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Susa

Coordinates:32°11′26″N48°15′28″E/ 32.19056°N 48.25778°E/32.19056; 48.25778
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"Shushan" redirects here. For other uses, seeShushan (disambiguation).
For other uses, seeSusa (disambiguation).
Not to be confused withShusha.

Susa
شوش
The Palace of Darius in Susa
Susa is located in Iran
Susa
Susa
Shown within Iran
Susa is located in West and Central Asia
Susa
Susa
Susa (West and Central Asia)
LocationShush,Khuzestan Province,Iran
RegionZagros Mountains
Coordinates32°11′26″N48°15′28″E/ 32.19056°N 48.25778°E/32.19056; 48.25778
TypeSettlement
Part ofSusa
History
Founded4200 BE[1]
Abandoned1218 AD
EventsBattle of Susa
Site notes
ConditionAbandoned and in ruins
Official nameSusa
CriteriaCultural: i, ii, iii, iv
Reference1455
Inscription2015 (39thSession)

Susa(/ˈsuːsə/SOO-sə;MiddleElamite:𒀸𒋗𒊺𒂗,romanized:Šušen;[2]Middle and Neo-Elamite:𒋢𒋢𒌦,romanized:Šušun;[2]Neo-ElamiteandAchaemenidElamite:𒀸𒋗𒐼𒀭,romanized:Šušan;[3]AchaemenidElamite:𒀸𒋗𒐼,romanized:Šuša;[3]Persian:شوشŠuš[ʃuʃ];Hebrew:שׁוּשָׁןŠūšān;Greek:ΣοῦσαSoûsa;Syriac:ܫܘܫŠuš;[4]Middle Persian:𐭮𐭥𐭱𐭩Sūšor𐭱𐭥𐭮Šūs;Old Persian:𐏂𐎢𐏁𐎠Çūšā) was an ancient city in the lowerZagros Mountainsabout 250 km (160 mi) east of theTigris,between theKarkhehandDezRivers in Iran. One of the most important cities of theAncient Near East,Susa served as the capital ofElamand the winter capital of theAchaemenid Empire,and remained a strategic centre during theParthianandSasanianperiods.

The site currently consists of three archaeological mounds, covering an area of around 1 square kilometre (0.39 sq mi).[5]The city ofShushis located on the site of ancient Susa.

Name[edit]

The English nameSusais derived fromAncient GreekSousa(Σουσα), which is ultimately derived from an originalElamitename, which was written asŠušen(𒀸𒋗𒊺𒂗) in its Middle Elamite form,[2]Šušun(𒋢𒋢𒌦) in its Middle and Neo-Elamite forms,[2]Šušan(𒀸𒋗𒐼𒀭) in its Neo-ElamiteandAchaemenidforms,[3]andŠuša(𒀸𒋗𒐼) in itsAchaemenidElamite form.[3]

Literary references[edit]

Map showing the area of the Elamite kingdom (in orange) and the neighboring areas. The approximateBronze Ageextension of thePersian Gulfis shown.

Susa was one of the most important cities of theAncient Near East.Inhistoric literature,Susa appears in the very earliest Sumerian records: for example, it is described as one of the places obedient toInanna,patron deity ofUruk,inEnmerkar and the Lord of Aratta.

Biblical texts[edit]

Susa is mentioned in theKetuvimof theHebrew Bibleby the name Shushan, mainly in theBook of Esther,but also once each in the books ofEzra(Ezra 4:9),Nehemiah(Nehemiah 1:1) andDaniel(Daniel 8:2). According to these texts, Nehemiah lived in Susa during theBabylonian captivityof the 6th century BC (Daniel mentions it in a prophetic vision), whileEstherbecame queen there, married toKing Ahasuerus,and saved the Jews fromgenocide.A tomb presumed to be that of Daniel is located in the area, known asShush-Daniel.However, a large portion of the current structure is actually a much later construction dated to the late nineteenth century,c. 1871.[6]

Other religious texts[edit]

Susa is further mentioned in theBook of Jubilees(8:21 & 9:2) as one of the places within the inheritance ofShemand his eldest sonElam;and in 8:1, "Susan" is also named as the son (or daughter, in some translations) of Elam.

Excavation history[edit]

Site of Susa
Assyria. Ruins of Susa, Brooklyn Museum Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection

The site was examined in 1836 byHenry Rawlinsonand then byA. H. Layard.[7]

In 1851, some modest excavation was done byWilliam Loftus,accompanied byFenwick Williams,who identified it as Susa.[8][9]Among his finds was a jar containing a around 110 coins, the earliest of which was dated to 697-98 AD.[10]

In 1885 and 1886Marcel-Auguste DieulafoyandJane Dieulafoybegan the first French excavations, discovering glazed bricks, column bases, and capitals from the palace of the Achaemenid kings.[11]However, they failed to identify mudbrick walls, which were then destroyed in the course of excavation.[12]Almost all of the excavations at Susa, post-1885, were organized and authorized by the French government.[13]

In two treaties in 1894 and 1899, the French gained a monopoly on all archaeological excavations in Iran indefinitely.[12]Jacques de Morgan,after visiting the site in 1891, conducted major excavations from 1897 until 1911.[14]The excavations that were conducted in Susa brought many artistic and historical artifacts back to France. These artifacts filled multiple halls in the Museum of the Louvre throughout the late 1890s and early 1900s.[15][13]De Morgan's most important work was the excavation of the Grande Tranchée in the Acropole mound, where he found the stele ofNaram-Sin,a collection of Babyloniankudurrus(boundary stones), the stele bearing theCode of Hammurabi,an ornamented bronze table of snakes, the bronze statue ofQueen Napir-Asu,and thousands of inscribed bricks. His finds showed Susa to be the most important center ofElamite civilization,which was effectively discovered by the French mission at Susa.[12]

Excavation efforts continued underRoland De Mecquenemuntil 1914, at the beginning ofWorld War I.French work at Susa resumed after the war, led by De Mecquenem, continuing untilWorld War IIin 1940.[16][17][18][19]To supplement the original publications of De Mecquenem the archives of his excavation have now been put online thanks to a grant from the Shelby White Levy Program.[20]

Roman Ghirshmantook over direction of the French efforts in 1946, after the end of the war.[21]Together with his wifeTania Ghirshman,he continued there until 1967. The Ghirshmans concentrated on excavating a single part of the site, the hectare sized Ville Royale, taking it all the way down to bare earth.[22]The pottery found at the various levels enabled a stratigraphy to be developed for Susa.[23][24]

From 1969 until 1979 excavations were conducted underJean Perrot.[25][26]

In 2019 the Susa salvage project was launched to counter the construction of a transportation underpass in the vicinity of the site.[27]

History[edit]

Early settlement[edit]

