to Kawali until Sri Baduga Maharaja moved the court from Kawali back to Pakuan in 1482.

The city was permanently settled since at least the 10th century, but not gaining major political importance until KingJayadewataestablished it as the royal capital of the Sunda kingdom in the 15th century. In 1513, the city was visited by its first European visitor,Tomé Pires,the Portuguese envoy.According to his report, the city ofDaio(Dayeuhis a Sundanese term for "capital city" ) was great city, with population around 50,000 inhabitants.

The tradition hailed that King Jayadewata ruled justly from his beautifulKadatwan(palace) calledSri Bima Punta Narayana Madura Suradipatiat Pakuan Pajajaran, and his reign is celebrated as the golden age for Sundanese people.

After the reign of King Jayadewata (Sri Baduga Maharaja), Pakuan Pajajaran served as the royal capital for several generations.DayeuhPakuan Pajajaran served as the capital of the Sunda Kingdom for almost a hundred years (1482 – 1579), until it was razed and destroyed by theSultanate of Bantenin 1579.

Because Pakuan, the capital city of the Sunda kingdom laid between two parallel rivers, Ciliwung and Cisadane, it was calledPajajaran(lit. place laid between two parallel things) orPakuan Pajajaran.Although primary local and European historical records referred to the kingdom in the western part ofJava islandas the Sunda Kingdom, theSundanese,especially after the establishment ofthe Sultanate of BantenandCirebon,referred to the kingdom (minus the coastal sultanates) as "Pakuan Pajajaran" Kingdom, or simply as the Pakuan Kingdom or the Pajajaran Kingdom. The later name – Pajajaran – is more familiar for people residing in West Java and theJavaneseofMataramregion (currentYogyakartaandSolo).

Government and economy

Administration

Makuta Binokasih Sanghyang Paké,the royal crown of Sunda kingdom. After the fall of Pajajaran to Banten, the crown was evacuated toSumedang Larangand become their regalia.

In many historical sources, including manuscripts, inscriptions, as well as foreign historical accounts from China and Portuguese reports, all refer to "Sunda" as akingdom.On the other hand, the term "Pakuan" and "Pajajaran" or "Dayeuh" refer to its capital which corresponds to the modern city of Bogor. The tangible evidence on the existence of a kingdom as an administrative social structure, was found inSanghyang Tapak inscriptiondated 952 Saka (1030 CE), that mentionedPrahajyan Suṇḍa(Sunda Kingdom), with Sri Jayabhupati claimed ashaji ri Suṇḍa(the king of Sunda).

Through the study on the 14th centuryinscriptions in Astana Gede sitein Kawali, historian suggests that the political model of Sunda Kingdom adhered the concept ofTri Tangtu di Buana,which administrative power was distributed in triad among three elements;Prebu(king),Rama(village chief or regional elder) andResi(rishipriestly class of religious authority).

According to Tomé Pires (1513), the Sunda kingdom is ruled by a paramountraja(king or monarch), and the right of the throne inheritance descended from a father to his son. However, in the case when a king did not produce a male heir, the successor is elected from the lesser kings, the rulers of regional towns or provinces.These lesser kings are calledTohaan(lord) that acts as local governor, and most are related to the king, which means they belong in the same dynasty.

Much of our current knowledge on detailed social order and the bureaucracy structure of the kingdom, is owed to the Sundanese manuscript ofSanghyang siksakanda ng karesian,compiled around 1518.

...nihan sinangguh dasa prebakti ngaranya. Anak bakti di bapa, ewe bakti di laki, hulun bakti di pacandaan, sisya bakti di guru, wong tani bakti di wado, wado bakti di mantri, mantri bakti di nu nangganan, nu nangganan bakti di mangkubumi, mangkubumi bakti di ratu, ratu bakti di dewata, dewata bakti di hyang...
This is a reminder which is called "Tenbhakti(devotion) ": sons (children) devoted to (their) father, wife devoted to husband, the common people (servants or slaves) devoted to (their) master or employer (pacandaan= place to lean on), students devoted to (their)guru(teacher), farmers devoted towado(lesser employee),wadodevoted tomantri(government official),mantridevoted tonu nangganan(lit. "handler", which refer to managerial position in bureaucracy),nu nagganandevoted tomangkubumi(lord or governor),mangkubumidevoted toratu(king or monarch), the king devoted todewata(gods),dewatadevoted tohyang(higher spirit).

