Hebrew Bible

"Tanakh" redirects here. For other uses, seeTanakh (disambiguation).

This article is about the Jewish text. For other uses, seeOld Testament,Bible translations into Hebrew,andHebrew Bible: A Critical Edition.

Hebrew Bible
תַּנַ״ךְ‎,Tanakh
Complete set of scrolls, constituting the Tanakh
Information
Religion	Judaism Christianity
Language	Biblical Hebrew Biblical Aramaic
Period	8th/7th centuries BCE – 2nd/1st centuries BCE
Hebrew Bibleat HebrewWikisource

TheHebrew BibleorTanakh(/tɑːˈnɑːx/;Hebrew:תַּנַ״ךְ‎Tanaḵ), also known in Hebrew asMiqra(/miːˈkrɑː/;Hebrew:מִקְרָא‎Mīqrāʾ‍), is thecanonical collectionofHebrewscriptures, comprising theTorah,theNevi'im,and theKetuvim.Different branches ofJudaismandSamaritanismhave maintained different versions of the canon, including the 3rd-century BCESeptuaginttext used inSecond Temple Judaism,theSyriacPeshitta,theSamaritan Pentateuch,theDead Sea Scrolls,and most recently the 10th-century medievalMasoretic Textcompiled by theMasoretes,currently used inRabbinic Judaism.The terms "Hebrew Bible" or "Hebrew Canon" are frequently confused with the Masoretic Text; however, this is a medieval version and one of several texts considered authoritative by different types ofJudaism throughout history.The current edition of the Masoretic Text is mostly inBiblical Hebrew,with a few passages inBiblical Aramaic(in the books ofDanielandEzra,and the verseJeremiah10:11).

The authoritative form of the modern Hebrew Bible used inRabbinic Judaismis theMasoretic Text(7th to 10th century CE), which consists of 24 books, divided into chapters andpesuqim(verses). TheHebrew Bible developedduring theSecond Temple Period,as the Jews decided which religious texts were of divine origin; theMasoretic Text,compiled by theJewish scribes and scholarsof theEarly Middle Ages,comprises theHebrewandAramaic24 books that they considered authoritative.TheHellenizedGreek-speakingJews of Alexandriaproduced a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible called "theSeptuagint",that included books later identified as theApocrypha,while theSamaritansproduced their own edition of the Torah, theSamaritan Pentateuch.According to the Dutch–Israeli biblical scholar and linguistEmanuel Tov,professor of Bible Studies at theHebrew University of Jerusalem,both of these ancient editions of the Hebrew Bible differ significantly from the medieval Masoretic Text.

In addition to the Masoretic Text, modern biblical scholars seeking to understand the history of the Hebrew Bible use a range of sources.These include the Septuagint, theSyriac languagePeshittatranslation, theSamaritan Pentateuch,theDead Sea Scrollscollection, theTargum Onkelos,and quotations fromrabbinic manuscripts.These sources may be older than the Masoretic Text in some cases and often differ from it.These differences have given rise to the theory that yet another text, anUrtextof the Hebrew Bible, once existed and is the source of the versions extant today.However, such an Urtext has never been found, and which of the three commonly known versions (Septuagint, Masoretic Text, Samaritan Pentateuch) is closest to the Urtext is debated.

There are many similarities between the Hebrew Bible and the ChristianOld Testament.TheProtestantOld Testament has the same books as the Hebrew Bible, but the books are arranged in different orders. TheRoman Catholic,Eastern Orthodox,andOriental Orthodoxchurches include theDeuterocanonical books,which are not included in the Hebrew Bible.InIslam,theTawrat(Arabic:توراة) is identified not only with thePentateuch(the five books ofMoses), but also with the other books of the Hebrew Bible.

Terminology

Tanakh

Further information:Hebrew abbreviationsandAbjad

Tanakhis anacronym,made from the firstHebrew letterof each of theMasoretic Text's three traditional divisions:Torah(literally 'Instruction' or 'Law'),Nevi'im(Prophets), andKetuvim(Writings)—hence TaNaKh.

The three-part division reflected in the acronymTanakhis well attested in therabbinic literature.During that period,however,Tanakhwas not used. Instead, the proper title wasMikra(orMiqra,מקרא, meaningreadingorthat which is read) because the biblical texts were read publicly. The acronym 'Tanakh' is first recorded in the medieval era.Mikracontinues to be used in Hebrew to this day, alongside Tanakh, to refer to the Hebrew scriptures. In modern spokenHebrew,they are interchangeable.