Inurban history,Susa is one of the oldest-known settlements of the region. Based on calibratedcarbon-14 dating,the foundation of a settlement there occurred as early as 4395 BC.[28]In the region around Susa were a number of towns (with their own platforms) and villages that maintained a trading relationship with the city, especially those along the Zagro frontier.[29]

The founding of Susa corresponded with the abandonment of nearby villages. Potts suggests that the settlement may have been founded to try to reestablish the previously destroyed settlement atChogha Mish,about 25 km to the west.[30]Previously,Chogha Mishwas a very large settlement, and it featured a similar massive platform that was later built at Susa.[31]

Another important settlement in the area isChogha Bonut,which was discovered in 1976.[31]

Susa I period (4200–3800 BC)[edit]

Goblet and cup, Iran, Susa I style, 4th millennium BC –Ubaid period;goblet height c. 12 cm;Sèvres – Cité de la céramique,France
See also:Ubaid period

Shortly after Susa was first settled over 6000 years ago, its inhabitants erected a monumental platform that rose over the flat surrounding landscape.[32]The exceptional nature of the site is still recognizable today in the artistry of the ceramic vessels that were placed as offerings in a thousand or more graves near the base of the temple platform.[33]

Susa's earliest settlement is known as theSusa Iperiod (c. 4200–3900 BC). Two settlements named by archaeologists theAcropolis(7 ha) and theApadana(6.3 ha), would later merge to form Susa proper (18 ha).[30]TheApadanawas enclosed by 6 metre thick walls oframmed earth(this particular place is namedApadanabecause it also contains a lateAchaemenidstructure of this type).

Nearly two thousand pots ofSusa Istyle were recovered from the cemetery, most of them now in theLouvre.The vessels found are eloquent testimony to the artistic and technical achievements of their makers, and they hold clues about the organization of the society that commissioned them.[34] Painted ceramic vessels from Susa in the earliest first style are a late, regional version of the MesopotamianUbaidceramic tradition that spread across the Near East during the fifth millennium BC.[34]Susa I style was very much a product of the past and of influences from contemporary ceramic industries in the mountains of western Iran. The recurrence in close association of vessels of three types—a drinking goblet or beaker, a serving dish, and a small jar—implies the consumption of three types of food, apparently thought to be as necessary for life in the afterworld as it is in this one. Ceramics of these shapes, which were painted, constitute a large proportion of the vessels from the cemetery. Others are coarse cooking-type jars and bowls with simple bands painted on them and were probably the grave goods of the sites of humbler citizens as well as adolescents and, perhaps, children.[35]The pottery is carefully made by hand. Although a slow wheel may have been employed, the asymmetry of the vessels and the irregularity of the drawing of encircling lines and bands indicate that most of the work was done freehand.

Metallurgy[edit]

Copper metallurgy is also attested during this period, which was contemporary with metalwork at some highland Iranian sites such asTepe Sialk.

As many as 40 copper axes have been found at the Susa cemetery, as well as 10 round discs probably used as mirrors. Many awls and spatulas were also found.

"Metal finds from the burials in Susa are the major metal assemblage from the end of the 5th millennium BCE. Strata 27 to 25 contained the earliest burials with a large number of axes, made from unalloyed copper and copper with elevated As [Arsenic] levels."[36][37]

The cemetery ofChega Sofla,from the same timeframe, provides a lot of similar material, with many sophisticated metal objects.[38]Chega Sofla is located in the same geographical area.

  • GALLERY - ceramic objects from Susa I

Susa II and Uruk influence (3800–3100 BC)[edit]

Susa came within the Uruk cultural sphere during theUruk period.An imitation of the entire state apparatus of Uruk,proto-writing,cylinder sealswith Sumerian motifs, and monumental architecture is found at Susa. According to some scholars, Susa may have been a colony of Uruk.

There is some dispute about the comparativeperiodizationof Susa and Uruk at this time, as well as about the extent of Uruk influence in Susa. Recent research indicates that Early Uruk period corresponds to Susa II period.[39]

Daniel T. Potts, argues that the influence from the highland IranianKhuzestanarea in Susa was more significant at the early period, and also continued later on. Thus, Susa combined the influence of two cultures, from the highland area and from thealluvial plains.Potts also stresses the fact that the writing and numerical systems of Uruk were not simply borrowed in Susa wholesale. Rather, only partial and selective borrowing took place, that was adapted to Susa's needs. Despite the fact that Uruk was far larger than Susa at the time, Susa was not its colony, but still maintained some independence for a long time, according to Potts.[40]An architectural link has also been suggested between Susa, Tal-i Malyan, andGodin Tepeat this time, in support of the idea of the parallel development of theProto-Cuneiformand proto-elamite scripts.[41]

Some scholars believe that Susa was part of the greater Uruk culture. Holly Pittman, an art historian at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia says, "they Susanians are participating entirely in an Uruk way of life. They are not culturally distinct; the material culture of Susa is a regional variation of that on the Mesopotamian plain". Gilbert Stein, director of the University of Chicago's Oriental Institute, says that "An expansion once thought to have lasted less than 200 years now apparently went on for 700 years. It is hard to think of any colonial system lasting that long. The spread of Uruk material is not evidence of Uruk domination; it could be local choice".[42]

  • King-priest with bow fighting enemies, with horned temple in the center. Susa II or Uruk period (3800–3100 BC), found in excavations at Susa. Louvre Museum.[43][44]
    King-priest with bow fighting enemies, with horned temple in the center. Susa II or Uruk period (3800–3100 BC), found in excavations at Susa. Louvre Museum.[43][44]
  • Globular envelope with the accounting tokens. Clay, Uruk period (c. 3500 BC). From the Tell of the Acropolis in Susa. The Louvre
    Globular envelope with the accounting tokens. Clay, Uruk period (c. 3500 BC). From the Tell of the Acropolis in Susa.The Louvre
  • Work in the granaries, Susa II, Louvre.[45]
    Work in the granaries, Susa II, Louvre.[45]
  • Priest-King with bow and arrows, Susa II, Louvre.[46]
    Priest-King with bow and arrows, Susa II, Louvre.[46]
  • Prisoners, Susa II, Louvre.[47]
    Prisoners, Susa II, Louvre.[47]
  • Orant statuette, Susa II, Louvre.[48]
    Orant statuette, Susa II, Louvre.[48]

Susa III, or "Proto-Elamite", period (3100–2700 BC)[edit]

Main article:Proto-Elamite

Susa III (3100–2700 BC) is also known as the 'Proto-Elamite' period.[49]At this time, Banesh period pottery is predominant. This is also when the Proto-Elamite tablets first appear in the record. Subsequently, Susa became the centre ofElamcivilization.