— Sanghyang siksakanda ng karesian

According to Carita Parahyangan, all regional ruler (governor),rama(village chief), government officials, andrishi(Hindu priests), are required to make a formal annual visit to the capital; paying homage,taxortributeto the court. As mentioned in some fragments of this manuscript:
"..., ti Kandangwesi pamwat siya ka Pakwan..."( "... from Kandangwesi the tribute was sent to Pakuan" ),
"..., anaking sang Prebu Rama, Resi samadaya sarerea siya marek ka Pakwan unggal tahun..."( "... my son the chief of the village, therishistogether all paid a visit to Pakuan every years ").

Economy

A Sundanese woman retrieving rice from aleuit,Sundanese economy mainly rely on rice agriculture

The economy of the Sunda kingdom relied onagriculture,especiallyricecultivation; this is reflected inSundaneseculture and the annual ceremonies of crop seeding andSeren Taunrice harvest festival. The harvest ceremony also allowed the king's official to collecttaxin the form of rice that can be stored in the state'sLeuit(ricebarn).

According to Siksakanda ng Karesian, Sundanese farmers during the era of the Sunda Kingdom did recognizesawahor thewet-field rice cultivation.However, the widespread rice cultivation system applied in the kingdom seems to be theladangor thedry-field ricewhich is a much simpler form of cultivation that doesn't require an elaborate social structure to support it. This corresponds with the geography and topography of West Java which dominated by the centralParahyanganPlateau, in contrast with Central and East Java that consists of river valleys between volcanoes. As the result, compared to Central and East Java, West Java at that time was more sparsely populated, consists of settlements, villages or hamlet quite isolated deep within highland valleys, which render direct administrative control from the kingdom's central government rather difficult.

The kingdom was also well known as the world's main producer of high qualitypepper.The kingdom participated in a spice trade network in the archipelago. The ports of Sunda participated in international trades in the region.

InSuma Oriental,written in 1512-1515,Tomé Pires,a Portuguese explorer report about the ports of Sunda:

First the king ofÇumda(Sunda) with his great city ofDayo,the town and lands and port ofBantam,the port ofPomdam(Pontang), the port ofCheguide(Cigede), the port ofTamgaram(Tangerang), the port ofCalapa(Kelapa), and the port ofChemano(Chi Manuk or Cimanuk), this is Sunda, because the river of Chi Manuk is the limit of both kingdoms.

Another Portuguese explorer, Diogo do Couto, wrote that the Sunda kingdom is thriving and abundant; it lies between Java and Sumatra, separated from the latter by theSunda Strait.Many islands lie along the coast of this kingdom within the strait, for nearly the space of forty leagues;the strait's widest point is about twenty-five and narrowest point only twelve leaguesbroad. Bantam is about the midpoint. All the islands are well timbered but have little water. A small one called Macar, at the entrance of Sunda Strait, is said to have much gold.

He also noted that the principal ports of the Sunda kingdom were Banten, Ache, Chacatara (Jakarta), which annually receive twenty sommas, ships from Chienheo, China, to ship the eight thousandbahars,which are equal to 3,000,000 kg of pepper the kingdom produced.

Bantam is situated at 6° south latitude, in the middle of a bay, three leagues from point to point. The town is eight hundred and fifty fathomsin length, and the seaport extends about 400. A river capable of admitting junks and galleys flows through the middle of the town: a small branch of this river admits boats and small craft.

There is a brick fort, the walls of which are seven palms thick,with wooden bulwarks, armed with two tiers of artillery. The anchorage is good, with a muddy or sandy bottom and a depth from two to six fathoms.