Hebrew Bible

See also:Biblia Hebraica (disambiguation)

Manybiblical studiesscholars advocate use of the termHebrew Bible(orHebrew Scriptures) as a substitute for less-neutral terms with Jewish or Christian connotations (e.g.,TanakhorOld Testament).TheSociety of Biblical Literature'sHandbook of Style,which is the standard for major academic journals like theHarvard Theological Reviewand conservative Protestant journals like theBibliotheca Sacraand theWestminster Theological Journal,suggests that authors "be aware of the connotations of alternative expressions such as... Hebrew Bible [and] Old Testament" without prescribing the use of either.

"Hebrew" refers to the original language of the books, but it may also be taken as referring to the Jews of theSecond Temple eraand their descendants, who preserved the transmission of the Masoretic Text up to the present day.The Hebrew Bible includes small portions inAramaic(mostly in the books ofDanielandEzra), written and printed inAramaic square-script,which was adopted as theHebrew Alpha betafter theBabylonian exile.

Content

Genres and themes

The Tanakh includes a variety of genres, including narratives of events set in the past. TheTorah(Genesis,Exodus,Leviticus,NumbersandDeuteronomy) contains legal material. TheBook of Psalmsis a collection of hymns, but songs are included elsewhere in the Tanakh, such as Exodus 15, 1 Samuel 2, and Jonah 2. Books such as Proverbs and Ecclesiastes are examples ofwisdom literature.

Other books are examples ofprophecy.In the prophetic books, a prophet denounces evil or predicts what God will do in the future. A prophet might also describe and interpret visions. The Book of Daniel is the only book in the Tanakh usually described asapocalyptic literature.However, other books or parts of books have been called proto-apocalyptic, such as Isaiah 24–27, Joel, and Zechariah 9–14.

A central theme throughout the Tanakh ismonotheism,worshiping oneGod.The Tanakh was created by theIsraelites,a people who lived within the cultural and religious context of theancient Near East.Thereligions of the ancient Near Eastwerepolytheistic,but the Israelites rejected polytheism in favor of monotheism. Biblical scholarChristine Hayeswrites that the Hebrew Bible was "the record of [the Israelites'] religious and cultural revolution".

According to biblical scholarJohn Barton,"YHWHis consistently presented throughout the [Hebrew Scriptures] as the God who created the world, and as the only God with whom Israel is to be concerned ".This special relationship between God and Israel is described in terms ofcovenant.As part of the covenant, God gives his people thepromised landas an eternal possession. The God of the covenant is also a God ofredemption.God liberates his people from Egypt and continually intervenes to save them from their enemies.

The Tanakh imposesethical requirements,including social justice and ritual purity(seeTumah and taharah).The Tanakh forbids the exploitation of widows, orphans, and other vulnerable groups. In addition, the Tanakh condemns murder, theft, bribery, corruption, deceitful trading, adultery, incest, bestiality, and homosexual acts. Another theme of the Tanakh istheodicy,showing that God is just even though evil and suffering are present in the world.

Narrative

The Tanakh begins with theGenesis creation narrative.Genesis 12–50 traces Israelite origins to thepatriarchs:Abraham,his sonIsaac,and grandsonJacob.God promises Abraham and his descendants blessing and land. The covenant God makes with Abraham is signified bymale circumcision.The children of Jacob become the ancestors of thetwelve tribes of Israel.Jacob's sonJosephis sold into slavery by his brothers, but he becomes a powerful man in Egypt. During a famine, Jacob and his family settle in Egypt.

Jacob's descendants lived in Egypt for 430 years. Afterthe Exodus,the Israelites wander in the wilderness for 40 years.God gives the Israelites theLaw of Mosesto guide their behavior. The law includes rules for both religious ritual and ethics(seeEthics in the Bible).This moral code requires justice and care for the poor, widows, and orphans. The biblical story affirms God's unconditional love for his people, but he still punishes them when they fail to live by the covenant.

