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Sustainable transport

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Sustainable transportrefers to ways oftransportationthat aresustainablein terms of their social andenvironmentalimpacts. Components for evaluating sustainability include the particularvehiclesused for road, water or air transport; the source ofenergy;and theinfrastructureused to accommodate the transport (roads,railways,airways,waterways,canalsand terminals). Transport operations andlogisticsas well astransit-oriented developmentare also involved in evaluation.[citation needed]Transportation sustainability is largely being measured by transportation system effectiveness and efficiency as well as theenvironmentalandclimateimpacts of the system.[1]Transport systems have significant impacts on the environment, accounting for between 20% and 25% ofworld energy consumptionandcarbon dioxide emissions.[2]The majority of the emissions, almost 97%, came from direct burning of fossil fuels.[3]In 2019, about 95% of the fuel came from fossil sources. The main source of greenhouse gas emissions in the European Union is transportation. In 2019 it contributes to about 31% of global emissions and 24% of emissions in the EU. In addition, up to the COVID-19 pandemic, emissions have only increased in this one sector.[4][5]Greenhouse gas emissions from transport are increasing at a faster rate than any other energy using sector.[6]Road transport is also a major contributor to localair pollutionandsmog.[7]

Sustainable transport systems make a positive contribution to the environmental, social and economic sustainability of the communities they serve. Transport systems exist to provide social and economic connections, and people quickly take up the opportunities offered by increasedmobility,[8]with poor households benefiting greatly fromlow carbontransport options.[9]The advantages of increased mobility need to be weighed against the environmental, social and economic costs that transport systems pose. Short-term activity often promotes incremental improvement infuel efficiencyandvehicle emissions controlswhile long-term goals include migrating transportation fromfossil-based energyto other alternatives such asrenewable energyand use of otherrenewable resources.The entire life cycle of transport systems is subject tosustainability measurementand optimization.[10]

TheUnited Nations Environment Programme(UNEP) estimates that each year 2.4 million premature deaths from outdoor air pollution could be avoided.[11]Particularly hazardous for health are emissions ofblack carbon,a component ofparticulate matter,which is a known cause of respiratory and carcinogenic diseases and a significant contributor to global climate change.[12]The links betweengreenhouse gas emissionsand particulate matter makelow carbontransport an increasingly sustainable investment at local level—both by reducing emission levels and thus mitigating climate change; and by improving public health through betterair quality.[12]The term "green mobility" also refers to clean ways of movement or sustainable transport.[13]

The social costs of transport include road crashes, air pollution, physical inactivity,[14]time taken away from thefamilywhilecommutingand vulnerability tofuel price increases.Many of these negative impacts fall disproportionately on those social groups who are also least likely to own and drive cars.[15]Traffic congestionimposes economic costs by wasting people's time and by slowing the delivery of goods and services. Traditionaltransport planningaims to improve mobility, especially for vehicles, and may fail to adequately consider wider impacts. But the real purpose of transport is access – to work, education, goods and services, friends and family – and there are proven techniques to improve access while simultaneously reducing environmental and social impacts, and managing traffic congestion.[16]Communities which are successfully improving the sustainability of their transport networks are doing so as part of a wider program of creating more vibrant, livable,sustainable cities.

Definition[edit]

Ekorent's electric car inHelsinki,Finland

The termsustainable transportcame into use as a logical follow-on fromsustainable development,and is used to describe modes of transport, and systems of transport planning, which are consistent with wider concerns ofsustainability.There are many definitions of the sustainable transport, and of the related termssustainable transportationandsustainable mobility.[17]One such definition, from theEuropean UnionCouncil of Ministers of Transport, defines a sustainable transportation system as one that:

  • Allows the basic access and development needs of individuals, companies and society to be met safely and in a manner consistent with human andecosystem health,and promotes equity within and between successive generations.
  • Is affordable, operates fairly and efficiently, offers a choice oftransport mode,and supports acompetitive economy,as well as balanced regional development.
  • Limits emissions and waste within the planet's ability to absorb them, usesrenewable resourcesat or below their rates of generation, and uses non-renewable resources at or below the rates of development of renewable substitutes, while minimizing the impact on theuse of landand the generation ofnoise.