Culture and society

Religion

The statue ofShiva Mahadevafrom Cibodas village, Cicalengka Subdistrict, Bandung Regency, West Java. Possibly from the Sunda Kingdom period 8th to 9th century.

Hinduismwas one of the earliest religious influences established in West Java since the era ofTarumanagara,circa early 5th century CE. In fact, West Java was one of the earliest places in Indonesia that being Indianized, also sparked the historic period of Indonesian history by producing the earliest inscription in Java. As Tarumanagara's successor, Sunda Kingdom has inherited this Hindu civilization influences.

The culture of the people in the Sunda kingdom blendsHinduismwithSunda Wiwitan;a nativeshamanismbelief, and also a traces ofBuddhismis observable. Several intact prehistoricmegalithicsites, such as Cipari site inKuninganand the Pangguyanganmenhirand stepped pyramid in Cisolok,Sukabumi,suggest that native shamanicanimismanddynamismbeliefs coexisted with Hinduism and Buddhism. The native belief, Sunda Wiwitan, persists today as a way of life for theBaduyor Kanekes people who resist Islam and other foreign influences.

TheCangkuangHindu temple in Leles,Garut,dated from the 8th century, was dedicated toShivaand built during the Galuh kingdom. Buddhist influence came to West Java through theSrivijayaconquest, as the empire dominated West Java until the 11th century. The brickstupasinBatujayaindicate Buddhist influence in West Java, while nearbyCibuayasites show Hindu influence.

The manuscriptCarita Parahyanganclearly demonstrateHinduismspirituality within the Sunda Kingdom society. This manuscript is opened with a legendary character named Sang Resi Guru that had a son named Rajaputra. Comprehensively the manuscript was written by a Hindu scholar which demonstrate the Hindu frame of references.The Hindu pantheon, such as Brahma, Vishnu, Mahesvara, Rudra, Sadasiva, Yama, Varuna, Kuvera, Indra and Besravaka, were also mentioned in the ancient Sundanese manuscript ofSewakadharmaor also known asSerat Dewabuda,dated 1357 Saka or 1435 CE.

Hindu ritual objects; bells, small statue,trishulaand ornament of a ritual staff made of bronze, from Talaga near Kuningan, West Java. These objects belonged to Brahmin Hindu priests. Hinduism was the dominant faith in the Sunda Kingdom.

The Sundanese manuscript of spiritual guidance, theSanghyang Siksakanda ng Karesianalso demonstrate Hinduism religious outlook and frame of references, although it seems already mixed with some sorts of Buddhism spirituality."... ini na lakukeuneun, talatah sang sadu jati. Hongkara namo Sewaya, sembah ing hulun di Sanghyang Panca Tatagata; panca ngaran ing lima, tata ma ngaran ing sabda, gata ma ngaran ing raga, ya eta ma pahayueun sareanana..,","... this has to be done, the true mandate of the good-hearted (or trusted one). Blessed (should be) in the name of Shiva. Worship the servant to Sanghyang Panca Tatagata (Buddha), panca means five, tata means words, gata means body, yes, that is for the good of all".

Sunda Kingdom period did not produce enough archaeological evidence and records that could give comprehensive knowledge about the religious aspects of its population. Yet, there are few interesting things that suggest a syncretism took place between Hinduism, Buddhism, and a form of local beliefs system. This indication emerged from the veneration ofHyangfigure, which considered possess higher status than Hindu-Buddhist deities, as it is shown in Sanghyang Siksakanda Ng Karesian manuscript (1518):"...mangkubumi bakti di ratu, ratu bakti di dewata, dewata bakti di hyang...",which means "...mangkubumi submit to the king, king submit to the gods, and gods submit to hyang..."

