Television

Television(TV) is atelecommunication mediumfortransmittingmoving images and sound. Additionally, the term can refer to a physicaltelevision setrather than the medium oftransmission.Television is amass mediumfor advertising, entertainment, news, and sports. The medium is capable of more than "radio broadcasting,"which refers to an audio signal sent toradio receivers.

Television became available in crude experimental forms in the 1920s, but only after several years of further development was the new technology marketed to consumers. AfterWorld War II,an improved form of black-and-white television broadcasting became popular in the United Kingdom and the United States, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses, and institutions. During the 1950s, television was the primary medium for influencingpublic opinion.^[1]In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the U.S. and most other developed countries.

The availability of various types of archival storage media such asBetamaxandVHStapes,LaserDiscs,high-capacityhard disk drives,CDs,DVDs,flash drives,high-definitionHD DVDsandBlu-ray Discs,and clouddigital video recordershas enabled viewers to watch pre-recorded material—such as movies—at home on their own time schedule. For many reasons, especially the convenience of remote retrieval, the storage of television and video programming now also occurs onthe cloud(such as the video-on-demand service byNetflix). At the beginning of the 2010s,digital televisiontransmissions greatly increased in popularity. Another development was the move fromstandard-definition television(SDTV) (576i,with 576interlacedlines of resolution and480i) tohigh-definition television(HDTV), which provides aresolutionthat is substantially higher. HDTV may be transmitted in different formats:1080p,1080iand720p.Since 2010, with the invention ofsmart television,Internet televisionhas increased the availability of television programs and movies via the Internet throughstreaming videoservices such as Netflix,Amazon Prime Video,iPlayerandHulu.

In 2013, 79% of the world'shouseholdsowned a television set.^[2]The replacement of earliercathode-ray tube(CRT) screen displays with compact, energy-efficient, flat-panel alternative technologies such asLCDs(bothfluorescent-backlitandLED),OLEDdisplays, andplasma displayswas a hardware revolution that began with computer monitors in the late 1990s. Most television sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel, mainly LEDs. Major manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT,Digital Light Processing(DLP), plasma, and even fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s.^[3]^[4]LEDs are being gradually replaced by OLEDs.^[5]Also, major manufacturers have started increasingly producing smart TVs in the mid-2010s.^[6]^[7]^[8]Smart TVs with integrated Internet andWeb 2.0functions became the dominant form of television by the late 2010s.^[9]

Television signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using high-poweredradio-frequency television transmitterstobroadcastthe signal to individual television receivers. Alternatively, television signals are distributed bycoaxial cable or optical fiber,satellitesystems, and, since the 2000s, via the Internet. Until the early 2000s, these were transmitted asanalogsignals, but atransitionto digital television was expected to be completed worldwide by the late 2010s. A standard television set consists of multiple internalelectronic circuits,including atunerfor receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visualdisplay devicethat lacks a tuner is correctly called avideo monitorrather than a television.

Etymology

The wordtelevisioncomes fromAncient Greekτῆλε(tele)'far' andLatinvisio'sight'. The first documented usage of the term dates back to 1900, when the Russian scientistConstantin Perskyiused it in a paper that he presented in French at the first International Congress of Electricity, which ran from 18 to 25 August 1900 during theInternational World Fairin Paris.

Theanglicizedversion of the term is first attested in 1907, when it was still "...a theoretical system to transmit moving images overtelegraphortelephone wires".^[10]It was "...formed in English or borrowed from Frenchtélévision."^[10]In the 19th century and early 20th century, other "...proposals for the name of a then-hypothetical technology for sending pictures over distance were telephote (1880) and televista (1904)."^[10]

The abbreviationTVis from 1948. The use of the term to mean "atelevision set"dates from 1941.^[10]The use of the term to mean "television as a medium" dates from 1927.^[10]

The termtellyis more common in the UK. The slang term "the tube" or the "boob tube" derives from the bulkycathode-ray tubeused on most TVs until the advent offlat-screen TVs.Another slang term for the TV is "idiot box."^[11]

History

Mechanical

Facsimile transmissionsystems for still photographs pioneered methods of mechanical scanning of images in the early 19th century.Alexander Bainintroduced the facsimile machine between 1843 and 1846.Frederick Bakewelldemonstrated a working laboratory version in 1851.^{[citation needed]}Willoughby Smithdiscovered thephotoconductivityof the elementseleniumin 1873. As a 23-year-old German university student,Paul Julius Gottlieb Nipkowproposed and patented theNipkow diskin 1884 inBerlin.^[12]This was a spinning disk with a spiral pattern of holes, so each hole scanned a line of the image. Although he never built a working model of the system, variations of Nipkow's spinning-disk "image rasterizer"became exceedingly common.^[13]Constantin Perskyihad coined the wordtelevisionin a paper read to the International Electricity Congress at theInternational World Fairin Paris on 24 August 1900. Perskyi's paper reviewed the existing electromechanical technologies, mentioning the work of Nipkow and others.^[14]However, it was not until 1907 that developments in amplification tube technology byLee de ForestandArthur Korn,among others, made the design practical.^[15]

The first demonstration of the live transmission of images was by Georges Rignoux and A. Fournier in Paris in 1909. A matrix of 64seleniumcells, individually wired to a mechanicalcommutator,served as an electronicretina.In the receiver, a type ofKerr cellmodulated the light, and a series of differently angled mirrors attached to the edge of a rotating disc scanned the modulated beam onto the display screen. A separate circuit regulated synchronization. The 8x8pixelresolution in this proof-of-concept demonstration was just sufficient to clearly transmit individual letters of the Alpha bet. An updated image was transmitted "several times" each second.^[16]

In 1911,Boris Rosingand his studentVladimir Zworykincreated a system that used a mechanical mirror-drum scanner to transmit, in Zworykin's words, "very crude images" over wires to the "Brauntube "(cathode-ray tubeor "CRT" ) in the receiver. Moving images were not possible because, in the scanner: "the sensitivity was not enough and the selenium cell was very laggy".^[17]

In 1921,Édouard Belinsent the first image via radio waves with hisbelinograph.^[18]

By the 1920s, when amplification made television practical, Scottish inventorJohn Logie Bairdemployed the Nipkow disk in his prototype video systems. On 25 March 1925, Baird gave the first public demonstration of televisedsilhouetteimages in motion atSelfridges's department store inLondon.^[19]Since human faces had inadequate contrast to show up on his primitive system, he televised a ventriloquist's dummy named "Stooky Bill," whose painted face had higher contrast, talking and moving. By 26 January 1926, he had demonstrated before members of the Royal Institution the transmission of an image of a face in motion by radio. This is widely regarded as the world's first true public television demonstration, exhibiting light, shade, and detail.^[20]Baird's system used the Nipkow disk for both scanning the image and displaying it. A brightly illuminated subject was placed in front of a spinning Nipkow disk set with lenses that swept images across a static photocell. The thallium sulfide (Thalofide) cell, developed byTheodore Casein the U.S., detected the light reflected from the subject and converted it into a proportional electrical signal. This was transmitted by AM radio waves to a receiver unit, where the video signal was applied to a neon light behind a second Nipkow disk rotating synchronized with the first. The brightness of the neon lamp was varied in proportion to the brightness of each spot on the image. As each hole in the disk passed by, onescan lineof the image was reproduced. Baird's disk had 30 holes, producing an image with only 30 scan lines, just enough to recognize a human face.^[21]In 1927, Baird transmitted a signal over 438 miles (705 km) of telephone line between London andGlasgow.^[22]Baird's original 'televisor' now resides in the Science Museum, South Kensington.

In 1928, Baird's company (Baird Television Development Company/Cinema Television) broadcast the first transatlantic television signal between London and New York and the first shore-to-ship transmission. In 1929, he became involved in the first experimental mechanical television service in Germany. In November of the same year, Baird andBernard NatanofPathéestablished France's first television company, Télévision-Baird-Natan. In 1931, he made the first outdoor remote broadcast ofThe Derby.^[23]In 1932, he demonstratedultra-short wavetelevision. Baird's mechanical system reached a peak of 240 lines of resolution onBBCtelecasts in 1936, though the mechanical system did not scan the televised scene directly. Instead, a17.5 mm filmwas shot, rapidly developed, and then scanned while the film was still wet.^{[citation needed]}

A U.S. inventor,Charles Francis Jenkins,also pioneered the television. He published an article on "Motion Pictures by Wireless" in 1913, transmitted moving silhouette images for witnesses in December 1923, and on 13 June 1925, publicly demonstrated synchronized transmission of silhouette pictures. In 1925, Jenkins used the Nipkow disk and transmitted the silhouette image of a toy windmill in motion over a distance of 5 miles (8 km), from a naval radio station in Maryland to his laboratory in Washington, D.C., using a lensed disk scanner with a 48-line resolution.^[24]^[25]He was grantedU.S. PatentNo. 1,544,156 (Transmitting Pictures over Wireless) on 30 June 1925 (filed 13 March 1922).^[26]