God leads Israel into thepromised landofCanaan,which they conquer after five years. For the next 470 years, the Israelites were led byjudges.In time, a new enemy emerged called thePhilistines.They continued to trouble Israel when the prophetSamuelwas judge (1 Samuel 4:1–7:1). When Samuel grew old, the people requested that he choose a king because Samuel's sons were corrupt and they wanted to be like other nations (1 Samuel 8). The Tanakh presents this negatively as a rejection of God's kingship; nevertheless, God permits it, andSaulof thetribe of Benjaminisanointedking. This inaugurates the united monarchy of theKingdom of Israel.

An officer in Saul's army namedDavidachieves great militarily success. Saul tries to kill him out of jealousy, but David successfully escapes (1 Samuel 16–29). After Saul dies fighting the Philistines (1 Samuel 31;2 Chronicles 10), the kingdom is divided between his sonEshbaaland David (David ruled histribe of Judahand Eshbaal ruled the rest). After Eshbaal's assassination, David was anointed king over all of Israel (2 Samuel2–5).

David captures theJebusitecity ofJerusalem(2 Samuel 5:6–7) and makes it his capital. Jerusalem's location between Judah in the southern hills and the northern Israelite tribes made it an ideal location from which to rule over all the tribes. He further increased Jerusalem's importance by bringing theArk of the Covenantthere fromShiloh(2 Samuel 6).David's sonSolomonbuilt theFirst Templein Jerusalem.

After Solomon's death, the united kingdom split into thenorthern Kingdom of Israel(also known as the Kingdom of Samaria) with its capital atSamariaand the southernKingdom of Judahwith its capital at Jerusalem.The Kingdom of Samaria survived for 200 years until it was conquered by theAssyriansin 722 BCE. The Kingdom of Judah survived for longer, but it was conquered by theBabyloniansin 586 BCE. The Temple was destroyed, and many Judeans wereexiled to Babylon.In 539 BCE, Babylon was conquered byCyrus the Greatof Persia, who allowed the exiles toreturn to Judah.Between 520 and 515 BCE, the Temple was rebuilt(seeSecond Temple).

Development

Traditional attribution

Religious tradition ascribesauthorship of the Torah to Moses.In later biblical texts, such as Daniel 9:11 and Ezra 3:2, it is referred to as the "Torah (Law) of Moses".However, the Torah itself only credits Moses with writing certain sections.According to scholars, Moses would have lived in the2nd millennium BCE,but this was before the development of Hebrew writing. The Torah is dated to the1st millennium BCEafter Israel and Judah had already developed as states. Nevertheless, "it is highly likely that extensive oral transmission of proverbs, stories, and songs took place during this period", and these may have been included in the Hebrew Bible.Elements of Genesis 12–50, which describes thepatriarchal age,and the Book of Exodus may reflectoral traditions.In these stories, Israelite ancestors such as Jacob or Moses usetrickeryand deception to survive and thrive.

King David (c. 1000 BCE) is credited as the author of at least 73 psalms. His son, Solomon, is identified as the author of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Song of Solomon. The Tanakh describes their reigns as agolden agewhen Israel flourished both culturally and militarily. However, there is no evidence for this, and it is most likely a "retrospective extrapolation" of conditions under KingJeroboam II(r. 781–742).

Before the exile

Further information:Tradition history

Modern scholars believe that the ancient Israelites mostly originated from within Canaan. Their material culture was closely related to their Canaanite neighbors, and Hebrew was aCanaanite dialect.Archaeological evidence indicates Israel began as loosely organized tribal villages in thehill country of modern-day Israelc. 1250– c. 1000 BCE.During crises, these tribes formed temporary alliances. The Book of Judges, writtenc. 600 BCE(around 500 years after the events it describes) portrays Israel as a grouping of decentralized tribes, and theSong of Deborahin Judges 5 may reflect older oral traditions. It features archaic elements of Hebrew and atribal listthat identifies Israel exclusively with the northern tribes.

By the 9th or 8th centuries BCE, thescribalculture of Samaria and Judah was sufficiently developed enough to produce biblical texts.The Kingdom of Samaria was more powerful and culturally advanced than the kingdom of Judah. It also featured multiple cultic sites, including the sanctuaries atBethelandDan.

Scholars estimate the Jacob tradition (Genesis 25–35) was first written down in the 8th century BCE and probably originated in the north because the stories take place there. Based on the prominence given to the sanctuary at Bethel (Genesis 28), these stories were likely preserved and written down at that religious center. This means the Jacob cycle must be older than the time of KingJosiahof Judah (r. 640 – 609 BCE), who pushed for the centralization of worship at Jerusalem.