Ancient Sundanese society did not build temples that are meticulously decorated with exquisite bas-reliefs as demonstrated intemplesbuilt by neighbouring Javanese in central and east Java that flourished around the same era. Furthermore, their statuary such as Shiva from Cangkuang temple and Ganesha from the Karang Kamulyan site were made such in a very simple form, almost has primitive megalithic style and quality. This has led to the suggestion that Hinduism and Buddhism were not truly and fully embraced by the ancient Sundanese populace because they still rather faithfully adhered to their own vernacular ancestral beliefs system.

Art and culture

Statue of Durga fromBandung,West Java

The culture of the Sunda kingdom centred on agricultural activity, especiallyricecultivation.Nyi Pohaci Sanghyang Asrior Sanghyang Asri, the goddess of rice, is revered as the main deity or the highest goddess within Sundanesepantheon.The priest was concerned about the religious ceremonies and the king and his subjects participated in annual ceremonies and festivals such as the blessing of the rice seeds ceremonies and harvest festival. The annualSeren Taunrice harvest festival is still practised today in traditionalSundanesecommunities.

According to theBujangga Manikmanuscript, the courtly culture of Sundakratonand its nobles' etiquette in Pakuan Pajajaran was sophisticated. However, no traces of the palace or buildings survived in the former capital, probably because their wood construction decayed over the centuries.

A bronze statue of Hindu godShivadiscovered in Talaga near Kuningan, West Java. Sunda kingdom period, circa 14th century.

ThePortuguesesource provide a glimpse of the culture and customs of the Sunda kingdom. In his report “Suma Oriental(1512–1515)”Tomé Pireswrote:

Sunda kingdom is very rich. The land of Sunda has as much as four thousands horses that come there from Priaman (Sumatera) and other islands to be sold. It has up to forty elephants; these are for the king’s array. An inferior gold, of six carats, is found. There is an abundance of tamarinds that serve the native for vinegar.

The city where the king is most of the year is the great city of Dayo. The city has well-built houses of palm leaf and wood. They say that the king’s house has three hundred and thirty wooden pillars as thick as a wine cask, and five fathoms (8 m) high, and beautiful timber work on the top of the pillars, and a very well-built house. The city is two days journey from the chief port, which is calledKalapa.

The people of the sea coast get along well with the merchants in the land. They are accustomed to trading. These people of Sunda very often come to Malacca to trade. They bring cargo lancharas, ships of a hundred and fifty tons. Sunda has up to six junks and many lancharas of the Sunda kind, with masts like a crane, and steps between each so that they are easy to navigate.

The people of Sunda are said to be truthful. They, with the great city of Dayo, the town and lands and port of Bantam, the port of Pontang, the port of Cheguide, the port of Tangaram, the Port of Tangaram, the port of Calapa, the port of chi Manuk. are justly governed. The king is a great sportsman and hunter.The kingdom descends from father to son. The women are handsome, and those of the nobles chaste, which is not the case with those of the lower classes. There are monasteries of convents for the women, into which the nobles put their daughters when they cannot match them in marriage according to their wishes. The married women, when their husband dies, must, as a point of honour, die with them, and if they should be afraid of death they put into the convents. The inhabitants are not very warlike, much addicted to their idolatries. They are fond of rich arms, ornamented with gold and inlaid work. Their krises are gilt, and also the point of their lances.

Relations with regional powers

Padrãoof Sunda Kalapa(1522), a stone pillar with acrossof theOrder of Christcommemorating a treaty betweenPortuguese Kingdomand Hindu Sunda Kingdom, atNational Museum of Indonesia,Jakarta.

The Kingdom is commonly thought of as the successor ofTarumanagarawhich also flourished in the same location of Western Java. It seems that in its early history, around the 10th to 11th century, Sunda Kingdom was stuck in between two competingmandalas;the Malay Srivijaya in Sumatra in the west and its Javanese neighbouring kingdom in the east.

In early of its history, the kingdom seems served as the vassal ofSrivijayanmandala. By the 10th century, the kingdom seems to break loose, liberated from the Srivijayan mandala as stated byRakryan Juru Pangambat inscription(932 CE). However, according to the ChineseSong DynastybookZhu Fan Zhi,written around 1225 byZhao Rugua,Sin-t'o(Sunda), was still part ofSan-fo-tsi(Srivijaya) 15 tributaries.