Sustainability extends beyond just the operating efficiency and emissions. Alife-cycle assessmentinvolves production, use and post-use considerations. Acradle-to-cradle designis more important than a focus on a single factor such asenergy efficiency.[18][19]

Benefits[edit]

Sustainable transport has many social and economic benefits that can accelerate local sustainable development. According to a series of serious reports by theLow Emission Development Strategies Global Partnership (LEDS GP),sustainable transport can help create jobs,[20]improve commuter safety through investment in bicycle lanes, pedestrian pathways and non-pedestrian pathways,[21]make access to employment and social opportunities more affordable and efficient. It also offers a practical opportunity to save people's time and household income as well as government budgets,[22]making investment in sustainable transport a 'win-win' opportunity.

Environmental impact[edit]

Main articles:Green vehicle,electric bus,andlight rail
Thebus rapid transitofMetzuses adiesel-electric hybriddriving system, developed by BelgianVan Hoolmanufacturer.[23]
ElectricTransmetroinGuatemala City

Transport systems are major emitters of greenhouse gases, responsible for 23% of world energy-related GHG emissions in 2004, with about three-quarters coming from road vehicles. Data from 2011 stated that one-third of all greenhouse gases produced are due to transportation.[24]Currently 95% of transport energy comes from petroleum.[6]Energy is consumed in the manufacture as well as the use of vehicles, and isembodiedin transport infrastructure including roads, bridges and railways.[25]Motorized transport also releases exhaust fumes that contain particulate matter which is hazardous to human health and a contributor to climate change.[26]

The first historical attempts of evaluating the Life Cycle environmental impact of vehicle is due toTheodore Von Karman.[27]After decades in which all the analysis has been focused on emending the Von Karman model, Dewulf and Van Langenhove have introduced a model based on the second law of thermodynamics and exergy analysis.[28]Chester and Orwath,[29][30][31]have developed a similar model based on the first law that accounts the necessary costs for the infrastructure.

Theenvironmental impacts of transportcan be reduced by reducing the weight of vehicles,[32]sustainable styles of driving, reducing the friction of tires, encouraging electric and hybrid vehicles, improving the walking andcycling environmentin cities, and by enhancing the role ofpublic transport,especiallyelectric rail.[6]

Green vehiclesare intended to have less environmental impact than equivalent standard vehicles, although when the environmental impact of a vehicle is assessed over the whole of itslife cyclethis may not be the case.[33]

Electric vehicletechnology significantly reduces transport CO2emissions when comparing battery electric vehicles (BEVs) with equivalent internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs).[34]The extent to which it does this depends on the embodied energy of the vehicle and the source of the electricity.[34]Lifecycle greenhouse gas emission reductions from BEVs are significant, even in countries with relatively high shares of coal in their electricity generation mix, such as China and India.[34][35]As a specific example, aNissan Leafin the UK in 2019 produced one third of the greenhouse gases than the average internal combustion car.[36]

Comparative assessments of well-to-wheel greenhouse gas emissions per km driven for conventional and battery-electric vehicles, showing battery-electric vehicles performing best in four major jurisdictions including those that generate electricity from coal.
Even in countries where electricity is largely generated from coal, such as China and India, battery-electric vehicles (BEVs) have lower lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions. The advantages of BEVs will further increase by 2030 as countries increasingly adopt clean electricity sources.[34]
Chart comparing lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions for various vehicle types
Battery electric vehicles have lower lifecycle emissions than other vehicle types. Abbreviations used in this chart: - ICE(V): internal combustion engine vehicle, CNG: compressed natural gas, HEV: hybrid electric vehicle, BEV: battery electric vehicle, PHEV: plugin hybrid electric vehicle, FCEV:fuel cellvehicle, STEPS: IEA'sStated Policies Scenario,APS: IEA'sAnnounced Pledges Scenario,NZE: IEA'sNet Zero Emissions by 2050 Scenario.[37]

The Online Electric Vehicle (OLEV), developed by the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), is an electric vehicle that can be charged while stationary or driving, thus removing the need to stop at a charging station. The City of Gumi in South Korea runs a 24 km roundtrip along which the bus will receive 100 kW (136 horsepower) electricity at an 85% maximum power transmission efficiency rate while maintaining a 17 cm air gap between the underbody of the vehicle and the road surface. At that power, only a few sections of the road need embedded cables.[38]Hybrid vehicles,which use aninternal combustion enginecombined with anelectric engineto achieve betterfuel efficiencythan a regular combustion engine, are already common.