Herbert E. IvesandFrank GrayofBell Telephone Laboratoriesgave a dramatic demonstration of mechanical television on 7 April 1927. Their reflected-light television system included both small and large viewing screens. The small receiver had a 2-inch-wide by 2.5-inch-high screen (5 by 6 cm). The large receiver had a screen 24 inches wide by 30 inches high (60 by 75 cm). Both sets could reproduce reasonably accurate, monochromatic, moving images. Along with the pictures, the sets received synchronized sound. The system transmitted images over two paths: first, acopper wirelink from Washington to New York City, then a radio link fromWhippany, New Jersey.Comparing the two transmission methods, viewers noted no difference in quality. Subjects of the telecast includedSecretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover.Aflying-spot scannerbeam illuminated these subjects. The scanner that produced the beam had a 50-aperture disk. The disc revolved at a rate of 18 frames per second, capturing one frame about every 56milliseconds.(Today's systems typically transmit 30 or 60 frames per second, or one frame every 33.3 or 16.7 milliseconds, respectively.) Television historian Albert Abramson underscored the significance of the Bell Labs demonstration: "It was, in fact, the best demonstration of a mechanical television system ever made to this time. It would be several years before any other system could even begin to compare with it in picture quality."^[27]

In 1928,WRGB,then W2XB, was started as the world's first television station. It broadcast from theGeneral Electricfacility inSchenectady, NY.It was popularly known as "WGYTelevision. "Meanwhile, in theSoviet Union,Leon Thereminhad been developing a mirror drum-based television, starting with 16 lines resolution in 1925, then 32 lines, and eventually 64 usinginterlacingin 1926. As part of his thesis, on 7 May 1926, he electrically transmitted and then projected near-simultaneous moving images on a 5-square-foot (0.46 m²) screen.^[25]

By 1927 Theremin had achieved an image of 100 lines, a resolution that was not surpassed until May 1932 by RCA, with 120 lines.^[28]

On 25 December 1926,Kenjiro Takayanagidemonstrated a television system with a 40-line resolution that employed a Nipkow disk scanner and CRT display at Hamamatsu Industrial High School in Japan. This prototype is still on display at the Takayanagi Memorial Museum inShizuoka University,Hamamatsu Campus. His research in creating a production model was halted by theSCAPafterWorld War II.^[29]

Because only a limited number of holes could be made in the disks, and disks beyond a certain diameter became impractical, image resolution on mechanical television broadcasts was relatively low, ranging from about 30 lines up to 120 or so. Nevertheless, the image quality of 30-line transmissions steadily improved with technical advances, and by 1933 the UK broadcasts using the Baird system were remarkably clear.^[30]A few systems ranging into the 200-line region also went on the air. Two of these were the 180-line system that Compagnie des Compteurs (CDC) installed in Paris in 1935 and the 180-line system thatPeck Television Corp.started in 1935 at station VE9AK inMontreal.^[31]^[32]The advancement of all-electronic television (includingimage dissectorsand other camera tubes andcathode-ray tubesfor the reproducer) marked the start of the end for mechanical systems as the dominant form of television. Mechanical television, despite its inferior image quality and generally smaller picture, would remain the primary television technology until the 1930s. The last mechanical telecasts ended in 1939 at stations run by a lot of public universities in the United States.

Electronic

In 1897, Englishphysicist J. J. Thomsonwas able, in his three well-known experiments, to deflect cathode rays, a fundamental function of the moderncathode-ray tube(CRT). The earliest version of the CRT was invented by the German physicistFerdinand Braunin 1897 and is also known as the "Braun" tube.^[33]It was acold-cathode diode,a modification of theCrookes tube,with aphosphor-coated screen. Braun was the first to conceive the use of a CRT as a display device.^[34]TheBraun tubebecame the foundation of 20th century television.^[35]In 1906 the Germans Max Dieckmann and Gustav Glage producedraster imagesfor the first time in a CRT.^[36]In 1907, Russian scientistBoris Rosingused a CRT in the receiving end of an experimentalvideo signalto form a picture. He managed to display simple geometric shapes onto the screen.^[37]

In 1908,Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton,a fellow of theRoyal Society(UK), published a letter in the scientific journalNaturein which he described how "distant electric vision" could be achieved by using a cathode-ray tube, or Braun tube, as both a transmitting and receiving device,^[38]^[39]he expanded on his vision in a speech given in London in 1911 and reported inThe Times^[40]and the Journal of the Röntgen Society.^[41]^[42]In a letter toNaturepublished in October 1926, Campbell-Swinton also announced the results of some "not very successful experiments" he had conducted with G. M. Minchin and J. C. M. Stanton. They had attempted to generate an electrical signal by projecting an image onto a selenium-coated metal plate that was simultaneously scanned by acathode raybeam.^[43]^[44]These experiments were conducted before March 1914, when Minchin died,^[45]but they were later repeated by two different teams in 1937, by H. Miller and J. W. Strange fromEMI,^[46]and by H. Iams and A. Rose fromRCA.^[47]Both teams successfully transmitted "very faint" images with the original Campbell-Swinton's selenium-coated plate. Although others had experimented with using a cathode-ray tube as a receiver, the concept of using one as a transmitter was novel.^[48]The first cathode-ray tube to use ahot cathodewas developed byJohn B. Johnson(who gave his name to the termJohnson noise) and Harry Weiner Weinhart ofWestern Electric,and became a commercial product in 1922.^{[citation needed]}

In 1926, Hungarian engineerKálmán Tihanyidesigned a television system using fully electronic scanning and display elements and employing the principle of "charge storage" within the scanning (or "camera" ) tube.^[49]^[50]^[51]^[52]The problem of low sensitivity to light resulting in low electrical output from transmitting or "camera" tubes would be solved with the introduction of charge-storage technology by Kálmán Tihanyi beginning in 1924.^[53]His solution was a camera tube that accumulated and stored electrical charges ( "photoelectrons" ) within the tube throughout each scanning cycle. The device was first described in a patent application he filed inHungaryin March 1926 for a television system he called "Radioskop".^[54]After further refinements included in a 1928 patent application,^[53]Tihanyi's patent was declared void in Great Britain in 1930,^[55]so he applied for patents in the United States. Although his breakthrough would be incorporated into the design ofRCA's "iconoscope"in 1931, the U.S. patent for Tihanyi's transmitting tube would not be granted until May 1939. The patent for his receiving tube had been granted the previous October. Both patents had been purchased by RCA prior to their approval.^[56]^[57]Charge storage remains a basic principle in the design of imaging devices for television to the present day.^[54]On 25 December 1926, at Hamamatsu Industrial High School in Japan, Japanese inventorKenjiro Takayanagidemonstrated a TV system with a 40-line resolution that employed a CRT display.^[29]This was the first working example of a fully electronic television receiver and Takayanagi's team later made improvements to this system parallel to other television developments.^[58]Takayanagi did not apply for a patent.^[59]

In the 1930s,Allen B. DuMontmade the first CRTs to last 1,000 hours of use, one of the factors that led to the widespread adoption of television.^[60]

On 7 September 1927, U.S. inventorPhilo Farnsworth'simage dissectorcamera tube transmitted its first image, a simple straight line, at his laboratory at 202 Green Street in San Francisco.^[61]^[62]By 3 September 1928, Farnsworth had developed the system sufficiently to hold a demonstration for the press. This is widely regarded as the first electronic television demonstration.^[62]In 1929, the system was improved further by eliminating a motor generator so that his television system had no mechanical parts.^[63]That year, Farnsworth transmitted the first live human images with his system, including a three and a half-inch image of his wife Elma ( "Pem" ) with her eyes closed (possibly due to the bright lighting required).^[64]

Meanwhile, Vladimir Zworykin also experimented with the cathode-ray tube to create and show images. While working forWestinghouse Electricin 1923, he began to develop an electronic camera tube. However, in a 1925 demonstration, the image was dim, had low contrast and poor definition, and was stationary.^[65]Zworykin's imaging tube never got beyond the laboratory stage. However, RCA, which acquired the Westinghouse patent, asserted that the patent for Farnsworth's 1927 image dissector was written so broadly that it would exclude any other electronic imaging device. Thus, based on Zworykin's 1923 patent application, RCA filed apatent interferencesuit against Farnsworth. TheU.S. Patent Officeexaminer disagreed in a 1935 decision, finding priority of invention for Farnsworth against Zworykin. Farnsworth claimed that Zworykin's 1923 system could not produce an electrical image of the type to challenge his patent. Zworykin received a patent in 1928 for a color transmission version of his 1923 patent application;,^[66]he also divided his original application in 1931.^[67]Zworykin was unable or unwilling to introduce evidence of a working model of his tube that was based on his 1923 patent application. In September 1939, after losing an appeal in the courts and being determined to go forward with the commercial manufacturing of television equipment, RCA agreed to pay Farnsworth US$1 million over ten years, in addition to license payments, to use his patents.^[68]^[69]

In 1933, RCA introduced an improved camera tube that relied on Tihanyi's charge storage principle.^[70]Called the "Iconoscope" by Zworykin, the new tube had a light sensitivity of about 75,000lux,and thus was claimed to be much more sensitive than Farnsworth's image dissector.^{[citation needed]}However, Farnsworth had overcome his power issues with his Image Dissector through the invention of a completely unique "Multipactor"device that he began work on in 1930, and demonstrated in 1931.^[71]^[72]This small tube could amplify a signal reportedly to the 60th power or better^[73]and showed great promise in all fields of electronics. Unfortunately, an issue with the multipactor was that it wore out at an unsatisfactory rate.^[74]