The Kingdom of Sunda has established relations with its eastern neighbour; the kaleidoscope of Javanese kingdoms, from the era of Mataram kingdom back in the 8th century, all the way to Majapahit in the 14th century and Demak in the 16th century.The popular hero, KingSanjaya of Mataramknown as the Javanese Mataram King mentioned inCanggal inscription(732), was also mentioned in Sundanese manuscript Carita Parahyangan; as having his root in the Sunda Kingdom.

TheSanghyang Tapak inscription(1030) shows Javanese cultural influence, as the style of script, letters, language, and the title of the king is similar to royal names in East Javanese Mataram court. However, the relations might be not quite harmonious, as according to 11th century East JavaneseHorren inscription,mentionedçatru Sunda,which means the village of Horren was attacked by "the enemy (from) Sunda".

The relations between Sundanese and Javanese kingdoms descended to a new low, when a disastrous incident took place inBubat square in Majapahitin 1357, killing all of the Sundanese royal party, including the Sunda king Prabu Maharaja and Princess TohaanDyah Pitaloka Citraresmi.This tragedy severely harmed the relationship between the two kingdoms and resulted in hostility for years to come, the situation never again returning to normality.

The nemesis of the Hindu Sunda Kingdom was no doubt the Islamic states of Java northern coast; they are theDemak,Cirebonand later theBanten Sultanate.In order to protect the political and spiritual order of the kingdom, also to protect the economic interest of the Sunda Kingdom against the menace of Muslim Javanese states, King Sang Ratu Jayadewata seek assistance to the Portuguese based in Malacca.

The Sunda Kingdom is known as one of the earliest polity in Southeast Asia that has established diplomatic relations with the European nation. TheLuso-Sundanese padrão(1522) stone post, commemorating a treaty between the kingdoms ofPortugal(based inMalacca) and Sunda. The treaty formed as pepper trade agreement as well as a political alliance against the menace of their common enemies; the IslamicDemakandCirebon.

Legacy

Lontarpalm-leaf manuscriptwritten inSundanese

Although the kingdom of Sunda left little archaeological remains, it remains part of the culture ofSundanese peoplebeing kept alive through thePantunoral tradition, the chant of poetic verses. According to tradition, the Sunda Kingdom under its legendary king,Prabu Siliwangi,is revered as the prosperous and gloriousgolden agefor Sundanese people.The historical identity and the source of pride for Sundanese, the same asMajapahitforJavanese people.The pantun that mentioned Sunda Kingdom (popularly known as Pakuan or Pajajaran):

Talung-talung keur pajajaran. Jaman keur aya keneh kuwerabekti. Jaman guru bumi dipusti-pusti. Jaman leungit tangtu eusina metu. Euweuh anu tani kudu ngijon. Euweuh anu tani nandonkeun karang. Euweuh anu tani paeh ku jenkel. Euweuh anu tani modar ku lapar (Pantun Bogor: Kujang di Hanjuang siang, Sutaarga 1984:47)

Translation:It was better during the Pajajaran era, whenKuwera(the god of wealth) was still revered. The era when the earthguruwas still honoured. The lost era when the essence of teaching is delivered. No farmer had to take loans. No farmer had to sell their lands. No farmerdied in vain.No farmer died in hunger.

Dinegara Pakuan sarugih. Murah sandang sarta murah pangan. Ku sakabeh geus loba pare. Berekahna Dewa Guru anu matak kabeh sarugih. Malah ka nagri lain geus kakocap manjur. Dewa Guru miwarangan ka KiSemar:"maneh Semar geura Indit, leumpangan ka nagri pakuan!"(Wawacan Sulanjana: Plyte 1907:88)

Translation:In the prosperous kingdom of Pakuan, people lacked no food or clothing. Rice was plenteous. The blessing of Dewa Guru laid on the land, so everyone was rich. The land's fame spread to other lands. Dewa Guru ordered Ki Semar to the kingdom of Pakuan!