Ambiguous reference to Elam (Cuneiform;𒉏) appear also in this period inSumerianrecords. Susa enters recorded history in theEarly Dynastic period of Sumer.A battle betweenKishand Susa is recorded in 2700 BC, whenEn-me-barage-siis said to have "made the land of Elam submit".[50]

  • Susa III/ Proto-Elamite cylinder seal, 3150–2800 BC. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 1484
    Susa III/ Proto-Elamite cylinder seal, 3150–2800 BC.Louvre Museum,reference Sb 1484
  • Susa III/ Proto-Elamite cylinder seal 3150–2800 BC Mythological being on a boat Louvre Museum Sb 6379
    Susa III/ Proto-Elamite cylinder seal 3150–2800 BC Mythological being on a boat Louvre Museum Sb 6379
  • Susa III/ Proto-Elamite cylinder seal 3150–2800 BC Louvre Museum Sb 6166
    Susa III/ Proto-Elamite cylinder seal 3150–2800 BC Louvre Museum Sb 6166
  • Economical tablet in Proto-Elamite script, Suse III, Louvre Museum, reference Sb 15200, circa 3100–2850 BC
    Economical tablet inProto-Elamite script,Suse III,Louvre Museum,reference Sb 15200, circa 3100–2850 BC

Elamites[edit]

Puzur-Inshushinak Ensi Shushaki(𒅤𒊭𒀭𒈹𒂞 𒑐𒋼𒋛 𒈹𒂞𒆠), "Puzur-InshushinakEnsi(Governor) of Susa ", in the" Table au Lion ", dated 2100 BC, Louvre Museum.[51]

In theSumerianperiod, Susa was the capital of a state called Susiana (Šušan), which occupied approximately the same territory of modernKhūzestān Provincecentered on theKarun River.Control of Susiana shifted betweenElam,Sumer, andAkkad.

During the Elamite monarchy, many riches and materials were brought to Susa from the plundering of other cities.[52]This was mainly due to the fact of Susa's location on Iran's South Eastern region, closer to the city of Babylon and cities in Mesopotamia.

The use of the Elamite language as an administrative language was first attested in texts of ancient Ansan, Tall-e Mal-yan, dated 1000 BC.[53]Previous to the era of Elamites, the Akkadian language was responsible for most or all of the text used in ancient documents. Susiana was incorporated bySargon the Greatinto hisAkkadian Empirein approximately 2330 BC.[54]

Silver cup fromMarvdasht,Iran, with a linear-Elamite inscription from the time of Kutik-Inshushinak.National Museum of Iran

The main goddess of the city wasNanaya,who had a significant temple in Susa.[55]

Old Elamite period (c. 2700–1500 BC)[edit]

Dynastic list of twelve kings of Awan dynasty and twelve kings of theShimashki Dynasty,1800–1600 BC, Susa,Louvre MuseumSb 17729.[56][57]

The Old Elamite period began around 2700 BC. Historical records mention the conquest of Elam byEnmebaragesi,theSumerianking ofKishinMesopotamia.Three dynasties ruled during this period. Twelve kings of each of the first two dynasties, those ofAwan(orAvan;c. 2400–2100 BC) andSimashki(c. 2100–1970 BC), are known from a list from Susa dating to theOld Babylonian period.Two Elamite dynasties said to have exercised brief control over parts of Sumer in very early times include Awan andHamazi;and likewise, several of the strongerSumerianrulers, such asEannatumofLagashandLugal-anne-munduofAdab,are recorded as temporarily dominating Elam.

Kutik-Inshushinak[edit]

Susa was the capital of an Akkadian province until ca. 2100 BC, when its governor,Kutik-Inshushinak,rebelled and made it an independent state and a literary center. Also, he was the last from theAwan dynastyaccording to the Susa kinglist.[58]He unified the neighbouring territories and became the king ofElam.He encouraged the use of theLinear Elamitescript, that remains undeciphered.

The city was subsequently conquered by the neo-SumerianThird Dynasty of Urand held until Ur finally collapsed at the hands of the Elamites underKindattuin ca. 2004 BC. At this time, Susa was ruled by Elam again and became its capital under the Shimashki dynasty.

Indus-Susa relations (2400–2100 BC)[edit]

Numerous artifacts ofIndus Valley civilizationorigin have been found in Susa from this period, especially seals andetched carnelian beads,pointing toIndus-Mesopotamia relationsduring this period.[59][60]

  • Impression of an Indus cylinder seal discovered in Susa, in strata dated to 2400–2100 BC. Elongated buffalo with line of standard Indus script signs. Tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 2425.[59][61] Indus script numbering convention per Asko Parpola.[62][63]
    Impression of an Indus cylinder seal discovered in Susa, in strata dated to 2400–2100 BC. Elongated buffalo with line of standardIndus scriptsigns.Tellof the Susa acropolis.Louvre Museum,reference Sb 2425.[59][61]Indus script numbering convention perAsko Parpola.[62][63]
  • Indus round seal with impression. Elongated buffalo with Harappan script imported to Susa in 2340–2200 BC. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 5614[64]
    Indus round seal with impression. Elongated buffalo with Harappan script imported to Susa in 2340–2200 BC. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis.Louvre Museum,reference Sb 5614[64]
  • Indian carnelian beads with white design, etched in white with an alkali through a heat process, imported to Susa in 2400–2100 BC. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 17751.[65][66] These beads are identical with beads found in the Indus Civilization site of Dholavira.[67]
    Indiancarnelianbeads with white design, etched in white with an alkali through a heat process, imported to Susa in 2400–2100 BC. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis.Louvre Museum,reference Sb 17751.[65][66]These beads are identical with beads found in the Indus Civilization site ofDholavira.[67]
  • Indus bracelet, front and back, made of Pleuroploca trapezium or Turbinella pyrum imported to Susa in 2400–2100 BC. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 14473.[68] This type of bracelet was manufactured in Mohenjo-daro, Lothal and Balakot.[69] The back is engraved with an oblong chevron design which is typical of shell bangles of the Indus Civilization.[70]
    Indus bracelet, front and back, made ofPleuroploca trapeziumorTurbinella pyrumimported to Susa in 2400–2100 BC. Found in the tell of the Susa acropolis. Louvre Museum, reference Sb 14473.[68]This type of bracelet was manufactured inMohenjo-daro,LothalandBalakot.[69]The back is engraved with an oblong chevron design which is typical of shell bangles of the Indus Civilization.[70]
  • Indus Valley Civilization carnelian beads excavated in Susa.
    Indus Valley Civilization carnelian beads excavated in Susa.
  • Jewelry with components from the Indus, Central Asia and Northern-eastern Iran found in Susa dated to 2400–2100 BC. Louvre - SB 13099 ; N 601.
    Jewelry with components from the Indus, Central Asia and Northern-eastern Iran found in Susa dated to 2400–2100 BC. Louvre - SB 13099; N 601.