The story of Moses and the Exodus appears to also originate in the north. It existed as a self-contained story in its oral and earliest written forms, but it was connected to the patriarchal stories during the exile or post-exile periods. The account of Moses' birth (Exodus 2) shows similarities to the birth ofSargon of Akkad,which suggestsNeo-Assyrianinfluence sometime after 722 BCE. While the Moses story is set in Egypt, it is used to tell both an anti-Assyrian and anti-imperial message, all while appropriating Assyrian story patterns.David M. Carrnotes the possibility of an early oral tradition for the Exodus story: "To be sure, there may have been a 'Moses group,' themselves of Canaanite extraction, who experienced slavery and liberation from Egypt, but most scholars believe that such a group—if it existed—was only a small minority in early Israel, even though their story came to be claimed by all."

Scholars believePsalm 45could have northern origins since it refers to a king marrying a foreign princess, a policy of theOmrides.Some psalms may have originated from the shrine in the northern city of Dan. These are theSons of Korahpsalms,Psalm 29,andPsalm 68.The city of Dan probably became an Israelite city during the reign of KingJeroboam II(781–742BCE). Before then, it belonged toAram,andPsalm 20is nearly identical to anAramaicpsalm found in the 4th century BCEPapyrus Amherst 63.

The author of the books of Kings likely lived in Jerusalem. The text shows a clear bias in favor of Judah where worship of God was centralized at Jerusalem. The Kingdon of Samaria is portrayed as a godless, breakaway region whose rulers refuse to worship at Jerusalem.

Fi xing the canon

Main article:Development of the Hebrew Bible canon

The books that make up the Hebrew Bible were composed and edited in stages over several hundred years. According to biblical scholarJohn J. Collins,"It now seems clear that all the Hebrew Bible received its final shape in the postexilic, or Second Temple, period."

Traditionally,Moseswas considered the author of the Torah, and this part of the Tanakh achieved authoritative or canonical status first, possibly as early as the 5th century BCE. This is suggested byEzra 7:6, which describesEzraas "a scribe skilled in the law (torah) of Moses that the Lord the God of Israel had given ".

The Nevi'im had gained canonical status by the 2nd century BCE. There are references to the "Law and the Prophets" in theBook of Sirach,theDead Sea Scrolls,and theNew Testament.The Book of Daniel, writtenc. 164 BCE,was not grouped with the Prophets presumably because the Nevi'im collection was already fixed by this time.

The Ketuvim was the last part of the Tanakh to achieve canonical status. The prologue to the Book of Sirach mentions "other writings" along with the Law and Prophets but does not specify content. TheGospel of Lukerefers to "the Law of Moses, the prophets, and the psalms" (Luke 24:44). These references suggest that the content of the Writings remained fluid until the canonization process was completed in the 2nd century CE.

There is no scholarly consensus as to when the Hebrew Bible canon was fixed: some scholars argue that it was fixed by theHasmonean dynasty,while others argue it was not fixed until the second century CE or even later.The late 1st centuryCouncil of Jamniawas once credited with fi xing the Hebrew canon, but modern scholars believe there was no such authoritative council of rabbis. Between 70 and 100 CE, rabbis debated whether certain books "make the hands unclean" (meaning the books are holy and should be considered scripture) and references to fixed numbers of canonical books appear.There were several criteria for inclusion. Books had to be older than the 4th century BCE or attributed to an author who had lived before that period. The original language had to be Hebrew, and books needed to be in wide use. Many books considered scripture by certain Jewish communities were excluded during this time.

The inter-relationship between various significant ancient manuscripts of the Hebrew Bible (some identified by their siglum). Mt being the Masoretic text. The lowermost text "(lost)" would be theUrtext.

There are varioustextual variants in the Hebrew Bible,the result of centuries of hand-copying.Scribesintroduced thousands of minor changes into the biblical texts. Sometimes, these changes were by accident. At other times, scribes intentionally added clarifications or theological material. In the Middle Ages, Jewish scribes produced theMasoretic Text,which became the authoritative version of the Tanakh.Ancient Hebrewwas written without vowels, but theMasoretesadded vowel markings to the text to ensure accuracy.