Natural gasis also used as a transport fuel, but is a less promising technology as it is still a fossil fuel and still has significant emissions (though lower than gasoline, diesel, etc.).

Brazil met 17% of its transport fuel needs frombioethanolin 2007, but theOECDhas warned that the success of (first-generation) biofuels in Brazil is due to specific local circumstances. Internationally, first-generation biofuels are forecast to have little or no impact on greenhouse emissions, at significantly higher cost than energy efficiency measures.[39] The later generation biofuels however (2nd to 4th generation) do have significant environmental benefit, as they are no driving force for deforestation or struggle with thefood vs fuelissue.

In practice there is a sliding scale of green transport depending on the sustainability of the option. Green vehicles are morefuel-efficient,but only in comparison with standard vehicles, and they still contribute to traffic congestion and road crashes. Well-patronizedpublic transportnetworks based on traditional diesel buses use less fuel per passenger than private vehicles, and are generally safer and use less road space than private vehicles.[40]Green public transport vehicles including electric trains, trams andelectric busescombine the advantages of green vehicles with those of sustainable transport choices. Other transport choices with very low environmental impact arecyclingand otherhuman-powered vehicles,andanimal powered transport.The most common green transport choice, with the least environmental impact iswalking.

Transport on rails boasts an excellent efficiency (seefuel efficiency in transportation).

Transport and social sustainability[edit]

A tram inMelbourne,Australia

Cities with overbuilt roadways have experienced unintended consequences, linked to radical drops inpublic transport,walking,andcycling.In many cases, streets became void of "life." Stores, schools, government centers and libraries moved away from central cities, and residents who did not flee to the suburbs experienced a much reduced quality of public space and of public services. As schools were closed their mega-school replacements in outlying areas generated additional traffic; the number of cars on US roads between 7:15 and 8:15 a.m. increases 30% during the school year.[41]

Yet another impact was an increase insedentary lifestyles,causing and complicating a national epidemic ofobesity,and accompanying dramatically increased health care costs.[14][42]

Car-based transport systemspresent barriers to employment in low-income neighbourhoods,[43]with many low-income individuals and families forced to run cars they cannot afford to maintain their income.[44]

Potential shift to sustainable transport in developing countries[edit]

In developing countries such as Uganda, researchers have sought to determine factors that could possibly influence travelers to opt for bicycles as an alternative to motorcycle taxis (Bodaboda). The findings suggest that generally, the age, gender, and ability of the individual to cycle in the first place are key determinants of their willingness to shift to a more sustainable mode. Transport system improvements that could reduce the perceived risks of cycling were also seen to be the most impactful changes that could contribute towards the greater use of bicycles.[45]

Cities[edit]

Futurama,an exhibit at the 1939 New York World's Fair, was sponsored byGeneral Motorsand showed a vision of the City of Tomorrow.
Main article:Transit-oriented development
Further information:Carfree city

Cities are shaped by their transport systems. InThe City in History,Lewis Mumforddocumented how the location and layout of cities was shaped around a walkable center, often located near a port or waterway, and with suburbs accessible by animal transport or, later, by rail or tram lines.