At theBerlin Radio Showin August 1931 inBerlin,Manfred von Ardennegave a public demonstration of a television system using a CRT for both transmission and reception, the first completely electronic television transmission.^[75]However, Ardenne had not developed a camera tube, using the CRT instead as aflying-spot scannerto scan slides and film.^[76]Ardenne achieved his first transmission of television pictures on 24 December 1933, followed by test runs for a public television service in 1934. The world's first electronically scanned television service then started in Berlin in 1935, theFernsehsender Paul Nipkow,culminating in the live broadcast of the1936 Summer Olympic Gamesfrom Berlin to public places all over Germany.^[77]^[78]

Philo Farnsworth gave the world's first public demonstration of an all-electronic television system, using a live camera, at theFranklin InstituteofPhiladelphiaon 25 August 1934 and for ten days afterward.^[79]^[80]Mexican inventorGuillermo González Camarenaalso played an important role in early television. His experiments with television (known as telectroescopía at first) began in 1931 and led to a patent for the "trichromatic field sequential system"color televisionin 1940.^[81]In Britain, theEMIengineering team led byIsaac Shoenbergapplied in 1932 for a patent for a new device they called "the Emitron",^[82]^[83]which formed the heart of the cameras they designed for the BBC. On 2 November 1936, a405-line broadcastingservice employing the Emitron began at studios inAlexandra Palaceand transmitted from a specially built mast atop one of the Victorian building's towers. It alternated briefly with Baird's mechanical system in adjoining studios but was more reliable and visibly superior. This was the world's first regular "high-definition" television service.^[84]

The original U.S. iconoscope was noisy, had a high ratio of interference to signal, and ultimately gave disappointing results, especially compared to the high-definition mechanical scanning systems that became available.^[85]^[86]TheEMIteam, under the supervision ofIsaac Shoenberg,analyzed how the iconoscope (or Emitron) produced an electronic signal and concluded that its real efficiency was only about 5% of the theoretical maximum.^[87]^[88]They solved this problem by developing and patenting in 1934 two new camera tubes dubbedsuper-EmitronandCPS Emitron.^[89]^[90]^[91]The super-Emitron was between ten and fifteen times more sensitive than the original Emitron and iconoscope tubes, and, in some cases, this ratio was considerably greater.^[87]It was used foroutside broadcastingby the BBC, for the first time, onArmistice Day1937, when the general public could watch on a television set as the King laid a wreath at the Cenotaph.^[92]This was the first time that anyone had broadcast a live street scene from cameras installed on the roof of neighboring buildings because neither Farnsworth nor RCA would do the same until the1939 New York World's Fair.

On the other hand, in 1934, Zworykin shared some patent rights with the German licensee company Telefunken.^[93]The "image iconoscope" ( "Superikonoskop" in Germany) was produced as a result of the collaboration. This tube is essentially identical to the super-Emitron.^{[citation needed]}The production and commercialization of the super-Emitron and image iconoscope in Europe were not affected by thepatent warbetween Zworykin and Farnsworth because Dieckmann and Hell had priority in Germany for the invention of the image dissector, having submitted a patent application for theirLichtelektrische Bildzerlegerröhre für Fernseher(Photoelectric Image Dissector Tube for Television) in Germany in 1925,^[94]two years before Farnsworth did the same in the United States.^[95]The image iconoscope (Superikonoskop) became the industrial standard for public broadcasting in Europe from 1936 until 1960, when it was replaced by thevidiconandplumbicontubes. Indeed, it represented the European tradition in electronic tubes competing against the American tradition represented by the image orthicon.^[96]^[97]The German company Heimann produced the Superikonoskop for the 1936 Berlin Olympic Games,^[98]^[99]later Heimann also produced and commercialized it from 1940 to 1955;^[100]finally the Dutch companyPhilipsproduced and commercialized the image iconoscope and multicon from 1952 to 1958.^[97]^[101]

U.S. television broadcasting, at the time, consisted of a variety of markets in a wide range of sizes, each competing for programming and dominance with separate technology until deals were made and standards agreed upon in 1941.^[102]RCA, for example, used only Iconoscopes in the New York area, but Farnsworth Image Dissectors in Philadelphia and San Francisco.^[103]In September 1939, RCA agreed to pay the Farnsworth Television and Radio Corporation royalties over the next ten years for access to Farnsworth's patents.^[104]With this historic agreement in place, RCA integrated much of what was best about the Farnsworth Technology into their systems.^[103]In 1941, the United States implemented 525-line television.^[105]^[106]Electrical engineerBenjamin Adlerplayed a prominent role in the development of television.^[107]^[108]

The world's first 625-line television standard was designed in the Soviet Union in 1944 and became a national standard in 1946.^[109]The first broadcast in 625-line standard occurred in Moscow in 1948.^[110]The concept of 625 lines per frame was subsequently implemented in the EuropeanCCIRstandard.^[111]In 1936,Kálmán Tihanyidescribed the principle ofplasma display,the firstflat panel displaysystem.^[112]^[113]

Early electronictelevision setswere large and bulky, withanalog circuitsmade ofvacuum tubes.Following the invention of the first workingtransistoratBell Labs,SonyfounderMasaru Ibukapredicted in 1952 that the transition toelectronic circuitsmade of transistors would lead to smaller and more portable television sets.^[114]The first fully transistorized, portablesolid-statetelevision set was the 8-inchSony TV8-301,developed in 1959 and released in 1960.^[115]^[116]This began the transformation of television viewership from a communal viewing experience to a solitary viewing experience.^[117]By 1960, Sony had sold over 4million portable television sets worldwide.^[118]

Color

The basic idea of using three monochrome images to produce a color image had been experimented with almost as soon as black-and-white televisions had first been built. Although he gave no practical details, among the earliest published proposals for television was one by Maurice Le Blanc in 1880 for a color system, including the first mentions in television literature of line and frame scanning.^[119]Polish inventorJan Szczepanikpatented a color television system in 1897, using aseleniumphotoelectric cell at the transmitter and an electromagnet controlling an oscillating mirror and a moving prism at the receiver. But his system contained no means of analyzing the spectrum of colors at the transmitting end and could not have worked as he described it.^[120]Another inventor,Hovannes Adamian,also experimented with color television as early as 1907. The first color television project is claimed by him,^[121]and was patented in Germany on 31 March 1908, patent No. 197183, then in Britain, on 1 April 1908, patent No. 7219,^[122]in France (patent No. 390326) and in Russia in 1910 (patent No. 17912).^[123]

Scottish inventorJohn Logie Bairddemonstrated the world's first color transmission on 3 July 1928, using scanning discs at the transmitting and receiving ends with three spirals of apertures, each spiral with filters of a different primary color, and three light sources at the receiving end, with acommutatorto alternate their illumination.^[124]Baird also made the world's first color broadcast on 4 February 1938, sending a mechanically scanned 120-line image from Baird'sCrystal Palacestudios to a projection screen at London'sDominion Theatre.^[125]Mechanically scanned color television was also demonstrated byBell Laboratoriesin June 1929 using three complete systems ofphotoelectric cells,amplifiers, glow-tubes, and color filters, with a series of mirrors to superimpose the red, green, and blue images into one full-color image.

The first practical hybrid system was again pioneered by John Logie Baird. In 1940 he publicly demonstrated a color television combining a traditional black-and-white display with a rotating colored disk. This device was very "deep" but was later improved with a mirror folding the light path into an entirely practical device resembling a large conventional console.^[126]However, Baird was unhappy with the design, and, as early as 1944, had commented to a British government committee that a fully electronic device would be better.

In 1939, Hungarian engineerPeter Carl Goldmarkintroduced an electro-mechanical system while atCBS,which contained anIconoscopesensor. The CBS field-sequential color system was partly mechanical, with a disc made of red, blue, and green filters spinning inside the television camera at 1,200 rpm and a similar disc spinning in synchronization in front of the cathode-ray tube inside the receiver set.^[127]The system was first demonstrated to theFederal Communications Commission(FCC) on 29 August 1940 and shown to the press on 4 September.^[128]^[129]^[130]^[131]

CBS began experimental color field tests using film as early as 28 August 1940 and live cameras by 12 November.^[129]^[132]NBC(owned by RCA) made its first field test of color television on 20 February 1941. CBS began daily color field tests on 1 June 1941.^[133]These color systems were not compatible with existing black-and-whitetelevision sets,and, as no color television sets were available to the public at this time, viewing of the color field tests was restricted to RCA and CBS engineers and the invited press. TheWar Production Boardhalted the manufacture of television and radio equipment for civilian use from 22 April 1942 to 20 August 1945, limiting any opportunity to introduce color television to the general public.^[134]^[135]

As early as 1940, Baird had started work on a fully electronic system he calledTelechrome.Early Telechrome devices used two electron guns aimed at either side of a phosphor plate. The phosphor was patterned so the electrons from the guns only fell on one side of the patterning or the other. Using cyan and magenta phosphors, a reasonable limited-color image could be obtained. He also demonstrated the same system using monochrome signals to produce a 3D image (called "stereoscopic"at the time). A demonstration on 16 August 1944 was the first example of a practical color television system. Work on the Telechrome continued, and plans were made to introduce a three-gun version for full color. However, Baird's untimely death in 1946 ended the development of the Telechrome system.^[136]^[137] Similar concepts were common through the 1940s and 1950s, differing primarily in the way they re-combined the colors generated by the three guns. TheGeer tubewas similar to Baird's concept but used small pyramids with the phosphors deposited on their outside faces instead of Baird's 3D patterning on a flat surface. ThePenetronused three layers of phosphor on top of each other and increased the power of the beam to reach the upper layers when drawing those colors. TheChromatronused a set of focusing wires to select the colored phosphors arranged in vertical stripes on the tube.