Middle Elamite period (c. 1500–1100 BC)[edit]

Middle-Elamite basrelief of warrior gods, Susa, 1600-1100 BC

Around 1500 BC, the Middle Elamite period began with the rise of the Anshanite dynasties. Their rule was characterized by an "Elamisation" of Susa, and the kings took the title "king of Anshan and Susa". While, previously, the Akkadian language was frequently used in inscriptions, the succeeding kings, such as the Igihalkid dynasty of c. 1400 BC, tried to use Elamite. Thus, Elamite language and culture grew in importance in Susiana.[citation needed]

This was also the period when the Elamite pantheon was being imposed in Susiana. This policy reached its height with the construction of the political and religious complex atChogha Zanbil,30 km (19 mi) south-east of Susa.

In ca. 1175 BC, the Elamites underShutruk-Nahhunteplundered the originalstelebearing theCode of Hammurabiand took it to Susa. Archeologists found it in 1901.Nebuchadnezzar Iof theBabylonianempire plundered Susa around fifty years later.

  • An ornate design on this limestone ritual vat from the Middle Elamite period depicts creatures with the heads of goats and the tails of fish, Susa, 1500–1110 BC.
    An ornate design on this limestone ritual vat from the Middle Elamite period depicts creatures with the heads of goats and the tails of fish, Susa, 1500–1110 BC.
  • The Ziggurat at Chogha Zanbil was built by Elamite king Untash-Napirisha circa 1300 BC.
    The Ziggurat atChogha Zanbilwas built by Elamite kingUntash-Napirishacirca 1300 BC.
  • Susa, Middle-Elamite model of a sun ritual, circa 1150 BC
    Susa, Middle-Elamite model of a sun ritual, circa 1150 BC

Neo-Elamite period (c. 1100–540 BC)[edit]

Neo-Assyrians[edit]
Main article:Battle of Susa

In 647 BC,Neo-AssyriankingAshurbanipalleveled the city during a war in which the people of Susa participated on the other side. A tablet unearthed in 1854 byAusten Henry LayardinNinevehreveals Ashurbanipal as an "avenger", seeking retribution for the humiliations that the Elamites had inflicted on the Mesopotamians over the centuries:

"Susa, the great holy city, abode of their gods, seat of their mysteries, I conquered. I entered its palaces, I opened their treasuries where silver and gold, goods and wealth were amassed....I destroyed thezigguratof Susa. I smashed its shining copper horns. I reduced the temples of Elam to naught; their gods and goddesses I scattered to the winds. The tombs of their ancient and recent kings I devastated, I exposed to the sun, and I carried away their bones toward the land of Ashur. I devastated the provinces of Elam and, on their lands, I sowed salt. "[71]

Assyrian rule of Susa began in 647 BC and lasted tillMediancapture of Susa in 617 BC.

Susa after Achaemenid Persian conquest[edit]

Statue ofDarius the Great,National Museum of Iran
Archers frieze fromDarius' palace at Susa.Detail of the beginning of the frieze
The 24 countries subject to the Achaemenid Empire at the time of Darius, on theStatue of Darius I.

Susa underwent a majorpoliticalandethnoculturaltransition when it became part of the PersianAchaemenidempire between 540 and 539 BC when it was captured byCyrus the Greatduring his conquest ofElam(Susiana), of which Susa was the capital.[72]The Nabonidus Chronicle records that, prior to the battle(s), Nabonidus had ordered cult statues from outlying Babylonian cities to be brought into the capital, suggesting that the conflict over Susa had begun possibly in the winter of 540 BC.[73]

It is probable that Cyrus negotiated with the Babylonian generals to obtain a compromise on their part and therefore avoid an armed confrontation.[74]Nabonidus was staying in the city at the time and soon fled to the capital, Babylon, which he had not visited in years.[75] Cyrus' conquest of Susa and the rest of Babylonia commenced a fundamental shift, bringing Susa under Persian control for the first time.Strabostated that Cyrus made Susa an imperial capital though there was no new construction in that period so this is in dispute.[76]

Under Cyrus' sonCambyses II,Susa became a center of political power as one of four capitals of the Achaemenid Persian empire, while reducing the significance ofPasargadaeas the capital of Persis. Following Cambyses' brief rule,Darius the Greatbegan a major building program in Susa andPersepolis,which included building a largepalace.[77]During this time he describes his new capital in an inscription:

"This palace which I built at Susa, from afar its ornamentation was brought. Downward the earth was dug, until I reached rock in the earth. When the excavation had been made, then rubble was packed down, some 40 cubits in depth, another part 20 cubits in depth. On that rubble the palace was constructed."[78]

The city forms the setting ofThe Persians(472 BC), anAtheniantragedyby theancient GreekplaywrightAeschylusthat is the oldest surviving play in thehistory of theatre.

Events mentioned in theOld Testamentbook ofEstherare said to have occurred in Susa during the Achaemenid period. The KingAhasuerusmentioned in that book may refer toXerxes I(486-465 BC).

Seleucid period[edit]

The marriages ofStateira IItoAlexander the GreatofMacedonand her sister,Drypteis,toHephaestionat Susa in 324 BC, as depicted in a late-19th-century engraving.

Susa lost much of its importance after the invasion ofAlexander the Great of Macedonin 331 BC. In 324 BC he metNearchushere, who explored the Persian Gulf[citation needed]as he returned from the Indus River by sea. In that same year Alexander celebrated in Susa with amass weddingbetween thePersiansandMacedonians.[79]

The city retained its importance under theSeleucidsfor approximately one century after Alexander, however Susa lost its position of imperial capital toSeleucia on the Tigristo become the regional capital of thesatrapyof Susiana.[80]Nevertheless, Susa retained its economic importance to the empire with its vast assortment of merchants conducting trade in Susa,[81]usingCharax Spasinouas its port.

The city was namedSeleucia on the EulaeusorSeleucia ad Eulaeum.

Seleucus I Nicatorminted coins there in substantial quantities.[82]Susa is rich in Greek inscriptions,[citation needed]perhaps indicating a significant number of Greeks living in the city. Especially in the royal city large, well-equipped peristyle houses have been excavated.