In 1939, theNew York World's Fairincluded a model of an imagined city, built around a car-based transport system. In this "greater and better world of tomorrow", residential, commercial and industrial areas were separated, and skyscrapers loomed over a network of urban motorways. These ideas captured the popular imagination, and are credited with influencing city planning from the 1940s to the 1970s.[46]

Interstate 10andInterstate 45near downtownHouston,Texas

The popularity of the car in the post-war era led to major changes in the structure and function of cities.[47]There was some opposition to these changes at the time. The writings ofJane Jacobs,in particularThe Death and Life of Great American Citiesprovide a poignant reminder of what was lost in this transformation, and a record of community efforts to resist these changes. Lewis Mumford asked "is the city for cars or for people?"[48]Donald Appleyarddocumented the consequences for communities of increasing car traffic in "The View from the Road" (1964) and in the UK,Mayer Hillmanfirst published research into the impacts of traffic on child independent mobility in 1971.[49]Despite these notes of caution, trends in car ownership,[50]car use and fuel consumption continued steeply upward throughout the post-war period.

Mainstream transport planning in Europe has, by contrast, never been based on assumptions that the private car was the best or only solution for urban mobility. For example, theDutchTransport Structure Scheme has since the 1970s required that demand for additional vehicle capacity only be met "if the contribution to societal welfare is positive", and since 1990 has included an explicit target to halve the rate of growth in vehicle traffic.[51]Some cities outside Europe have also consistently linked transport to sustainability and toland-use planning,notablyCuritiba, Brazil,Portland, OregonandVancouver, Canada.

Greenhouse gas emissions from transport vary widely, even for cities of comparable wealth. Source:UITP,Mobility in Cities Database.

There are major differences in transport energy consumption between cities; an average U.S. urban dweller uses 24 times more energy annually forprivate transportthan a Chinese urban resident, and almost four times as much as a European urban dweller. These differences cannot be explained by wealth alone but are closely linked to the rates ofwalking,cycling,andpublic transportuse and to enduring features of the city includingurban densityand urban design.[52]

A bypass in the Old Town inSzczecin,Poland

The cities and nations that have invested most heavily in car-based transport systems are now the least environmentally sustainable, as measured by per capitafossil fueluse.[52]The social and economic sustainability of car-basedtransportation engineeringhas also been questioned. Within the United States, residents ofsprawlingcities make more frequent and longer car trips, while residents of traditional urban neighborhoods make a similar number of trips, but travel shorter distances and walk, cycle and use transit more often.[53]It has been calculated that New York residents save $19 billion each year simply by owning fewer cars and driving less than the average American.[54]A less car intensive means of urban transport iscarsharing,which is becoming popular in North America and Europe, and according toThe Economist,carsharing can reduce car ownership at an estimated rate of one rental car replacing 15 owned vehicles.[55]Car sharing has also begun in the developing world, where traffic and urban density is often worse than in developed countries. Companies likeZoomin India, eHi in China, and Carrot in Mexico, are bringing car-sharing to developing countries in an effort to reduce car-related pollution, ameliorate traffic, and expand the number of people who have access to cars.[56]

TheEuropean Commissionadopted theAction Plan on urban mobilityon 30 September 2009 for sustainable urban mobility. The European Commission will conduct a review of the implementation of the Action Plan in the year 2012, and will assess the need for further action. In 2007, 72% of the European population lived in urban areas, which are key to growth and employment. Cities need efficient transport systems to support their economy and the welfare of their inhabitants. Around 85% of the EU'sGDPis generated in cities. Urban areas face today the challenge of making transport sustainable in environmental (CO2,air pollution,noise) and competitiveness (congestion) terms while at the same time addressing social concerns. These range from the need to respond tohealthproblems anddemographictrends, fostering economic and social cohesion to taking into account the needs ofpersons with reduced mobility,families and children.[57]

TheC40 Cities Climate Leadership Group(C40) is a group of 94 cities around the world driving urban action that reduces greenhouse gas emissions and climate risks, while increasing the health and wellbeing of urban citizens. In October 2019, by signing the C40 Clean Air Cities Declaration, 35 mayors recognized that breathing clean air is a human right and committed to work together to form a global coalition for clean air.[58]Papers have been written showing with satellite data that cities with subway systems produce much less greenhouse gas.[59]

Policies and governance[edit]

Seven sustainable transportations in one photo (Prague)
Carbon emissions per passenger

By country[edit]

United Kingdom[edit]