One of the great technical challenges of introducing colorbroadcast televisionwas the desire to conservebandwidth,potentially three times that of the existingblack-and-whitestandards, and not use an excessive amount ofradio spectrum.In the United States, after considerable research, theNational Television Systems Committee^[138]approved an all-electronic system developed byRCA,which encoded the color information separately from the brightness information and significantly reduced the resolution of the color information to conserve bandwidth. As black-and-white televisions could receive the same transmission and display it in black-and-white, the color system adopted is [backwards] "compatible." ( "Compatible Color," featured in RCA advertisements of the period, is mentioned in the song "America,"ofWest Side Story,1957.) The brightness image remained compatible with existing black-and-white television sets at slightly reduced resolution. In contrast, color televisions could decode the extra information in the signal and produce a limited-resolution color display. The higher-resolution black-and-white and lower-resolution color images combine in the brain to produce a seemingly high-resolution color image. The NTSC standard represented a significant technical achievement.

The first color broadcast (the first episode of the live programThe Marriage) occurred on 8 July 1954. However, during the following ten years, most network broadcasts and nearly all local programming continued to be black-and-white. It was not until the mid-1960s that color sets started selling in large numbers, due in part to the color transition of 1965, in which it was announced that over half of all network prime-time programming would be broadcast in color that fall. The first all-color prime-time season came just one year later. In 1972, the last holdout among daytime network programs converted to color, resulting in the first completely all-color network season.

Early color sets were either floor-standing console models or tabletop versions nearly as bulky and heavy, so in practice they remained firmly anchored in one place.GE's relatively compact and lightweightPorta-Colorset was introduced in the spring of 1966. It used atransistor-basedUHF tuner.^[139]The first fully transistorized color television in the United States was theQuasartelevision introduced in 1967.^[140]These developments made watching color television a more flexible and convenient proposition.

In 1972, sales of color sets finally surpassed sales of black-and-white sets. Color broadcasting in Europe was not standardized on thePALformat until the 1960s, and broadcasts did not start until 1967. By this point, many of the technical issues in the early sets had been worked out, and the spread of color sets in Europe was fairly rapid. By the mid-1970s, the only stations broadcasting in black-and-white were a few high-numbered UHF stations in small markets and a handful of low-power repeater stations in even smaller markets such as vacation spots. By 1979, even the last of these had converted to color. By the early 1980s, B&W sets had been pushed into niche markets, notably low-power uses, small portable sets, or for use asvideo monitorscreens in lower-cost consumer equipment. By the late 1980s, even these last holdout niche B&W environments had inevitably shifted to color sets.

Digital

Digital television (DTV) is the transmission of audio and video by digitally processed and multiplexed signals, in contrast to the analog and channel-separated signals used byanalog television.Due todata compression,digital television can support more than one program in the same channel bandwidth.^[141]It is an innovative service that represents the most significant evolution in television broadcast technology since color television emerged in the 1950s.^[142]Digital television's roots have been tied very closely to the availability of inexpensive, high performancecomputers.It was not until the 1990s that digital television became possible.^[143]Digital television was previously not practically possible due to the impractically highbandwidthrequirements ofuncompressed digital video,^[144]^[145]requiring around 200Mbit/sfor astandard-definition television(SDTV) signal,^[144]and over 1Gbit/sforhigh-definition television(HDTV).^[145]

A digital television service was proposed in 1986 byNippon Telegraph and Telephone(NTT) and theMinistry of Posts and Telecommunication(MPT) in Japan, where there were plans to develop an "Integrated Network System" service. However, it was not possible to implement such a digital television service practically until the adoption of DCT video compression technology made it possible in the early 1990s.^[144]

In the mid-1980s, as Japaneseconsumer electronicsfirms forged ahead with the development ofHDTVtechnology, theMUSEanalog format proposed byNHK,a Japanese company, was seen as a pacesetter that threatened to eclipse U.S. electronics companies' technologies. Until June 1990, the Japanese MUSE standard, based on an analog system, was the front-runner among the more than 23 other technical concepts under consideration. Then, a U.S. company, General Instrument, demonstrated the possibility of a digital television signal. This breakthrough was of such significance that theFCCwas persuaded to delay its decision on an ATV standard until a digitally-based standard could be developed.

In March 1990, when it became clear that a digital standard was possible, the FCC made several critical decisions. First, the Commission declared that the new ATV standard must be more than an enhanced analog signal but be able to provide a genuine HDTV signal with at least twice the resolution of existing television images. (7) Then, to ensure that viewers who did not wish to buy a new digital television set could continue to receive conventional television broadcasts, it dictated that the new ATV standard must be capable of being "simulcast"on different channels. (8) The new ATV standard also allowed the new DTV signal to be based on entirely new design principles. Although incompatible with the existingNTSCstandard, the new DTV standard would be able to incorporate many improvements.

The last standards adopted by the FCC did not require a single standard for scanning formats,aspect ratios,or lines of resolution. This compromise resulted from a dispute between theconsumer electronicsindustry (joined by some broadcasters) and thecomputer industry(joined by thefilm industryand some public interest groups) over which of the two scanning processes—interlaced or progressive—would be best suited for the newer digital HDTV compatible display devices.^[146]Interlaced scanning, which had been specifically designed for older analog CRT display technologies, scans even-numbered lines first, then odd-numbered ones. Interlaced scanning can be regarded as the first video compression model. It was partly developed in the 1940s to double the image resolution to exceed the limitations of television broadcast bandwidth. Another reason for its adoption was to limit the flickering on early CRT screens, whose phosphor-coated screens could only retain the image from the electron scanning gun for a relatively short duration.^[147]However, interlaced scanning does not work as efficiently on newer display devices such asLiquid-crystal (LCD),for example, which are better suited to a more frequent progressive refresh rate.^[146]

Progressive scanning,the format that the computer industry had long adopted for computer display monitors, scans every line in sequence, from top to bottom. Progressive scanning, in effect, doubles the amount of data generated for every full screen displayed in comparison to interlaced scanning by painting the screen in one pass in 1/60-second instead of two passes in 1/30-second. The computer industry argued that progressive scanning is superior because it does not "flicker" on the new standard of display devices in the manner of interlaced scanning. It also argued that progressive scanning enables easier connections with the Internet and is more cheaply converted to interlaced formats than vice versa. The film industry also supported progressive scanning because it offered a more efficient means of converting filmed programming into digital formats. For their part, the consumerelectronics industryand broadcasters argued that interlaced scanning was the only technology that could transmit the highest quality pictures then (and currently) feasible, i.e., 1,080 lines per picture and 1,920 pixels per line. Broadcasters also favored interlaced scanning because their vast archive of interlaced programming is not readily compatible with a progressive format.William F. Schreiber,who was director of the Advanced Television Research Program at theMassachusetts Institute of Technologyfrom 1983 until his retirement in 1990, thought that the continued advocacy of interlaced equipment originated from consumer electronics companies that were trying to get back the substantial investments they made in the interlaced technology.^[148]

Digital television transitionstarted in late 2000s. All governments across the world set the deadline for analog shutdown by the 2010s. Initially, the adoption rate was low, as the first digital tuner-equipped television sets were costly. However, as the price of digital-capable television sets dropped, more and more households started converting to digital television sets. The transition is expected to be completed worldwide by the mid to late 2010s.

Smart television

The advent of digital television allowed innovations like smart television sets. A smart television sometimes referred to as a "connected TV" or "hybrid TV," is a television set orset-top boxwith integrated Internet andWeb 2.0features and is an example oftechnological convergencebetween computers, television sets, and set-top boxes. Besides the traditional functions of television sets and set-top boxes provided through traditional Broadcasting media, these devices can also provide Internet TV, onlineinteractive media,over-the-top content,as well ason-demand streaming media,andhome networkingaccess. These TVs come pre-loaded with an operating system.^[9]^[149]^[150]^[151]

Smart TV is not to be confused withInternet TV,Internet Protocol television(IPTV), or withWeb TV.Internet televisionrefers to receiving television content over the Internet instead of through traditional systems—terrestrial, cable, and satellite. IPTV is one of the emerging Internet television technology standards for television networks.Web television(WebTV) is a term used for programs created by a wide variety of companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet TV. A first patent was filed in 1994^[152](and extended the following year)^[153]for an "intelligent" television system, linked with data processing systems, using a digital or analog network. Apart from being linked to data networks, one key point is its ability to automatically download necessary software routines according to a user's demand and process their needs. Major TV manufacturers announced the production of smart TVs only for middle-end and high-end TVs in 2015.^[6]^[7]^[8]Smart TVs have gotten more affordable compared to when they were first introduced, with 46 million U.S. households having at least one as of 2019.^[154]

3D

3D television conveysdepth perceptionto the viewer by employing techniques such asstereoscopicdisplay,multi-viewdisplay,2D-plus-depth,or any other form of3D display.Most modern 3Dtelevision setsuse anactive shutter 3D systemor apolarized 3D system,and some areautostereoscopicwithout the need for glasses. Stereoscopic 3D television was demonstrated for the first time on 10 August 1928, byJohn Logie Bairdin his company's premises at 133 Long Acre, London.^[155]Baird pioneered a variety of 3D television systems using electromechanical and cathode-ray tube techniques. The first 3D television was produced in 1935. The advent of digital television in the 2000s greatly improved 3D television sets. Although 3D television sets are quite popular for watching 3D home media, such as on Blu-ray discs, 3D programming has largely failed to make inroads with the public. As a result, many 3D television channels that started in the early 2010s were shut down by the mid-2010s. According to DisplaySearch 3D television shipments totaled 41.45 million units in 2012, compared with 24.14 in 2011 and 2.26 in 2010.^[156]As of late 2013, the number of 3D TV viewers started to decline.^[157]^[158]^[159]^[160]^[161]

Broadcast systems

Terrestrial television

Programming isbroadcastby television stations, sometimes called "channels," as stations arelicensedby their governments to broadcast only over assignedchannelsin the televisionband.At first,terrestrial broadcastingwas the only way television could be widely distributed, and becausebandwidthwas limited, i.e., there were only a small number ofchannelsavailable, government regulation was the norm. In the U.S., theFederal Communications Commission(FCC) allowed stations to broadcast advertisements beginning in July 1941 but required public service programming commitments as a requirement for a license. By contrast, the United Kingdom chose a different route, imposing atelevision licensefee on owners of television reception equipment to fund theBritish Broadcasting Corporation(BBC), which had public service as part of itsRoyal Charter.