Parthian period[edit]

Around 147 BC Susa and the adjacentElymaisbroke free from theSeleucid Empire.The city was at least temporarily ruled by the rulers of the Elymais withKamnaskires II Nikephorosminting coins there. The city may again have briefly returned to Seleucid rule, but starting withPhraates II(about 138–127 BC) toGotarzes II(about 40–51 AD) almost all rulers of theParthian Empirecoined coins in the city, indicating that it was firmly in the hands of the Parthians at least during this period. The city however retained a considerable amount of independence and retained its Greek city-state organization well into the ensuingParthianperiod.[83]From second half of the first century it was probably partly governed by rulers of Elymais again, but it became Parthian once again in 215.[84][85]

Susa was a frequent place of refuge for Parthian and later, the PersianSassanidkings, as theRomanssacked Ctesiphon five different times between 116 and 297 AD. Susa was briefly captured in 116 AD by the Roman emperorTrajanduring the course of his Parthian campaign.[86]Never again would the Roman Empire advance so far to the east.[87]

Sassanid period[edit]

Suzan was conquered and destroyed in 224 AD by the SassanidArdashir I,but rebuilt immediately thereafter, and perhaps even temporarily a royal residence. According to a later tradition,Shapur Iis said to have spent his twilight years in the city, although this tradition is uncertain and perhaps refers more toShapur II.

Under the Sassanids, following the founding ofGundeshapurSusa slowly lost its importance. Archaeologically, the Sassanid city is less dense compared to the Parthian period, but there were still significant buildings, with the settlement extending over 400 hectares. Susa was also still very significant economically and a trading center, especially in gold trading. Coins also continued to be minted in the city. The city had a Christian community in a separate district with a Nestorian bishop, whose last representative is attested to in 1265. Archaeologically a stucco panel with the image of a Christian saint has been found.

During the reign of Shapur II after Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire in 312, and the identification of Christians as possible collaborators with the enemy Christians living in the Sasanian Empire were persecuted from 339 onwards.[88]Shapur II also imposed a double tax on the Christians during his war campaign against the Romans. Following a rebellion of Christians living in Susa, the king destroyed the city in 339 using 300 elephants.[89]He later had the city rebuilt and resettled with prisoners of war and weavers, which is believed to have been after his victory over the Romans in Amida in 359. The weaver produced silk brocade.[90]He renamed itEran-Khwarrah-Shapur( "Iran's glory [built by] Shapur" ).[91]

Islamic period[edit]

During theMuslim conquest of Persiaan Arab army invaded Khuzistan under the command ofAbu Musa al-Ash'ari.After taking most of the smaller fortified towns the army capturedTustarin 642 before proceeding to besiege Susa. A place of military importance, it also held the tomb of the Jewish prophetDaniel. Two stories are given in the Muslim sources of how the city fell. In the first, a Persian priest proclaimed from the walls that only adajjalwas fated to capture the city. Adajjalis an Islamic term for anAl-Masih ad-Dajjal,a false messiah, compatible to theAntichristin Christianity. In everyday use, it also means "deceiver" or "imposter". Siyah, a Persian general who had defected to Muslim side, claimed that by converting to Islam he had turned his back on Zoroastrianism and was thus adajjal.Abu Musa agreed to Siyah's plan. Soon after as the sun came up one morning, the sentries on the walls saw a man in a Persian officer's uniform covered in blood lying on the ground before the main gate. Thinking it he had been left out overnight after a conflict the previous day, they opened the gate and some came out to collect him. As they approached, Siyah jumped up and killed them. Before the other sentries had time to react, Siyah and a small group of Muslim soldiers hidden nearby charged through the open gate. They held the gate open long enough for Muslim reinforcements to arrive and passing through the gate to take the city.[92]

In the other story, once again the Muslims were taunted from the city wall that only anAl-Masih ad-Dajjalcould capture the city, and since there were none in the besieging army then they may as well give up and go home. One of the Muslim commanders was so angry and frustrated at this taunt that he went up to one of the city gates and kicked it. Instantly the chains snapped, the locks broke and it fell open.[93]

Following their entry into the city, the Muslims killed all of the Persian nobles.[93]

Once the city was taken, as Daniel (Arabic:دانيال,romanized:Danyal) was not mentioned in theQur'an,nor is he regarded as a prophet in Judaism, the initial reaction of the Muslim was to destroy the cult by confiscating the treasure that had stored at the tomb since the time of the Achaemenids. They then broke open the silver coffin and carried off the mummified corpse, removing from the corpse a signet ring, which carried an image of a man between two lions. However, upon hearing what had happened, the caliphUmarordered the ring to be returned and the body reburied under the riverbed.[93]In time, Daniel became a Muslim cult figure and they as well as Christians began making pilgrimages to the site, despite several other places claiming to be the site of Daniel's grave.[93]

Following the capture of Susa, the Muslims moved on to besiegeGundeshapur.[92]

Susa recovered following its capture and remained a regional center of more than 400 hectares in size.[94]A mosque was built, but also Nestorian bishops are still testifie. In addition, there was a Jewish community with its own synagogue. The city continued to be a manufacturing center of luxury fabrics during this period. Archaeologically, the Islamic period is characterized mainly by its rich ceramics.Beth Huzaye (East Syrian Ecclesiastical Province)had a significant Christian population during the first millennium, and was a diocese of theChurch of the Eastbetween the 5th and 13th centuries, in the metropolitan province of Beth Huzaye (Elam).

In 1218, the city was razed by invadingMongolsand was never able to regain its previous importance. The city further degraded in the 15th century when the majority of its population moved toDezful.[95]

Today[edit]

Today the ancient center of Susa is unoccupied, with the population living in the adjacent modern Iranian town ofShushto the west and north of the historic ruins. Shush is the administrative capital ofShush Countyin Iran'sKhuzestanprovince. It had a population of 64,960 in 2005.

World Heritage listing[edit]

In July 2015, it was inscribed on the list ofWorld Heritage SitesbyUNESCO.[96]