In 2021 theInstitute for Public Policy Researchissued a statement saying that car use in the United Kingdom must shrink whileactive transportandpublic transportshould be used more. TheDepartment for Transportresponded that they will spend 2 billion pounds on active transport, more than ever, including making England and the rest of the UK's railways greener.[60]UK studies have shown that a modal shift to rail from air could result in a sixty fold reduction in CO2 emissions.[61]

Germany[edit]

Some Western countries are making transportation more sustainable in both long-term and short-term implementations.[62]An example is the modification in available transportation inFreiburg, Germany.The city has implemented extensive methods of public transportation, cycling, and walking, along with large areas where cars are not allowed.[24]

United States[edit]

Since many Western countries are highly automobile-oriented, the main transit that people use is personal vehicles. About 80% of their travel involves cars.[24]Therefore, California, is one of the highestgreenhouse gasesemitters in the United States. The federal government has to come up with some plans to reduce the total number of vehicle trips to lower greenhouse gases emission. Such as:

  • Improve public transport through the provision of larger coverage area in order to provide more mobility and accessibility, new technology to provide a more reliable and responsive public transportation network.[63]
  • Encourage walking and biking through the provision of wider pedestrian pathway, bike share stations in downtowns, locate parking lots far from the shopping center, limit on street parking, slower traffic lane in downtown area.
  • Increase the cost of car ownership and gas taxes through increased parking fees and tolls, encouraging people to drive more fuel efficient vehicles. This can produce a social equity problem, since lower income people usually drive older vehicles with lower fuel efficiency. Government can use the extra revenue collected from taxes and tolls to improve public transportation and benefit poor communities.[64]

Other states and nations have built efforts totranslate knowledgeinbehavioral economicsintoevidence-basedsustainable transportationpolicies.[65]

France[edit]

In March 2022, an advertising regulation will come into force in France, requiring all advertising materials for automobiles to include one of three standard disclaimers promoting the use of sustainable transport practices. This applies to all vehicles, including electric vehicles. In 2028, it will also become illegal to advertise vehicles which emit more than 128 grams of carbon dioxide per-kilometre.[66][67]

At city level[edit]

See also:Urban sprawl

Sustainable transport policies have their greatest impact at the city level.

Some of the biggest cities in Western Europe have a relatively sustainable transport. InParis53% of trips are made by walking, 3% by bicycle, 34% by public transport, and only 10% by car. In the entireIle-de-Franceregion, walking is the most popular way of transportation. InAmsterdam,28% of trips are made by walking, 31% by bicycle, 18% by public transport and only 23% by car.[68]InCopenhagen62% of people commute to school or work by bicycle.[69]

Outside Western Europe, cities which have consistently included sustainability as a key consideration in transport and land use planning includeCuritiba, Brazil;Bogota, Colombia;Portland, Oregon;andVancouver, Canada.Thestate of Victoria,Australiapassed legislation in 2010 – theTransport Integration Act[70]– to compel its transport agencies to actively consider sustainability issues including climate change impacts in transport policy, planning and operations.[71]

Many other cities throughout the world have recognized the need to link sustainability and transport policies, for example by joining theCities for Climate Protection program.[72]Some cities are trying to becomecar-free cities,e.g., limit or exclude the usage of cars.[73]

Oil pricetrend, 1939–2007, both nominal and adjusted to inflation
Vehicle-miles traveled in the United States up to March 2009.

In 2020, theCOVID-19 pandemicpushed several cities to adopt a plan to drastically increasebikingandwalking;these includedMilan,London,Brighton,andDublin.These plans were taken to facilitatesocial distancingby avoiding public transport and at the same time prevent a rise intraffic congestionand air pollution from increase in car use.[74][75]A similar plan was adopted byNew York City[76]andParis.[77]The pandemic's impact on urban public transportation means revenue declines will put a strain on operators' finances and may cause creditworthiness to worsen. Governments might be forced to subsidize operators with financial transfers, in turn reducing resources available for investment in greener transportation systems.[78][79][80]

Community and grassroots action[edit]

Sustainable transport is fundamentally a grassroots movement, albeit one which is now recognized as of citywide, national and international significance.