Several streets in major Indonesian cities, especially in West Java, were named after Sundanese kings and the Sunda Kingdom. The street names such as Jalan Sunda in Jakarta and Bandung, Jalan Pajajaran in Bogor and Bandung, Jalan Siliwangi and Niskala Wastu Kancana in Bandung, are among street names named after Kingdom of Sunda. ThePadjadjaran UniversityinBandungwas named for Pakuan Pajajaran, the capital and the popular name for the Sunda Kingdom. TheTNISiliwangi Military DivisionandSiliwangi Stadiumwas named forKing Siliwangi,the eponymous popular king of Sunda. The West Java state museum,Sri Baduga MuseuminBandungis named after king Sri Baduga Maharaja.

List of rulers

Period	King's name	Ruler of	Capital	Inscription or Manuscript reference	Events
709 – 716	Sena/Bratasena	Galuh	Galuh	Carita Parahyangan
716 – 723	Purbasora	Galuh	Galuh	Carita Parahyangan	Purbasora, Wretikandayun's grandson, rebelled against Sena and took the throne of Galuh in 716
723 – 732	Sanjaya/Harisdarma/ Rakeyan Jamri	Sunda, Galuh, andMataram	Pakuan	Canggal,Carita Parahyangan	Sanjaya, son of Sena's sister, Sannaha, married Tarusbawa's daughter, Tejakencana, and become the king of Sunda. He took revenge on Sena's behalf against Purbasora in Galuh. Sanjaya took his right as the heir inKalingga,established theSanjaya dynastyandMataram Kingdomin central Java
1030–1042	Prabu Detya Maharaja Sri Jayabupati	Sunda and Galuh	Pakuan	Jayabupati	Offspring ofSrivijayaprincess and Sunda King, son in-law of KingDharmawangsaofMataram.Proclaimed independence fromSrivijayaby assuming the title "Maharaja". Established the sacred sanctuary ofSanghyang Tapak
1175–1297	Prabu Guru Dharmasiksa	Sunda and Galuh	Saunggalah, Pakuan	Carita Parahyangan	Rakeyan Jayadharma, son of Dharmasiksa, married Dyah Lembu Tal ofSinghasari,and have a sonWijaya.Jayadharma died in boyhood and Dyah lembu Tal returned to Singhasari. Wijaya later establishedMajapahit.Rakeyan Saunggalah, Jayadharma's brother, succeeded Dharmasiksa
1340–1350	Prabu Ragamulya Luhurprabhawa/ Aki Kolot	Sunda and Galuh	Kawali	Carita Parahyangan
1350–1357	Prabu Maharaja Lingga Buana/ Prabu Wangi	Sunda and Galuh	Kawali	Pararaton,Carita Parahyangan,Kidung Sunda	Lingga Buana's daughterDyah Pitalokawed kingHayam WurukofMajapahit.However, in theBattle of Bubat(1357), the Sunda king, princess, and most of Sunda royal family died in Bubat, Majapahit.Gajah Madaheld responsible for this Pasunda Bubat incident.
1357–1371	Mangkubumi Suradipati/ Prabu Bunisora	Sunda and Galuh	Kawali	Carita Parahyangan	Mangkubumi Suradipati temporarily ruled the kingdom on behalf of the late Prabu Wangi because the crown prince, Niskala Wastu Kancana, was still a child
1371–1475	Prabu Raja Wastu/ Niskala Wastu Kancana/ Sang Mokteng Nusalarang	Sunda and Galuh	Kawali	Kawali inscription,Carita Parahyangan	The kingdom prospered under Niskala Wastu Kancana long reign. Later, he split Sunda and Galuh between his two sons
1475–1482	Prabu Susuk Tunggal	Sunda	Pakuan	Carita Parahyangan	Twin equal kingdom of Sunda and Galuh
1475–1482	Ningrat Kancana/ Prabu Dewa Niskala	Galuh	Kawali	Carita Parahyangan	Twin equal kingdom of Sunda and Galuh
1482–1521	Sri Baduga Maharaja/ Ratu Jayadewata	Sunda and Galuh	Pakuan	Carita Parahyangan	Transferred the capital back toPakuan.The kingdom consolidated its power and enjoyed stability, prosperity, and great wealth. His reign popularly celebrated as the "golden age" ofPajajaran
1521–1535	Prabu Surawisesa Jayaperkosa/ Ratu Sang Hiang	Sunda and Galuh	Pakuan	Batutulis,Carita Parahyangan,Luso Sundanese Treaty,Padrão	Sought the assistance ofPortugueseinMalaccain 1522 against the pressure ofSultanate of Demak.The treaty failed, and the Sunda Kingdom lostSunda Kelapato Fatahillah Demak forces. Batu Tulis inscription was established in 1533 to commemorate his great predecessor, Sri Baduga Maharaja
1535–1543	Ratu Dewata/ Sang Ratu Jaya Dewata	Sunda and Galuh	Pakuan	Carita Parahyangan	The kingdom declined fast and lost most of its territory toCirebonandBanten
1543–1551	Ratu Sakti	Sunda and Galuh	Pakuan	Carita Parahyangan	The kingdom grow weaker under the pressure ofSultanate of Banten
1551–1567	Nilakendra/ Tohaan di Majaya	Sunda	Pakuan,Pulasari	Carita Parahyangan	The fall ofPakuanunderSultanate of Banteninvasion
1567–1579	Raja Mulya/ Prabu Surya Kencana	Sunda	Pulasari	Carita Parahyangan	The king resided in Pulasari,Pandeglang,or in Kaduhejo, Menes Subdistrict. The kingdom finally collapsed in 1576 under pressure from theBanten