WRGBclaims to be the world's oldest television station, tracing its roots to an experimental station founded on 13 January 1928, broadcasting from theGeneral Electricfactory inSchenectady, NY,under the call lettersW2XB.^[162]It was popularly known as "WGY Television" after its sister radio station. Later, in 1928, General Electric started a second facility, this one in New York City, which had the call lettersW2XBSand which today is known asWNBC.The two stations were experimental and had no regular programming, as receivers were operated by engineers within the company. The image of aFelix the Catdoll rotating on a turntable was broadcast for 2 hours every day for several years as engineers tested new technology. On 2 November 1936, theBBCbegan transmitting the world's first public regular high-definition service from the VictorianAlexandra Palacein north London.^[163]It therefore claims to be the birthplace of television broadcasting as we now know it.

With the widespread adoption of cable across the United States in the 1970s and 1980s, terrestrial television broadcasts have been in decline; in 2013 it was estimated that about 7% of US households used an antenna.^[164]^[165]A slight increase in use began around 2010 due to switchover todigital terrestrial televisionbroadcasts, which offered pristine image quality over very large areas, and offered an alternative to cable television (CATV) forcord cutters.All other countries around the world are also in the process of either shutting down analog terrestrial television or switching over to digital terrestrial television.

Cable television

Cable television is a system of broadcasting television programming to paying subscribers via radio frequency (RF) signals transmitted through coaxial cables or light pulses throughfiber-opticcables. This contrasts with traditional terrestrial television, in which the television signal is transmitted over the air by radio waves and received by a television antenna attached to the television. In the 2000s, FM radio programming, high-speed Internet, telephone service, and similar non-television services may also be provided through these cables. The abbreviation CATV is sometimes used for cable television in the United States. It originally stood for Community Access Television or Community Antenna Television, from cable television's origins in 1948: in areas where over-the-air reception was limited by distance from transmitters or mountainous terrain, large "community antennas" were constructed, and cable was run from them to individual homes.^[166]

Satellite television

Satellite television is a system of supplyingtelevision programmingusing broadcast signals relayed fromcommunication satellites.The signals are received via an outdoor parabolic reflector antenna, usually referred to as asatellite dishand alow-noise block downconverter(LNB). A satellite receiver then decodes the desired television program for viewing on atelevision set.Receivers can be externalset-top boxes,or a built-intelevision tuner.Satellite television provides a wide range of channels and services, especially to geographic areas without terrestrial television or cable television.

The most common method of reception isdirect-broadcast satellite television(DBSTV), also known as "direct to home" (DTH).^[167]In DBSTV systems, signals are relayed from adirect broadcast satelliteon theK_uwavelength and are completely digital.^[168]Satellite TV systems formerly used systems known astelevision receive-only.These systems received analog signals transmitted in theC-bandspectrum fromFSStype satellites and required the use of large dishes. Consequently, these systems were nicknamed "big dish" systems and were more expensive and less popular.^[169]

The direct-broadcast satellite television signals were earlier analog signals and later digital signals, both of which require a compatible receiver.Digital signalsmay includehigh-definition television(HDTV). Some transmissions and channels arefree-to-airorfree-to-view,while many other channels arepay televisionrequiring a subscription.^[170] In 1945, British science fiction writerArthur C. Clarkeproposed a worldwide communications system that would function by means of three satellites equally spaced apart in Earth orbit.^[171]^[172]This was published in the October 1945 issue of theWireless Worldmagazine and won him theFranklin Institute'sStuart Ballantine Medalin 1963.^[173]^[174]

The first satellite television signals from Europe to North America were relayed via theTelstarsatellite over theAtlantic Oceanon 23 July 1962.^[175]The signals were received and broadcast in North American and European countries and watched by over 100 million.^[175]Launched in 1962, theRelay 1satellite was the first satellite to transmit television signals from the US to Japan.^[176]The firstgeosynchronous communication satellite,Syncom 2,was launched on 26 July 1963.^[177]

The world's first commercial communications satellite, calledIntelsat Iand nicknamed "Early Bird", was launched into geosynchronous orbit on 6 April 1965.^[178]The first national network of television satellites, calledOrbita,was created by theSoviet Unionin October 1967, and was based on the principle of using the highly ellipticalMolniyasatellite for rebroadcasting and delivering of televisionsignalsto grounddownlinkstations.^[179]The first commercial North American satellite to carry television transmissions was Canada's geostationaryAnik 1,which was launched on 9 November 1972.^[180]ATS-6,the world's first experimental educational andDirect Broadcast Satellite(DBS), was launched on 30 May 1974.^[181]It transmitted at 860 MHz using wideband FM modulation and had two sound channels. The transmissions were focused on the Indian subcontinent, but experimenters were able to receive the signal in Western Europe using home-constructed equipment that drew on UHF television design techniques already in use.^[182]

The first in a series of Soviet geostationary satellites to carryDirect-To-Hometelevision,Ekran1, was launched on 26 October 1976.^[183]It used a 714 MHz UHF downlink frequency so that the transmissions could be received with existingUHF television technologyrather than microwave technology.^[184]

Internet television

Internet television (Internet TV) (or online television) is thedigital distributionof television content via the Internet as opposed to traditional systems like terrestrial, cable, and satellite, although the Internet itself is received by terrestrial, cable, or satellite methods. Internet television is a general term that covers the delivery of television series and other video content over the Internet by video streaming technology, typically by major traditional television broadcasters. Internet television should not be confused withSmart TV,IPTV,or withWeb TV.Smart televisionrefers to the television set which has a built-in operating system. Internet Protocol television (IPTV) is one of the emerging Internet television technology standards for use by television networks.Web televisionis a term used for programs created by a wide variety of companies and individuals for broadcast on Internet television.

Traditional cable and satellite television providers began to offer services such asSling TV,owned by Dish Network, which was unveiled in January 2015.^[185]DirecTV,another satellite television provider, launched their own streaming service,DirecTV Stream,in 2016.^[186]^[187]Skylaunched a similar streaming service in the UK calledNow.In 2013,Video on demandwebsiteNetflixearned the firstPrimetime Emmy Awardnominations for original streaming television at the65th Primetime Emmy Awards.Three of its series,House of Cards,Arrested Development,andHemlock Grove,earned nominations that year.^[188]On July 13, 2015, cable companyComcastannounced anHBOplusbroadcast TVpackage at a price discounted from basicbroadbandplusbasic cable.^[189]

In 2017, YouTube launchedYouTube TV,a streaming service that allows users to watch live television programs from popular cable or network channels and record shows to stream anywhere, anytime.^[190]^[191]^[192]As of 2017, 28% of US adults cite streaming services as their main means for watching television, and 61% of those ages 18 to 29 cite it as their main method.^[193]^[194]As of 2018, Netflix is the world's largest streaming TV network and also the world's largest Internet media and entertainment company with 117 million paid subscribers, and by revenue and market cap.^[195]^[196]In 2020, theCOVID-19 pandemichad a strong impact in the television streaming business with the lifestyle changes such as staying at home and lockdowns.^[197]^[198]^[199]^[200]

Sets

A television set, also called a television receiver, television, TV set, TV, or "telly," is a device that combines a tuner, display, amplifier, and speakers for the purpose of viewing television and hearing its audio components. Introduced in the late 1920s inmechanicalform, television sets became a popular consumer product after World War II in electronic form, usingcathode-ray tubes.The addition of color to broadcast television after 1953 further increased the popularity of television sets, and an outdoor antenna became a common feature of suburban homes. The ubiquitous television set became the display device for recorded media in the 1970s, such asBetamaxandVHS,which enabled viewers to record TV shows and watch prerecorded movies. In the subsequent decades, Television sets were used to watch DVDs andBlu-ray Discsof movies and other content. Major TV manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma, and fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. Televisions since 2010s mostly useLEDs.^[3]^[4]^[201]^[202]LEDs are expected to be gradually replaced by OLEDs in the near future.^[5]

Display technologies

Disk

The earliest systems employed a spinning disk to create and reproduce images.^[203]These usually had a low resolution and screen size and never became popular with the public.