Whereas it started as a movement driven by environmental concerns, over these last years there has been increased emphasis on social equity and fairness issues, and in particular the need to ensure proper access and services for lower income groups and people with mobility limitations, including the fast-growing population of older citizens. Many of the people exposed to the most vehicle noise, pollution and safety risk have been those who do not own, or cannot drive cars, and those for whom the cost of car ownership causes a severe financial burden.[81]

An organization calledGreenxcstarted in 2011 created a national awareness campaign in the United States encouraging people tocarpoolby ride-sharing cross country stopping over at various destinations along the way and documenting their travel through video footage, posts and photography.[82]Ride-sharing reduces individual's carbon footprint by allowing several people to use one car instead of everyone using individual cars.

At the beginning of the 21st century, some companies are trying to increase the use ofsailing ships,even for commercial purposes, for example, Fairtrannsport and[83]New Dawn Traders[84]They have created theSail Cargo Alliance.[85]

TheEuropean Investment Bankcommitted €314 million between 2018 and 2022 to greenmarine transport,funding the building of new ships and the retrofitting of current ships with eco-friendly technologies to increase theirenergy efficiencyand lower harmful emissions.[86][87]The Bank also offered an average of €11 billion per year from 2012 to 2022 for sustainable transportation solutions and climate-friendly initiatives. In 2022, railway projects received around 32% of overall transport loans, while urban mobility received approximately 37%.[88][89]

Recent trends[edit]

The global stock of both plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) has grown steadily since the 2010s.[90]
Sales of electric vehicles (EVs) indicate a trend away from gas-powered vehicles.[91]
Overall GHG from transport

Car travel increased steadily throughout the twentieth century, but trends since 2000 have been more complex.Oil price rises from 2003have been linked to a decline in per capita fuel use for private vehicle travel in the US,[92]Britain and Australia. In 2008, global oil consumption fell by 0.8% overall, with significant declines in consumption in North America, Western Europe, and parts of Asia.[93]

Other factors affecting a decline in driving, at least in America, include the retirement ofBaby Boomerswho now drive less, preference for other travel modes (such as transit) by younger age cohorts, theGreat Recession,and the rising use of technology (internet, mobile devices) which have made travel less necessary and possibly less attractive.[94]

Greenwashing[edit]

The termgreen transportis often used as agreenwashmarketing technique for products which are not proven to make a positive contribution toenvironmental sustainability.Such claims can be legally challenged. For instance theNorwegian Consumer Ombudsmanhas targeted car manufacturers who claim that their cars are "green", "clean" or "environmentally friendly".Manufacturers risk fines if they fail to drop the words.[95]TheAustralian Competition & Consumer Commission(ACCC) describes "green" claims on products as "very vague, inviting consumers to give a wide range of meanings to the claim, which risks misleading them".[96]In 2008 the ACCC forced a car retailer to stop itsgreenmarketing of Saab cars, which was found by the Australian Federal Court to be "misleading".[97]

Share of firms in the EU and the US taking action on climate by including sustainable transport options.

Tools and incentives[edit]

Anthropogenic per capita emissions of greenhouse gases by country by the year 2000

Several European countries are opening up financial incentives that support more sustainable modes of transport. TheEuropean Cyclists' Federation,which focuses on daily cycling for transport, has created a document containing a non-complete overview.[98]In theUK,employers have for many years been providing employees with financial incentives. The employee leases or borrows a bike that the employer has purchased. You can also get other support. The scheme is beneficial for the employee who saves money and gets an incentive to get exercise integrated in the daily routine. The employer can expect a tax deduction, lower sick leave and less pressure on parking spaces for cars.[99][100]Since 2010, there has been a scheme inIceland(Samgöngugreiðslur) where those who do not drive a car to work, get paid a lump of money monthly. An employee must sign a statement not to use a car for work more often than one day a week, or 20% of the days for a period. Some employers pay fixed amounts based on trust. Other employers reimburse the expenses for repairs on bicycles, period-tickets for public transport and the like. Since 2013, amounts up to ISK 8000 per month have been tax-free. Most major workplaces offer this, and a significant proportion of employees use the scheme. Since 2019 half the amount is tax-free if the employee signs a contract not to use a car to work for more than 40% of the days of the contract period.[101][102]