Gallery[edit]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^"Susa timeline".
  2. ^abcdHinz & Koch 1987,p.1184.
  3. ^abcdHinz & Koch 1987,p.1183.
  4. ^Thomas A. Carlson et al., “Susa — ܫܘܫ” in The Syriac Gazetteer last modified June 30, 2014,http://syriaca.org/place/415.
  5. ^John Curtis (2013)."Introduction".InPerrot, Jean(ed.).The Palace of Darius at Susa: The Great Royal Residence of Achaemenid Persia.I.B.Tauris. p. xvi.ISBN9781848856219.
  6. ^Kriwaczek, Paul,Babylon: Mesopotamia and the Birth of Civilization,St. Martin's Press, 2012, ISBN 978-1250054166
  7. ^George Rawlinson,A Memoir of Major-General Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson,Nabu Press, 2010,ISBN1-178-20631-9
  8. ^[1],William K. Loftus, Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana, Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana: With an Account of Excavations at Warka, the "Erech" of Nimrod, and Shush, "Shushan the Palace" of Esther, in 1849–52, Robert Carter & Brothers, 1857
  9. ^John Curtis, "William Kennett Loftus and his Excavations at Susa", Iranica Antiqua; Leiden, vol. 28, pp. 1-55, (Jan 1, 1993)
  10. ^Vaux, W. S. W., "ON COINS DISCOVERED, BY W. K. LOFTUS, Esq., AT SUSA", The Numismatic Chronicle and Journal of the Numismatic Society, vol. 20, pp. 25–32, 1857
  11. ^[2]Jane Dieulafoy, "Perzi?, Chaldea en Susiane: De Aarde en haar Volken, 1885-1887", at Project Gutenbrg (in Dutch)
  12. ^abcMousavi, Ali (21 June 2013).The History of Archaeological Research in Iran.Oxford University Press.doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199733309.013.0003.
  13. ^abPeters, John P. (1915)."Excavations in Persia".The Harvard Theological Review.8(1): 82–93.doi:10.1017/S0017816000008336.ISSN0017-8160.JSTOR1507314.S2CID163892909.
  14. ^"M. J. DE MORGAN'S EXCAVATIONS IN THE AKROPOLIS AND PALACES OF SUSA", Scientific American, vol. 82, no. 11, pp. 169–70, 1900
  15. ^V. Scheil, "Excavations Made by the French in Susa and Babylonia, 1902-1903", The Biblical World, vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 146-152, Aug 1904JSTOR
  16. ^R. de Mecquenem, "Excavations at Susa (Persia), 1930–1931", Antiquity, vol. 5, iss. 19, September 1931
  17. ^[3],Jacques de Morgan, Fouilles à Suse en 1897–1898 et 1898–1899, Mission archéologique en Iran, Mémoires I, 1990
  18. ^[4],Jacques de Morgan, Fouilles à Suse en 1899–1902, Mission archéologique en Iran, Mémoires VII, 1905
  19. ^Robert H. Dyson, Early Work on the Acropolis at Susa. The Beginning of Prehistory in Iraq and Iran, Expedition, vol. 10, no. 4, pp. 21–34, 1968
  20. ^[5]Roland de Mecquenem: Archives de Suse (1912–1939) - Unpublished excavation archive (French)
  21. ^Ghirshman, Roman, "The Elamite Levels at Susa and Their Chronological Significance", American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 74, no. 3, pp. 223–25, 1970
  22. ^Roman Ghirshman, Suse au tournant du III au II millenaire avant notre ere, Arts Asiatiques, vol. 17, pp. 3–44, 1968
  23. ^Hermann Gasche, "Ville Royale de Suse: vol I: La poterie elamite du deuxieme millenaire A.C.", Mission archéologique en Iran, Mémoires 47, Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, 1973 ISBN 978-9004038264
  24. ^M. Steve and Hermann H. Gasche, "L'Acropole de Suse: Nouvelles fouilles (rapport preliminaire)", Memoires de la Delegation archeologique en Iran, vol. 46, Geuthner, 1971
  25. ^Jean Perrot, Les fouilles de Suš en 1975, Annual Symposium on Archaeological Research in Iran 4, pp. 224–231, 1975
  26. ^D. Canal, La haute terrase de l'Acropole de Suse, Paléorient, vol. 4, pp. 169–176, 1978
  27. ^ SORAGHI, S., & ZEYNIVAND, M., "The Susa salvage project in 2019, southwestern Iran", Historia I Świat, 11, pp. 71–79, 2022https://doi.org/10.34739/his.2022.11.04
  28. ^Potts:Elam,pp. 46.
  29. ^Wright, Henry T., "The Zagros Frontiers of Susa during the Late 5th Millennium", Paléorient, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 11–21, 2010
  30. ^abPotts:Elam.
  31. ^abAlizadeh, Abbas (2003).Excavations at the prehistoric mound of Chogha Bonut, Khuzestan, Iran: seasons 1976/77, 1977/78, and 1996.University of Chicago Oriental Institute publications. Chicago, Ill: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago in Association with the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organization.ISBN978-1-885923-23-3.OCLC53122624.
  32. ^[6]Hole, Frank. "A Monumental Failure: The Collapse of Susa". In Robin A. Carter and Graham Philip, eds., Beyond the Ubaid: Transformation and Integration of Late Prehistoric Societies of the Middle East, pp. 221–226, Studies in Oriental Civilization, no. 63, Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 2010
  33. ^Hole, Frank, "The Organization of Ceramic Production during the Susa I Period", Paléorient, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 23–36, 2010
  34. ^abAruz, Joan (1992).The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre.New York: Abrams. p. 26.
  35. ^Aruz, Joan (1992).The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre.New York: Abrams. p. 29.
  36. ^Thomas Rose 2022,Emergence of copper pyrotechnology in Western Asia.PhD thesis, Beer-Sheva. 342pp
  37. ^Rosenstock, E., Scharl, S., Schier, W., 2016. Ex oriente lux? Ein Diskussionsbeitrag zur Stellung der frühen Kupfermetallurgie Südosteuropas, in: Bartelheim, M., Horejs, B., Krauß, R. (Eds.), Von Baden bis Troia, Oriental and European Archaeology. Leidorf, Rahden/Westf., pp. 59–122. p. 75
  38. ^Moghaddam, A., Miri, N., 2021. Tol-e Chega Sofla Cemetery: A Phenomenon in the Context of Late 5th Millennium Southwest Iran, in: Abar, A., D’Anna, M.B., Cyrus, G., Egbers, V., Huber, B., Kainert, C., Köhler, J., Öğüt, B., Rol, N., Russo, G., Schönicke, J., Tourtet, F. (Eds.),Pearls, politics and pistachios.Ex oriente, Berlin, pp. 47–60.https://doi.org/10.11588/propylaeum.837.c10734
  39. ^D. T. Potts,The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State.Cambridge World Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, 2015ISBN1107094690p58
  40. ^Daniel T. Potts,The Archaeology of Elam: Formation and Transformation of an Ancient Iranian State.Cambridge World Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, 2015ISBN1107094690pp 58–61
  41. ^F. Desset, An Architectural Pattern in Late Fourth-Millennium BC Western Iran: A New Link Between Susa, Tal-I Malyan, and Godin Tepe, Iran, vol. 52, iss. 1, pp. 1–18, 2014
  42. ^Lawler, Andrew. 2003. Uruk: Spreading Fashion or Empire. Science. Volume 302, pp. 977–978
  43. ^Álvarez-Mon, Javier (2020).The Art of Elam CA. 4200–525 BC.Routledge. p. 101.ISBN978-1-000-03485-1.
  44. ^Cheng, Jack; Feldman, Marian (2007).Ancient Near Eastern Art in Context: Studies in Honor of Irene J. Winter by her Students.BRILL. p. 48.ISBN978-90-474-2085-9.
  45. ^Álvarez-Mon, Javier (2020).The Art of Elam CA. 4200–525 BC.Routledge. p. 93.ISBN978-1-000-03485-1.
  46. ^Álvarez-Mon, Javier (2020).The Art of Elam CA. 4200–525 BC.Routledge. p. 101.ISBN978-1-000-03485-1.
  47. ^Álvarez-Mon, Javier (2020).The Art of Elam CA. 4200–525 BC.Routledge. p. 97.ISBN978-1-000-03485-1.
  48. ^Álvarez-Mon, Javier (2020).The Art of Elam CA. 4200–525 BC.Routledge. p. 110.ISBN978-1-000-03485-1.