CRT

A 14-inch cathode-ray tube showing its deflection coils and electron guns

The cathode-ray tube (CRT) is avacuum tubecontaining one or moreelectron guns(a source ofelectronsor electron emitter) and afluorescentscreen used to view images.^[37]It has the means to accelerate and deflect the electron beam(s) onto the screen to create the images. The images may represent electricalwaveforms(oscilloscope), pictures (television,computer monitor),radartargets or others. The CRT uses an evacuated glass envelope that is large, deep (i.e., long from front screen face to rear end), fairly heavy, and relatively fragile. As a matter of safety, the face is typically made of thicklead glassso as to be highly shatter-resistant and to block mostX-rayemissions, particularly if the CRT is used in a consumer product.

In television sets andcomputer monitors,the entire front area of the tube is scanned repetitively and systematically in a fixed pattern called araster.An image is produced by controlling the intensity of each of the threeelectron beams,one for each additive primary color (red, green, and blue) with avideo signalas a reference.^[204]In all modern CRT monitors and televisions, the beams are bent bymagnetic deflection,a varying magnetic field generated by coils and driven by electronic circuits around the neck of the tube, althoughelectrostatic deflectionis commonly used inoscilloscopes,a type of diagnostic instrument.^[204]

DLP

Digital Light Processing (DLP) is a type ofvideo projectortechnology that uses adigital micromirror device.Some DLPs have a TV tuner, which makes them a type of TV display. It was originally developed in 1987 by Dr.Larry HornbeckofTexas Instruments.While the DLP imaging device was invented by Texas Instruments, the first DLP-based projector was introduced by Digital Projection Ltd in 1997. Digital Projection and Texas Instruments were both awardedEmmy Awardsin 1998 for the invention of the DLP projector technology. DLP is used in a variety of display applications, from traditional static displays to interactive displays and also non-traditional embedded applications, including medical, security, and industrial uses. DLP technology is used in DLP front projectors (standalone projection units for classrooms and businesses primarily) but also in private homes; in these cases, the image is projected onto a projection screen. DLP is also used in DLP rear projection television sets and digital signs. It is also used in about 85% ofdigital cinemaprojection.^[205]

Plasma

Aplasmadisplay panel (PDP) is a type offlat panel displaycommon to large television displays 30 inches (76 cm) or larger. They are called "plasma"displays because the technology uses small cells containingelectrically charged ionized gases,or what are in essence chambers more commonly known asfluorescent lamps.

LCD

Liquid-crystal-display televisions (LCD TVs) are television sets that useliquid-crystal displaytechnology to produce images.LCD televisionsare much thinner and lighter thancathode-ray tube(CRTs) of similar display size and are available in much larger sizes (e.g., 90-inch diagonal). When manufacturing costs fell, this combination of features made LCDs practical for television receivers. LCDs come in two types: those usingcold cathodefluorescent lamps, simply called LCDs, and those usingLEDas backlight calledLEDs.

In 2007, LCD television sets surpassed sales of CRT-based television sets worldwide for the first time, and their sales figures relative to other technologies accelerated. LCD television sets have quickly displaced the only major competitors in the large-screen market, thePlasma displaypanel andrear-projection television.^[206]In mid 2010s LCDs especially LEDs became, by far, the most widely produced and sold television display type.^[201]^[202]LCDs also have disadvantages. Other technologies address these weaknesses, includingOLEDs,FEDandSED,but as of 2014^[update]none of these have entered widespread production.

OLED

An OLED (organic light-emitting diode) is alight-emitting diode(LED) in which theemissive electroluminescentlayer is a film oforganic compoundwhich emits light in response to an electric current. This layer oforganic semiconductoris situated between two electrodes. Generally, at least one of these electrodes is transparent. OLEDs are used to createdigital displaysin devices such astelevisionscreens. It is also used for computer monitors and portable systems such asmobile phones,handheld game console,andPDAs.

There are two main groups of OLED: those based on smallmoleculesand those employingpolymers.Adding mobileionsto an OLED creates alight-emitting electrochemical cellor LEC, which has a slightly different mode of operation. OLED displays can use eitherpassive-matrix(PMOLED) oractive-matrix(AMOLED) addressing schemes. Active-matrix OLEDs require athin-film transistorbackplane to switch each individual pixel on or off but allow for higher resolution and larger display sizes.

An OLED display works without abacklight.Thus, it can display deepblack levelsand can be thinner and lighter than aliquid crystal display(LCD). In low ambient light conditions such as a dark room, an OLED screen can achieve a highercontrast ratiothan an LCD, whether the LCD usescold cathodefluorescent lamps orLED backlight.OLEDs are expected to replace other forms of display in the near future.^[5]

Display resolution

LD

Low-definition television or LDTV refers to television systems that have a lower screen resolution than standard-definition television systems such240p(320*240). It is used inhandheld television.The most common source of LDTV programming is the Internet, where mass distribution of higher-resolutionvideo filescould overwhelmcomputer serversand take too long to download. Many mobile phones and portable devices such asApple'siPod Nano,or Sony'sPlayStation Portableuse LDTV video, as higher-resolution files would be excessive to the needs of their small screens (320×240and 480×272pixelsrespectively). The current generation of iPod Nanos has LDTV screens, as do the first three generations ofiPod TouchandiPhone(480×320). For the first years of its existence, YouTube offered only one low-definition resolution of 320x240p at 30fps or less. A standard, consumer-gradevideotapecan be considered SDTV due to its resolution (approximately 360 × 480i/576i).

SD

Standard-definition television or SDTV refers to two different resolutions:576i,with 576interlacedlines of resolution, derived from the European-developedPALandSECAMsystems, and480ibased on the American National Television System CommitteeNTSCsystem. SDTV is a television system that uses a resolution that is not considered to be eitherhigh-definition television(720p,1080i,1080p,1440p,4K UHDTV,and8K UHD) orenhanced-definition television(EDTV480p). In North America, digital SDTV is broadcast in the same4:3aspect ratio as NTSC signals, with widescreen content beingcenter cut.^[207]However, in other parts of the world that used the PAL or SECAM color systems, standard-definition television is now usually shown with a16:9 aspect ratio,with the transition occurring between the mid-1990s and mid-2000s. Older programs with a 4:3 aspect ratio are shown in the United States as 4:3, with non-ATSC countries preferring to reduce the horizontal resolution by anamorphically scaling apillarboxedimage.

HD

High-definition television (HDTV) provides aresolutionthat is substantially higher than that ofstandard-definition television.

HDTV may be transmitted in various formats:

1080p:1920×1080p: 2,073,600 pixels (~2.07megapixels) perframe
1080i:1920×1080i: 1,036,800 pixels (~1.04 MP) perfieldor 2,073,600 pixels (~2.07 MP) per frame
- A non-standard CEA resolution exists in some countries such as 1440×1080i: 777,600 pixels (~0.78 MP) per field or 1,555,200 pixels (~1.56 MP) per frame
720p:1280×720p: 921,600 pixels (~0.92 MP) per frame

UHD

Ultra-high-definition television (also known as Super Hi-Vision, Ultra HD television, UltraHD, UHDTV, orUHD) includes4K UHD(2160p) and8K UHD(4320p), which are twodigital videoformats proposed byNHK Science & Technology Research Laboratoriesand defined and approved by theInternational Telecommunication Union(ITU). TheConsumer Electronics Associationannounced on 17 October 2012 that "Ultra High Definition," or "Ultra HD," would be used for displays that have anaspect ratioof at least 16:9 and at least one digital input capable of carrying and presenting natural video at a minimum resolution of 3840×2160 pixels.^[208]^[209]

Market share

North American consumers purchase a new television set on average every seven years, and the average household owns 2.8 televisions. As of 2011^[update],48 million are sold each year at an average price of $460 and size of 38 in (97 cm).^[210]

Worldwide TV manufacturers market share, H1 2023
Manufacturer	Market share^[211]
Samsung Electronics	31.2%
LG Electronics	16.2%
TCL	10.2%
Hisense	9.5%
Sony	5.7%
Others	39%

Content

Programming

Getting TV programming shown to the public can happen in many other ways. After production, the next step is to market and deliver the product to whichever markets are open to using it. This typically happens on two levels:

Original run or First run: a producer creates a program of one or multiple episodes and shows it on a station or network that has either paid for the production itself or granted a license by the television producers to do the same.
Broadcast syndication:this is the terminology rather broadly used to describe secondary programming usages (beyond the original run). It includes secondary runs in the country of the first issue, but also international usage, which may not be managed by the originating producer. In many cases, other companies, television stations, or individuals are engaged to do the syndication work, in other words, to sell the product into the markets they are allowed to sell into by contract from the copyright holders; in most cases, the producers.

First-run programming is increasing on subscription services outside of the United States, but few domestically produced programs are syndicated on domesticfree-to-air(FTA) elsewhere. This practice is increasing, however, generally on digital-only FTA channels or with subscriber-only, first-run material appearing on FTA. Unlike the United States, repeat FTA screenings of an FTA network program usually only occur on that network. Also,affiliatesrarely buy or produce non-network programming that is not focused onlocal programming.

Genres

Television genresinclude a broad range of programming types that entertain, inform, and educate viewers. The most expensive entertainment genres to produce are usually dramas and dramaticminiseries.However, other genres, such as historical Western genres, may also have high production costs.

Pop culture entertainment genres include action-oriented shows such as police, crime, detective dramas, horror, or thriller shows. As well, there are also other variants of the drama genre, such asmedical dramasand daytime soap operas. Sci-fi series can fall into either the drama or action category, depending on whether they emphasize philosophical questions or high adventure. Comedy is a popular genre that includes situation comedy (sitcom) and animated series for the adult demographic, such as Comedy Central'sSouth Park.