Rabbi and Talmudic scholarLouis Ginzbergwrote inLegends of the Jews,published in 1909, that the twenty-four book canon was fixed by Ezra and the scribes in theSecond Temple period.According to theTalmud,much of the Tanakh was compiled by the men of theGreat Assembly(Anshei K'nesset HaGedolah), a task completed in 450 BCE, and it has remained unchanged ever since.The 24-book canon is mentioned in theMidrash Koheleth12:12:Whoever brings together in his house more than twenty four books brings confusion.

Language and pronunciation

The originalwriting systemof the Hebrew text was anabjad:consonantswritten with some applied vowel letters ("matres lectionis"). During the earlyMiddle Ages,scholars known as theMasoretescreated a single formalized system ofvocalization.This was chiefly done byAaron ben Moses ben Asher,in theTiberiasschool, based on the oral tradition for reading the Tanakh, hence the nameTiberian vocalization.It also included some innovations ofBen Naftaliand theBabylonian exiles.Despite the comparatively late process of codification, some traditional sources and some Orthodox Jews hold the pronunciation andcantillationto derive fromthe revelation at Sinai,since it is impossible to read the original text without pronunciations and cantillation pauses.The combination of a text (מקראmikra), pronunciation (ניקודniqqud) and cantillation (טעמיםte`amim) enable the reader to understand both the simple meaning and the nuances in sentence flow of the text.

Number of different words used

The number of distinct words in the Hebrew Bible is 8,679, of which 1,480 arehapax legomena,words or expressions that occur only once. The number of distinctSemitic roots,on which many of these biblical words are based, is roughly 2000.

Books

The Tanakh consists of twenty-four books, counting as one book each1 Samueland2 Samuel,1 Kingsand2 Kings,1 Chroniclesand2 Chronicles,andEzra–Nehemiah.TheTwelve Minor Prophets(תרי עשר) are also counted as a single book. In Hebrew, the books are often referred to by theirprominent first words.

Torah

Main article:Torah

The Torah (תּוֹרָה,literally "teaching" ) is also known as the "Pentateuch", or as the "Five Books of Moses". Printed versions (rather than scrolls) of the Torah are often calledChamisha Chumshei Torah(חמישה חומשי תורה"Five fifth-sections of the Torah" ) and informally asChumash.

• Bərē’šīṯ(בְּרֵאשִׁית,literally "In the beginning" ) –Genesis
• Šəmōṯ(שְׁמֹות,literally "The names of" ) –Exodus
• Vayyīqrā’(וַיִּקְרָא,literally "And He called" ) –Leviticus
• Bəmīḏbar(בְּמִדְבַּר,literally "In the desert of" ) –Numbers
• Dəvārīm(דְּבָרִים,literally "Things" or "Words" ) –Deuteronomy

Nevi'im

Main article:Nevi'im

Nevi'im(נְבִיאִיםNəḇīʾīm,"Prophets" ) is the second main division of the Tanakh, between the Torah andKetuvim.This division includes the books which cover the time from the entrance of the Israelites into theLand of Israeluntil theBabylonian captivityof Judah (the"period of prophecy"). Their distribution is not chronological, but substantive.

TheFormer Prophets(נביאים ראשוניםNevi'im Rishonim)

• Yəhōšúaʿ(יְהוֹשֻעַ) –Joshua
• Šōfṭīm(שֹׁפְטִים) –Judges
• Šəmūʾēl(שְׁמוּאֵל) –Samuel
• Məlāḵīm(מְלָכִים) –Kings

TheLatter Prophets(נביאים אחרוניםNevi'im Aharonim)

• Yəšaʿyāhū(יְשַׁעְיָהוּ) –Isaiah
• Yīrməyāhū(יִרְמְיָהוּ) –Jeremiah
• Yəḥezqēʾl(יְחֶזְקֵאל) –Ezekiel

TheTwelve Minor Prophets(תרי עשר,Trei Asar,"The Twelve" ), which are considered one book:

• Hōšēaʿ(הוֹשֵׁעַ) –Hosea
• Yōʾēl(יוֹאֵל) –Joel
• ʿĀmōs(עָמוֹס) –Amos
• ʿŌḇaḏyā(עֹבַדְיָה) –Obadiah
• Yōnā(יוֹנָה) –Jonah
• Mīḵā(מִיכָה) –Micah
• Naḥūm(נַחוּם) –Nahum
• Ḥăḇaqqūq(חֲבַקּוּק) –Habakkuk
• Ṣəfanyā(צְפַנְיָה) –Zephaniah
• Ḥaggay(חַגַּי) –Haggai
• Zəḵaryā(זְכַרְיָה) –Zechariah
• Malʾāḵī(מַלְאָכִי) –Malachi

Ketuvim

Main article:Ketuvim

Kəṯūḇīm(כְּתוּבִים,"Writings" ) consists of eleven books.