  49. ^D. T. Potts,A Companion to the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East.Volume 94 of Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World. John Wiley & Sons, 2012ISBN1405189886p. 743
  50. ^PerSumerian King List
  51. ^Translation of the Akkadian portion into French, inMémoires.Paris: P. Geuthner. 1899. pp.4–7.
  52. ^Aruz, Joan; Fino, Elisabetta Valtz (2001). "Ancient near Eastern Art".The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin.59(1): 8.doi:10.2307/3269163.ISSN0026-1521.JSTOR3269163.
  53. ^Mikołajczak, Tytus K. (2011). "Elam and Persia. Edited by Javier Álvarez-Mon and Mark B. Garrison. Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2011. pp. xviii + 493. $89.50 (cloth)".Journal of Near Eastern Studies.72(2): 284–289.doi:10.1086/671453.ISSN0022-2968.
  54. ^FOSTER, BENJAMIN R, "'International' Trade at Sargonic Susa (Susa in the Sargonic Period III)", Altorientalische Forschungen, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 59-68, 1993
  55. ^Potts:Elam,pp. 364.
  56. ^"Awan King List".Archived fromthe originalon 3 August 2021.Retrieved2 August2020.
  57. ^SCHEIL, V. (1931). "Dynasties Élamites d'Awan et de Simaš".Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie orientale.28(1): 1–46.ISSN0373-6032.JSTOR23283945.
  58. ^Potts:Elam,pp. 122.
  59. ^ab"Site officiel du musée du Louvre".cartelfr.louvre.fr.
  60. ^Marshall, John (1996).Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927.Asian Educational Services. p. 425.ISBN9788120611795.
  61. ^Marshall, John (1996).Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization: Being an Official Account of Archaeological Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro Carried Out by the Government of India Between the Years 1922 and 1927.Asian Educational Services. p. 425.ISBN9788120611795.
  62. ^"Corpus by Asko Parpola".Mohenjodaro.
  63. ^Also, for another numbering scheme:Mahadevan, Iravatham (1987).The Indus Script. Text, Concordance And Tables Iravathan Mahadevan.Archaeological Survey of India. pp. 32–36.
  64. ^"Louvre Museum - cachet -2340 / -2200 (Akkad) - Lieu de création: Vallée de l'Indus - Lieu de découverte: Suse - SB 5614; AS 15374".
  65. ^Guimet, Musée (2016).Les Cités oubliées de l'Indus: Archéologie du Pakistan(in French). FeniXX réédition numérique. pp. 354–355.ISBN9782402052467.
  66. ^Art of the first cities: the third millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus.p. 395.
  67. ^Nandagopal, Prabhakar (13 August 2018).Decorated Carnelian Beads from the Indus Civilization Site of Dholavira (Great Rann of Kachchha, Gujarat).Archaeopress Publishing Ltd.ISBN978-1-78491-917-7.
  68. ^"Louvre Museum Official Website".cartelen.louvre.fr.
  69. ^Guimet, Musée (2016).Les Cités oubliées de l'Indus: Archéologie du Pakistan(in French). FeniXX réédition numérique. p. 355.ISBN9782402052467.
  70. ^Art of the first cities: the third millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus.p. 398.
  71. ^"Persians: Masters of Empire"ISBN0-8094-9104-4p. 7-8
  72. ^Tavernier, Jan."Some Thoughts in Neo-Elamite Chronology"(PDF).p. 27.
  73. ^Kuhrt, Amélie. "Babylonia from Cyrus to Xerxes", inThe Cambridge Ancient History: Vol IV — Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean,pp.112–138. Ed. John Boardman.Cambridge University Press,1982.ISBN0-521-22804-2
  74. ^Tolini, Gauthier,Quelques éléments concernant la prise de Babylone par Cyrus,Paris. "Il est probable que des négociations s'engagèrent alors entre Cyrus et les chefs de l'armée babylonienne pour obtenir une reddition sans recourir à l'affrontement armé."p. 10(PDF)
  75. ^The Harran Stelae H2 – A, and theNabonidus Chronicle(Seventeenth year) show that Nabonidus had been in Babylon before 10 October 539, because he had already returned from Harran and had participated in the Akitu of Nissanu 1 [4 April], 539 BC.
  76. ^Waters, Matt, "CYRUS AND SUSA", Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie Orientale, vol.102, pp.115–18, 2008
  77. ^Unvala, J. M., "The Palace of Darius the Great and the Apadāna of Artaxerxes II in Susa", Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University of London, vol.5, no.2, pp.229–32, 1929
  78. ^Kent, Roland G., "The Record of Darius's Palace at Susa", Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 1–23, 1933
  79. ^van Oppen de Rutter, Branko F., "THE SUSA MARRIAGES — A HISTORIOGRAPHICAL NOTE", Ancient Society, vol. 44, pp. 25–41, 2014
  80. ^Capdetrey, Laurent (2007).Le Pouvoir Séleucide.Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes. p. 252.ISBN978-2-753505-24-7.
  81. ^Boyce, Mary; Grenet, Frantz (1 January 1991), "On the Western Edge of the Iranian Plateau: Susa and Elymais",A History of Zoroastrianism, Zoroastrianism under Macedonian and Roman Rule,Brill, pp. 35–48,doi:10.1163/9789004293915_004,ISBN9789004293915
  82. ^Marest-Caffey, Laure (2016). "Seleukos I's Victory Coinage of Susa Revisited: A Die Study and Commentary".American Journal of Numismatics.28:1–63.
  83. ^Hill, John E. (2009).Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, First to Second Centuries CE.Charleston: BookSurge.ISBN978-1-4392-2134-1.
  84. ^Potts:Elam,pp. 354-409.
  85. ^Le Rider, Georges(1965).Mémoires de la Délégation archéologique en Iran XXXVIII: Suse sous les Séleucides et les Parthes.Paris. pp. 349–430.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  86. ^Rawlinson, George (2007).Parthia.New York: Cosimo. p. 310.ISBN978-1-60206-136-1.
  87. ^Robert J. Wenke, Elymeans, Parthians, and the Evolution of Empires in Southwestern Iran, Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 101, no. 3, pp. 303–315, 1981
  88. ^Neusner, Jacob (1972). "Babylonian Jewry And Shapur Ii's Persecution of Christianity From 339 to 379 CE".Hebrew Union College Annual.43.Hebrew Union College Press: 77–102.
  89. ^Harper, Prudence; Aruz, Joan; Tallon, Frangoise (1993).The Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre.New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 162.
  90. ^Potts:Elam,pp. 429.
  91. ^Daryaee, Touraj (2009). "SHAPUR II".Encyclopaedia Iranica.
  92. ^abCrawford, Peter (2013).The War of the Three Gods: Romans, Persians and the Rise of Islam.Barnsley: Pen & Sword Military. pp. 183–184.ISBN978-1-84884-612-8.
  93. ^abcdKennedy, Hugh (2007).The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In.London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 128–129.ISBN978-0-297-84657-4.
  94. ^Amiet, Pierre (1972).Mémoires de la Délégation archéologique en Iran: Glyptique susienne des origines à l'époque des Perses achéménides: cachets, sceaux-cylindres et empreintes antiques découverts à Suse de 1913 à 1967.Paris: P. Geuthner.
  95. ^M. Streck,Clifford Edmund Bosworth(1997).Encyclopaedia of Islam, San-Sze.Vol. IX. Leiden: Brill. pp. 898–899.ISBN9789004104228.
  96. ^"Susa".UNESCO. 2015.Retrieved15 April2019.
  97. ^Epigraphy of Later Parthia, «Voprosy Epigrafiki: Sbornik statei», 7, 2013, pp. 276-284[7]
  98. ^Jonsson, David J. (2005).The Clash of Ideologies.Xulon Press. p. 566.ISBN978-1-59781-039-5.Antiochus III was born in 242 BC, the son of Seleucus II, near Susa, Iran.