The least expensive forms of entertainment programming genres are game shows, talk shows, variety shows, andreality television.Game shows feature contestants answering questions and solving puzzles to win prizes. Talk shows contain interviews with film, television, music, and sportscelebritiesand public figures. Variety shows feature a range of musical performers and other entertainers, such as comedians and magicians, introduced by a host orMaster of Ceremonies.There is some crossover between some talk shows and variety shows because leading talk shows often feature performances by bands, singers, comedians, and other performers in between the interview segments. Reality television series "regular" people (i.e., not actors) facing unusual challenges or experiences ranging from arrest by police officers (COPS) to significant weight loss (The Biggest Loser). A derived version of reality shows depicts celebrities doing mundane activities such as going about their everyday life (The Osbournes,Snoop Dogg's Father Hood) or doing regular jobs (The Simple Life).^[212]

Fictional television programs that some television scholars and broadcasting advocacy groups argue are "quality television",include series such asTwin PeaksandThe Sopranos.Kristin Thompson argues that some of these television series exhibit traits also found inart films,such as psychological realism, narrative complexity, and ambiguous plotlines. Nonfiction television programs that some television scholars and broadcasting advocacy groups argue are "quality television" include a range of serious, noncommercial programming aimed at a niche audience, such as documentaries and public affairs shows.

Funding

Around the world, broadcast television is financed by government, advertising, licensing (a form of tax), subscription, or any combination of these. To protect revenues, subscription television channels are usually encrypted to ensure that only subscribers receive the decryption codes to see the signal. Unencrypted channels are known as free-to-air or FTA. In 2009, the global TV market represented 1,217.2 million TV households with at least one TV and total revenues of 268.9 billion EUR (declining 1.2% compared to 2008).^[213]North America had the biggest TV revenue market share with 39% followed by Europe (31%), Asia-Pacific (21%), Latin America (8%), and Africa and the Middle East (2%).^[214]Globally, the different TV revenue sources are divided into 45–50% TV advertising revenues, 40–45% subscription fees, and 10% public funding.^[215]^[216]

Advertising

Television's broad reach makes it a powerful and attractive medium for advertisers. Many television networks and stations sell blocks of broadcast time to advertisers ( "sponsors" ) to fund their programming.^[217]Television advertisements (variously called a television commercial, commercial, or ad inAmerican English,and known inBritish Englishas an advert) is a span of television programming produced and paid for by an organization, which conveys a message, typically to market a product or service. Advertising revenue provides a significant portion of the funding for most privately owned television networks. The vast majority of television advertisements today consist of brief advertising spots, ranging in length from a few seconds to several minutes (as well as program-lengthinfomercials). Advertisements of this sort have been used to promote a wide variety of goods, services, and ideas since the beginning of television.

The effects of television advertising upon the viewing public (and the effects of mass media in general) have been the subject of discourse by philosophers, includingMarshall McLuhan.The viewership of television programming, as measured by companies such asNielsen Media Research,is often used as a metric for television advertisement placement and, consequently, for the rates charged to advertisers to air within a given network, television program, or time of day (called a "daypart" ). In many countries, including the United States, televisioncampaign advertisementsis considered indispensable for apolitical campaign.In other countries, such as France, political advertising on television is heavily restricted,^[218]while some countries, such asNorway,completely ban political advertisements.

The first official, paid television advertisement was broadcast in the United States on 1 July 1941, over New York station WNBT (nowWNBC) before a baseball game between theBrooklyn DodgersandPhiladelphia Phillies.The announcement forBulovawatches, for which the company paid anywhere from $4.00 to $9.00 (reports vary), displayed a WNBT test pattern modified to look like a clock with the hands showing the time. The Bulova logo, with the phrase "Bulova Watch Time," was shown in the lower right-hand quadrant of the test pattern while the second hand swept around the dial for one minute.^[219]^[220]The first TV ad broadcast in the U.K. was onITVon 22 September 1955, advertisingGibbs SRtoothpaste. The first TV ad broadcast in Asia was onNippon Televisionin Tokyo on 28 August 1953, advertisingSeikosha(nowSeiko), which also displayed a clock with the current time.^[221]

United States

Since inception in the US in 1941,^[222]television commercials have become one of the most effective, persuasive, and popular methods of selling products of many sorts, especially consumer goods. During the 1940s and into the 1950s, programs were hosted by single advertisers. This, in turn, gave great creative control to theadvertisersover the content of the show. Perhaps due to thequiz show scandalsin the 1950s,^[223]networks shifted to the magazine concept, introducing advertising breaks with other advertisers.

U.S. advertising rates are determined primarily byNielsen ratings.The time of the day and popularity of the channel determine how much a TV commercial can cost. For example, it can cost approximately $750,000 for a 30-second block of commercial time during the highly popular singing competitionAmerican Idol,while the same amount of time for theSuper Bowlcan cost several million dollars. Conversely, lesser-viewedtime slots,such as early mornings and weekday afternoons, are often sold in bulk to producers ofinfomercialsat far lower rates. In recent years, paid programs or infomercials have become common, usually in lengths of 30 minutes or one hour. Somedrug companiesand other businesses have even created "news" items for broadcast, known in the industry asvideo news releases,payingprogram directorsto use them.^[224]

Some television programs also deliberately place products into their shows as advertisements, a practice started in feature films^[225]and known asproduct placement.For example, a character could be drinking a certain kind of soda, going to a particularchain restaurant,or driving a certain make of car. (This is sometimes very subtle, with shows having vehicles provided by manufacturers for low cost in exchange as aproduct placement). Sometimes, a specific brand ortrade mark,or music from a certain artist or group, is used. (This excludes guest appearances by artists who perform on the show.)

United Kingdom

The TV regulator oversees TV advertising in the United Kingdom. Its restrictions have applied since the early days of commercially funded TV. Despite this, an early TV mogul,Roy Thomson,likened the broadcasting license as being a "license to print money".^[226]Restrictions mean that the big three national commercial TV channels:ITV,Channel 4,andChannel 5can show an average of only seven minutes of advertising per hour (eight minutes in the peak period). Other broadcasters must average no more than nine minutes (twelve in the peak). This means that many imported TV shows from the U.S. have unnatural pauses where the British company does not use the narrative breaks intended for more frequent U.S. advertising. Advertisements must not be inserted in the course of certain specific proscribed types of programs that last less than half an hour in scheduled duration; this list includes any news or current affairs programs, documentaries, and programs for children; additionally, advertisements may not be carried in a program designed and broadcast for reception in schools or in anyreligious broadcastingservice or other devotional program or during a formal Royal ceremony or occasion. There also must be clear demarcations in time between the programs and the advertisements. TheBBC,being strictly non-commercial, is not allowed to show adverts on television in the U.K., though it has advertising-funded channels abroad. The majority of its budget comes fromtelevision licensefees (see below) andbroadcast syndication,the sale of content to other broadcasters.^[227]^[228]

Ireland

Broadcast advertising is regulated by theBroadcasting Authority of Ireland.^[229]

Subscription

Some TV channels are partly funded fromsubscriptions;therefore, the signals are encrypted during the broadcast to ensure that only the paying subscribers have access to the decryption codes to watchpay televisionorspecialty channels.Most subscription services are also funded by advertising.

Taxation or license

Television services in some countries may be funded by atelevision licenceor a form of taxation, which means that advertising plays a lesser role or no role at all. For example, some channels may carry no advertising at all and some very little, including:

Australia (ABC Television)
Belgium(VRTforFlandersandRTBFforWallonia)
Denmark(DR)
Ireland (RTÉ)
Japan (NHK)
Norway(NRK)
Sweden (SVT)
Switzerland(SRG SSR)
Republic of China (Taiwan)(PTS)
United Kingdom (BBC Television)
United States (PBS)

TheBritish Broadcasting Corporation's TV service carries notelevision advertisingon its UK channels and is funded by an annual television license paid by the occupiers of premises receiving live telecasts. As of 2012^[update]it was estimated that approximately 26.8 million UK private domestic households owned televisions, with approximately 25 million TV licences in all premises in force as of 2010.^[230]This television license fee is set by the government, but the BBC is not answerable to or controlled by the government.^{[citation needed]}As of 2009^[update]two main BBC TV channels were watched by almost 90% of the population each week and overall had 27% share of total viewing,^[231]despite the fact that 85% of homes were multi-channel, with 42% of these having access to 200 free-to-air channels via satellite and another 43% having access to 30 or more channels viaFreeview.^[232]As of June 2021^[update]the licence that funds the advertising-free BBC TV channels cost £159 for a colour TV Licence and £53.50 for a black and white TV Licence (free or reduced for some groups).^[233]

TheAustralian Broadcasting Corporation's television services in Australia carry no advertising by external sources; it is banned under theAustralian Broadcasting Corporation Act 1983,which also ensures its editorial independence. The ABC receives most of its funding from theAustralian Government(some revenue is received from itsCommercial division), but it has suffered progressive funding cuts underLiberalgovernments since the 1996Howard government,^[234]with particularly deep cuts in 2014 under theTurnbull government,^[235]and an ongoingindexationfreeze as of 2021^[update].^[236]^[237]The funds provide for theABC's television,radio,online,and international outputs, althoughABC Australia,which broadcasts throughout the Asia-Pacific region, receives additional funds throughDFATand some advertising on the channel.^[238]^[239]

In France, government-funded channels carry advertisements, yet those who own television sets have to pay an annual tax ( "la redevance audiovisuelle" ).^[240]

In Japan,NHKis paid for by license fees (known in Japanese as reception fee(Chịu tin liêu,Jushinryō)). The broadcast law that governs NHK's funding stipulates that any television equipped to receive NHK is required to pay. The fee is standardized, with discounts for office workers and students who commute, as well as a general discount for residents of Okinawa prefecture.