Poetic books

Further information:Sifrei Emet

In Masoretic manuscripts (and some printed editions), Psalms, Proverbs and Job are presented in a special two-column form emphasizing the parallelstichsin the verses, which are a function of theirpoetry.Collectively, these three books are known asSifrei Emet(an acronym of the titles in Hebrew,איוב, משלי, תהליםyieldsEmetאמ "ת,which is also the Hebrew for "truth").

These three books are also the only ones in Tanakh with a special system ofcantillationnotes that are designed to emphasize parallel stichs within verses. However, the beginning and end of the book of Job are in the normal prose system.

• Təhīllīm(תְהִלִּים) –Psalms
• Mīšlē(מִשְׁלֵי) –Proverbs
• ’Īyyōḇ(אִיּוֹב) –Job

Five scrolls

Further information:Five Megillot

The five relatively short books of theSong of Songs,Ruth,Lamentations,Ecclesiastes,andEstherare collectively known as theḤamesh Megillot(Five Megillot).

In many Jewish communities, these books are read aloud in the synagogue on particular occasions, the occasion listed below in parentheses.

• Šīr hašŠīrīm(שִׁיר הַשִּׁירִים) –Song of Songs,also known as Song of Solomon (onPassover)
• Rūṯ(רוּת) –Ruth(onShavuot)
• ’Ēḵā(אֵיכָה) –Lamentations(onTisha B'Av)
• Qōheleṯ(קֹהֶלֶת) –Ecclesiastes(onSukkot)
• ’Esṯēr(אֶסְתֵר) –Esther(onPurim)

Other books

Besides the three poetic books and the five scrolls, the remaining books in Ketuvim areDaniel,Ezra–NehemiahandChronicles.Although there is no formal grouping for these books in the Jewish tradition, they nevertheless share a number of distinguishing characteristics.

• Their narratives all openly describe relatively late events (i.e. the Babylonian captivity and the subsequent restoration of Zion).
• The Talmudic tradition ascribes late authorship to all of them.
• Two of them (Daniel and Ezra) are the only books in Tanakh with significant portions inAramaic.
• Dānīyyē’l(דָּנִיֵּאל) –Daniel
• ‘Ezrā’(עֶזְרָא) –EzraandNehemiah
• Dīvrē hayYāmīm(דִּבְרֵי הַיָּמִים) –Chronicles

Book order

The Jewish textual tradition never finalized the order of the books in Ketuvim. TheTalmudgives their order as Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Lamentations, Daniel, Scroll of Esther, Ezra, Chronicles.This order is roughly chronological (assuming traditional authorship).

InTiberianMasoreticcodices(including theAleppo Codexand theLeningrad Codex), and often in old Spanish manuscripts as well, the order is Chronicles, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations, Esther, Daniel, Ezra.This order is more thematic (e.g. themegillotare listed together).

Number of books

See also:Development of the Hebrew Bible canon

The Hebrew Bible is generally considered to consist of 24 books, but this number is somewhat arbitrary, as (for example) it regards 12 separate books of minor prophets as a single book.The traditional rabbinic count of 24 books appears in theTalmudand numerous works ofmidrash.In several early nonrabbinic sources, the number of books given is 22.This number corresponds to the letters of theHebrew Alpha bet;according toAthanasiusthere were 27 books, corresponding to the Alpha bet with final letter forms (sofiot).

The count of 24 was said to be equal to the number ofpriestly divisions.According to a modern source, the number of books may be related to the division of theIliadandOdysseyinto 24 books, corresponding to the letters of the Greek Alpha bet. Both the Bible and Homer formed "foundational literature" of their respective cultures, studied by children and considered distillations of the society's values. The division of the Bible into 22 books may be a conversion of the Greek system to the Hebrew Alpha bet, while the division into 24 may be an adoption of the "perfect" number 24 as befitting the Bible's stature in Jewish eyes.

Nach

Nach,also anglicizedNakh,refers to theNevi'imandKetuvimportions of Tanakh.Nach is often referred to as its own subject,separate from Torah.