References[edit]

Further reading[edit]

  • Bosworth, C. E. (1975).The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3 (1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-20093-6.
  • [8][permanent dead link]Charvát, Petr, "Archaeology and social history: the Susa sealings, ca. 4000-2340 BC.", Paléorient, 57-63, 1988
  • Clawson, H. Phelps, "Pottery of Susa I", Parnassus, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 26–27, 1939
  • Daryaee, Touraj(2014).Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire.I.B.Tauris.ISBN978-0857716668.
  • Jalalipour, Saeid (2014).The Arab Conquest of Persia: The Khūzistān Province before and after the Muslims Triumph(PDF).Sasanika.[permanent dead link]
  • Le Breton, L., "The Early Periods at Susa, Mesopotamian Relations", Iraq, vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 79–124, 1957
  • Pelzel, Suzanne M., "Dating the Early Dynastic Votive Plaques from Susa", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 1–15, 1977
  • Jean Perrot, "Le Palais de Darius à Suse. Une résidence royale sur la route de Persépolis à Babylone", SORBONNE PUPS, Paris, 2010ISBN978-2840506812
  • Poebel, Arno, "The Acropolis of Susa in the Elamite Inscriptions", The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures, vol. 49, no. 2, pp. 125–40, 1933
  • UNVALA, J. M., "Three Panels from Susa", Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie Orientale, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 179–85, 1928
  • Westenholtz, J. G.; Guthartz, L. Taylor (1996).Royal Cities of the Biblical World.Jerusalem: Rubin Mass.ISBN978-9657027011.
  • Woolley, C. Leonard, "The Painted Pottery of Susa", Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, no. 1, pp. 35–50, 1928

Excavation reports[edit]

Although numerous excavation reports have been published so far, many excavations are not or only partially published. Above all, the found architecture was often presented only in short preliminary reports and plans.

  • Pierre Amiet, "Glyptique susienne des origines à l'époque des Perses achéménides: cachets, sceaux-cylindres et empreintes antiques découverts à Suse de 1913 à 1967", Mémoires de la Délégation archéologique en Iran, Paris 1972.
  • Elizabeth Carter, "Suse, Ville Royale", Paléorient, vol. 4, pp. 197–211, 1979 DOI: 10.3406/paleo.1978.4222
  • Elizabeth Carter, "The Susa Sequence – 3000–2000 B. C. Susa, Ville Royale I", American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 83, no. 2, pp. 451–454, 1979
  • Elizabeth Carter, "Excavations in Ville-Royale-I at Susa: The third Millennium B.C.", Cahiers de la DAFI, vol. 11, pp. 11–139, 1980
  • Roman Ghirshman, "Cinq campagnes de fouilles a Suse (1946–1951)", In: Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie Orientale 46, pp 1–18, 1952
  • Ghirshman, Roman, and M. J. STEVE, "SUSE CAMPAGNE DE L'HIVER 1964-1965: Rapport Préliminaire", Arts Asiatiques, vol. 13, pp. 3–32, 1966
  • GHIRSHMAN, R., "SUSE CAMPAGNE DE L'HIVER 1965-1966 Rapport Préliminaire", Arts Asiatiques, vol. 15, pp. 3–27, 1967
  • Florence Malbran-Labat,"Les inscriptions royales de Suse: briques de l'époque paléo-élamite à l 'empire néo-élamite", Paris 1995.
  • Laurianne Martinez-Sève, "Les figurines de Suse", Réunion des Musées Nationaux, Paris 2002,ISBN2-7118-4324-6.
  • de Mecquenem, R., "LES DERNIERS RÉSULTATS DES FOUILLES DE SUSE", Revue Des Arts Asiatiques, vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 73–88, 1929
  • de MECQUENEM, R., "FOUILLES DE SUSE: CAMPAGNES DES ANNÉES 1914-1921-1922", Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie Orientale, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 109–40, 1922
  • [9]Jacques de Morgan, "Histoire et travaux de la Délégation en Perse du Ministère de l'instruction publique, 1897-1905", E. Leroux, 1905
  • Jacques de Morgan, G. Jéquier, G. Lampre, "Fouilles à Suse, 1897–1898 et 1898–1899", Paris 1900
  • Perrot, Jean, et al., "Recherches Archéologiques a Suse et En Susiane En 1969 et En 1970", Syria, vol. 48, no. 1/2, pp. 21–51, 1971
  • Georges Le Rider,"Suse sous les Séleucides et les Parthes: les trouvailles monétaires et l'histoire de la ville", Mémoires de la Délégation Archéologique en Iran, Paris 1965.
  • Vincent Scheil, "Inscriptions of Achéménides à Suse. Actes juridiques susiens", Mémoires de la Mission Archéologique de Perse, vol. 21–24, Paris 1929–1933.
  • Agnes Spycket, "Les figurines de Suse", Paris 1992.
  • Marie-Joseph Steve, Hermann Gasche, "L'Acropole de Suse. Nouvelles fouilles (rapport préliminaire)", Mémoires de la Mission Archéologique de Perse vol. 46, Leiden 1971.
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External links[edit]

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