Broadcast programming

Broadcast programming, or TV listings in the United Kingdom, is the practice of organizing television programs in a schedule, with broadcast automation used to regularly change the scheduling of TV programs to build an audience for a new show, retain that audience, or compete with other broadcasters' programs.

Social aspects

Television has played a pivotal role in the socialization of the 20th and 21st centuries. There are many aspects of television that can be addressed, including negative issues such asmedia violence.Current research is discovering that individuals suffering from social isolation can employ television to create what is termed aparasocialor faux relationship with characters from their favorite television shows and movies as a way of deflecting feelings of loneliness and social deprivation.^[241]Several studies have found thateducational televisionhas many advantages. The article "The Good Things about Television"^[242]argues that television can be a very powerful and effective learning tool for children if used wisely. With respect to faith, manyChristian denominationsuse television forreligious broadcasting.

Religious opposition

Methodistdenominations in theconservative holiness movement,such as theAllegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connectionand theEvangelical Wesleyan Church,eschew the use of the television.^[243]SomeBaptists,such as those affiliated withPensacola Christian College,^[244]also eschew television. ManyTraditional Catholiccongregations such as theSociety of Saint Pius X(SSPX), as withLaestadian Lutherans,and Conservative Anabaptists such as theDunkard Brethren Church,oppose the presence of television in the household, teaching that it is anoccasion of sin.^[245]^[246]^[247]^[248]

Negative impacts

Children, especially those aged five or younger, are at risk of injury from falling televisions.^[249]ACRT-styletelevision that falls on a child will, because of its weight, hit with the equivalent force of falling multiple stories from a building.^[250]Newerflat-screentelevisions are "top-heavy and have narrow bases", which means that a small child can easily pull one over.^[251]As of 2015^[update],TV tip-overs were responsible for more than 10,000 injuries per year to children in the United States, at a cost of more thanUS$8million per year (equivalent toUS$10.28million per year in 2023) inemergency care.^[249]^[251]

A 2017 study inThe Journal of Human Resourcesfound that exposure to cable television reduced cognitive ability and high school graduation rates for boys. This effect was stronger for boys from more educated families. The article suggests a mechanism where light television entertainment crowds out more cognitively stimulating activities.^[252]

With high lead content inCRTsand the rapid diffusion of new flat-panel display technologies, some of which (LCDs) use lamps which containmercury,there is growing concern aboutelectronic wastefrom discarded televisions. Relatedoccupational healthconcerns exist, as well, for disassemblers removing copper wiring and other materials from CRTs. Further environmental concerns related to television design and use relate to the devices' increasingelectrical energyrequirements.^[253]

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v t e Broadcasting
Medium	Radio program Cable Digital Satellite Mobile television Teletext Analog Cable Digital Digital terrestrial television Satellite Internet televisionandradio(Webcast Streaming media Web television Peer-to-peer television BitTorrent television and movies)
Broadcasting niche	Campus radio Commercial broadcasting Community radio Multichannel television Pay television Pay-per-view News broadcasting Pirate radio/Pirate television Public broadcasting Religious broadcasting Talk radio
Specialty channels	Adult television channels Children's interest channel/Children's television series Documentary channel Men's interest channel Movie television channels Music radio/Music television Quiz channel Shopping channel News broadcasting Business channels Public affairs Livestreamed news Sports broadcasting Women's interest channel
Production and funding	Broadcast network Broadcast-safe Broadcast television systems Graphics Digital on-screen graphic Lower third News ticker On-screen display Score bug Television news screen layout Network affiliate Occupations Broadcast designer Broadcast license Director of network programming Outside broadcasting Press box Press pool Television licence Television studio

v t e Telecommunications
History	Beacon Broadcasting Cable protection system Cable TV Communications satellite Computer network Data compression audio DCT image video Digital media Internet video online video platform social media streaming Drums Edholm's law Electrical telegraph Fax Heliographs Hydraulic telegraph Information Age Information revolution Internet Mass media Mobile phone Smartphone Optical telecommunication Optical telegraphy Pager Photophone Prepaid mobile phone Radio Radiotelephone Satellite communications Semaphore Phryctoria Semiconductor device MOSFET transistor Smoke signals Telecommunications history Telautograph Telegraphy Teleprinter(teletype) Telephone The Telephone Cases Television digital streaming Undersea telegraph line Videotelephony Whistled language Wireless revolution
Pioneers	Nasir Ahmed Edwin Howard Armstrong Mohamed M. Atalla John Logie Baird Paul Baran John Bardeen Alexander Graham Bell Emile Berliner Tim Berners-Lee Francis Blake (telephone) Jagadish Chandra Bose Charles Bourseul Walter Houser Brattain Vint Cerf Claude Chappe Yogen Dalal Daniel Davis Jr. Donald Davies Amos Dolbear Thomas Edison Lee de Forest Philo Farnsworth Reginald Fessenden Elisha Gray Oliver Heaviside Robert Hooke Erna Schneider Hoover Harold Hopkins Gardiner Greene Hubbard Internet pioneers Bob Kahn Dawon Kahng Charles K. Kao Narinder Singh Kapany Hedy Lamarr Innocenzo Manzetti Guglielmo Marconi Robert Metcalfe Antonio Meucci Samuel Morse Jun-ichi Nishizawa Charles Grafton Page Radia Perlman Alexander Stepanovich Popov Tivadar Puskás Johann Philipp Reis Claude Shannon Almon Brown Strowger Henry Sutton Charles Sumner Tainter Nikola Tesla Camille Tissot Alfred Vail Thomas A. Watson Charles Wheatstone Vladimir K. Zworykin
Transmission media	Coaxial cable Fiber-optic communication optical fiber Free-space optical communication Molecular communication Radio waves wireless Transmission line telecommunication circuit
Network topology and switching	Bandwidth Links Nodes terminal Network switching circuit packet Telephone exchange
Multiple xing	Space-division Frequency-division Time-division Polarization-division Orbital angular-momentum Code-division
Concepts	Communication protocol Computer network Data transmission Store and forward Telecommunications equipment
Types of network	Cellular network Ethernet ISDN LAN Mobile NGN Public Switched Telephone Radio Television Telex UUCP WAN Wireless network
Notable networks	ARPANET BITNET CYCLADES FidoNet Internet Internet2 JANET NPL network Toasternet Usenet
Locations	Africa Americas North South Antarctica Asia Europe Oceania (Global telecommunications regulation bodies)
Telecommunication portal Category Outline Commons

v t e Standard test items
Pangram Reference implementation Sanity check Standard test image
Artificial intelligence	Chinese room Turing test
Television (test card)	SMPTE color bars EBU colour bars Indian-head test pattern EIA 1956 resolution chart BBC Test Card A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,J,W,X ETP-1 Philips circle pattern(PM 5538,PM 5540,PM 5544,PM 5644) Snell & Wilcox SW2/SW4 Telefunken FuBK TVE test card UEIT
Computer languages	"Hello, World!" program Quine Trabb Pardo–Knuth algorithm Man or boy test Just another Perl hacker
Data compression	Calgary corpus Canterbury corpus Silesia corpus enwik8, enwik9
3D computer graphics	Cornell box Stanford bunny Stanford dragon Utah teapot List
Machine learning	ImageNet MNIST database List
Typography(filler text)	Etaoin shrdlu Hamburgevons Lorem ipsum The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog
Other	3DBenchy Acid 1 2 3 "Bad Apple!!" EICAR test file functions for optimization GTUBE Harvard sentences Lenna "The North Wind and the Sun" "Tom's Diner" SMPTE universal leader EURion constellation Shakedown Webdriver Torso 1951 USAF resolution test chart

v t e Electronics
Branches	Analogue electronics Digital electronics Electronic engineering Instrumentation Microelectronics Optoelectronics Power electronics Printed electronics Semiconductor Schematic capture Thermal management
Advanced topics	2020s in computing Atomtronics Bioelectronics List of emerging electronics Failure of electronic components Flexible electronics Low-power electronics Molecular electronics Nanoelectronics Organic electronics Photonics Piezotronics Quantum electronics Spintronics
Electronic equipment	Air conditioner Central heating Clothes dryer Computer/Notebook Camera Dishwasher Freezer Home robot Home cinema Home theater PC Information technology Cooker Microwave oven Mobile phone Networking hardware Portable media player Radio Refrigerator Robotic vacuum cleaner Tablet Telephone Television Water heater Video game console Washing machine
Applications	Audio equipment Automotive electronics Avionics Control system Data acquisition e-book e-health Electromagnetic warfare Electronics industry Embedded system Home appliance Home automation Integrated circuit Home appliance Consumer electronics Major appliance Small appliance Marine electronics Microwavetechnology Militaryelectronics Multimedia Nuclear electronics Open-source hardware RadarandRadio navigation Radio electronics Terahertz technology WiredandWirelessCommunications

Authority control databases
National	France BnF data Germany Israel United States Czech Republic
Other	NARA

1000+	100–200
500–1000	50–100
300–500	0–50
200–300	No data