Sunda Kingdom in popular culture

Celebrated as 'the golden era' of ancient Indonesia, especially for Sundanese people, the Sunda kingdom has inspired many writers and artists to create works based on this era. The impact of the Sunda kingdom theme on popular culture can be seen in the following:

• Saur Sepuh(1987–1991), a radio drama and film by Niki Kosasih. Begun as a popular radio drama program in the late 1980s, Saur Sepuh is set in 15th century Java and is about Brama Kumbara, a fictional king of Madangkara, itself a fictional kingdom neighbour of the Pajajaran. Several films and TV series are also based on the Saur Sepuh story.
• Prabu Siliwangi(1988), a film directed by Sofyan Sharna, about the fictionalised life story ofKing Siliwangi.
• Prabu Siliwangi(2009), a novel written by E Rokajat Asura, also about King Siliwangi.
• Dyah Pitaloka(2007), a novel by Hermawan Aksan, about Sundanese PrincessDyah Pitaloka Citraresmi,focussed around theBubat War.The novel virtually took the same context and was inspired byKidung Sundayana.
• Rise of the Rajas(2016) expansion pack fromAge of Empires IIcomputer game, the PasundaBubat tragedywas featured as one of Gajah Mada's military campaign.

See also

• Hinduism in Java
• History of Indonesia
• Pura Parahyangan Agung Jagatkarta
• Sundanese people
• List of monarchs of Java

References

• "Maharadja Cri Djajabhoepathi, Soenda’s Oudst Bekende Vorst", TBG, 57. Batavia: BGKW, pp. 201–219, 1915)
• Sumber-sumber asli sejarah Jakarta, Jilid I: Dokumen-dokumen sejarah Jakarta sampai dengan akhir abad ke-16
• Kebudayaan Sunda Zaman Pajajaran, Jilid 2, Edi S. Ekajati, Pustaka Jaya, 2005
• The Sunda Kingdom of West Java From Tarumanagara to Pakuan Pajajaran with the Royal Center of Bogor, Herwig Zahorka, Yayasan Cipta Loka Caraka, Jakarta, 2007-05-20.