Possible measures for urban transport[edit]

TheEUDirectorate-General for Transport and Energy(DG-TREN) has launched a program which focusses mostly on urban transport. Its main measures are:

History[edit]

Further information:History of transport

Most of the tools and concepts of sustainable transport were developed before the phrase was coined.Walking,the first mode of transport, is also the most sustainable.[104]Public transportdates back at least as far as the invention of the public bus byBlaise Pascalin 1662.[105]The firstpassenger trambegan operation in 1807 and thefirst passenger rail servicein 1825.Pedal bicyclesdate from the 1860s. These were the only personal transport choices available to most people in Western countries prior toWorld War II,and remain the only options for most people in the developing world. Freight was moved by human power, animal power or rail.

Mass motorization[edit]

The post-war years brought increased wealth and a demand for much greater mobility for people and goods. The number of road vehicles in Britain increased fivefold between 1950 and 1979,[50]with similar trends in other Western nations. Most affluent countries and cities invested heavily in bigger and better-designed roads and motorways, which were considered essential to underpin growth and prosperity. Transport planning became a branch ofUrban Planningand identifiedinduced demandas a pivotal change from "predict and provide" toward a sustainable approach incorporatingland use planningandpublic transit.Public investment in transit, walking andcyclingdeclined dramatically in the United States, Great Britain and Australia, although this did not occur to the same extent in Canada or mainland Europe.[40][106]

Concerns about the sustainability of this approach became widespread during the1973 oil crisisand the1979 energy crisis.The high cost and limited availability of fuel led to a resurgence of interest in alternatives to single occupancy vehicle travel.

Transport innovations dating from this period includehigh-occupancy vehicle lanes,citywidecarpoolsystems andtransportation demand management.Singaporeimplementedcongestion pricingin the late 1970s, andCuritibabegan implementing itsBus Rapid Transitsystem in the early 1980s.

Relatively low and stable oil prices during the 1980s and 1990s led to significant increases in vehicle travel from 1980 to 2000, both directly because people chose to travel by car more often and for greater distances, and indirectly because cities developed tracts of suburban housing, distant from shops and from workplaces, now referred to asurban sprawl.Trends in freight logistics, including a movement from rail and coastal shipping to road freight and a requirement forjust in timedeliveries, meant that freight traffic grew faster than general vehicle traffic.

At the same time, the academic foundations of the "predict and provide" approach to transport were being questioned, notably byPeter Newmanin a set of comparative studies of cities and their transport systems dating from the mid-1980s.[107]

The British Government's White Paper on Transport[108]marked a change in direction for transport planning in the UK. In the introduction to the White Paper, Prime MinisterTony Blairstated that

We recognise that we cannot simply build our way out of the problems we face. It would be environmentally irresponsible – and would not work.

A companion document to the White Paper called "Smarter Choices" researched the potential to scale up the small and scattered sustainable transport initiatives then occurring across Britain, and concluded that the comprehensive application of these techniques could reduce peak period car travel in urban areas by over 20%.[109]

A similar study by the United States Federal Highway Administration,[110]was also released in 2004 and also concluded that a more proactive approach to transportation demand was an important component of overall national transport strategy.

Mobility transition[edit]

This section is an excerpt fromMobility transition.[edit]
Hermann Knoflacherhas been criticisingauto citiesandcar dependencyfor decades. With hiswalking gear,he caricatures the enormous spatial demands of motorised private transport (2007).
Mobility transition[111][112]is a set of social, technological and political processes of convertingtraffic(includingfreight transport) andmobilityto sustainable transport withrenewable energyresources, and an integration of several different modes ofprivate transportand localpublic transport.It also includessocial change,a redistribution ofpublic spaces,[113]and different ways of financing and spending money inurban planning.The main motivation for mobility transition is the reduction of the harm and damage that traffic causes to people (mostly but not solely due tocollisions) and theenvironment(which also often directly or indirectly affects people) in order to make (urban) society more livable, as well as solving various interconnected logistical, social, economic and energy issues and inefficiencies.

See also[edit]

Groups:

References[edit]

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Bibliography[edit]

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