It is a major subject in the curriculum of Orthodox high schools for girls and in the seminaries which they subsequently attend,and is often taught by different teachers than those who teach Chumash.The curriculum of Orthodox high schools for boys includes only some portions of Nach, such as the book of Joshua, the book of Judges,and the Five Megillot. SeeYeshiva § Torah and Bible study.

Translations

Further information:Jewish English Bible translations,Septuagint,Targum,Old Testament,andBible translations

• The Holy Scriptures According to the Masoretic Text: A New Translation with the aid of Previous Versions & with the Constant Consultation of Jewish Authoritieswas published in 1917 by the Jewish Publication Society. It was replaced by theirTanakhin 1985
• Tanakh,Jewish Publication Society, 1985,ISBN0-8276-0252-9
• Tanach: The Stone Edition,Hebrew with English translation, Mesorah Publications, 1996,ISBN0-89906-269-5,named after benefactorIrving I. Stone.
• Tanakh Ram,an ongoing translation to Modern Hebrew (2010–) by Avraham Ahuvya (RAM Publishing House Ltd. and Miskal Ltd.)
• The Living TorahandThe Living Nach,a 1981 translation of the Torah by RabbiAryeh Kaplanand a subsequent posthumous translation of the Nevi'im and Ketuvim following the model of the first volume
• The Koren Jerusalem Bibleis a Hebrew/English Tanakh byKoren Publishers Jerusalemand was the first Bible published in modern Israel in 1962

Jewish commentaries

Main article:Jewish commentaries on the Bible

Hebrew bible (Tanakh) in the collection of theJewish Museum of Switzerland,printed inIsraelin 1962.

The major commentary used for the Chumash is theRashicommentary. The Rashi commentary andMetzudotcommentary are the major commentaries for the Nach.

There are two major approaches to the study of, and commentary on, the Tanakh. In the Jewish community, the classical approach is a religious study of the Bible, where it is assumed that the Bible is divinely inspired.Another approach is to study the Bible as a human creation.In this approach, Biblical studies can be considered as a sub-field of religious studies. The latter practice, when applied to the Torah, is considered heresyby theOrthodox Jewishcommunity.As such, much modern day Bible commentary written by non-Orthodox authors is considered forbiddenby rabbis teaching in Orthodoxyeshivas.Some classical rabbinic commentators, such asAbraham Ibn Ezra,Gersonides,andMaimonides,used many elements of contemporary biblical criticism, including their knowledge of history, science, andphilology.Their use of historical and scientific analysis of the Bible was considered acceptable by historic Judaism due to the author's faith commitment to the idea that God revealed the Torah to Moses on Mount Sinai.

TheModern Orthodox Jewishcommunity allows for a wider array of biblical criticism to be used for biblical books outside of the Torah, and a few Orthodox commentaries now incorporate many of the techniques previously found in the academic world,e.g. theDa'at Miqraseries. Non-Orthodox Jews, including those affiliated with Conservative Judaism and Reform Judaism, accept both traditional and secular approaches to Bible studies. "Jewish commentaries on the Bible",discusses Jewish Tanakh commentaries from theTargumsto classicalrabbinic literature,themidrashliterature, the classical medieval commentators, and modern-day commentaries.

Influence on Christianity

Main article:Development of the Christian Biblical canon

Christianityhas long asserted a close relationship between the Hebrew Bible andNew Testament.InProtestant Bibles,theOld Testamentis the same as the Hebrew Bible, but the books are arranged differently.Catholic BiblesandEastern Orthodox Biblescontain books not included in the Hebrew Bible calledDeuterocanonical books.Protestant English Bibles originally included the Deuterocanonical books, which Protestants term theApocrypha.These books were removed when a slimmed-downKing James Versionwas mass-produced by freeBible societiesout of cost considerations.

The ancient translations of the Hebrew Bible currently used by the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches are based on the Septuagint, which was considered the authoritative scriptural canon by theearly Christians.The Septuagint was influential on early Christianity as it was theHellenistic Greektranslation of the Hebrew Bible primarily used by the1st-centuryChristian authors.

See also

• 613 commandments,formal list of Jewish 613 commandments
• 929: Tanakh B'yachad
• Hebrew University Bible Project
• Mikraot Gedolot
• New Jewish Publication Society of America Tanakh
• Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible
• Weekly Torah portion

References

Footnotes

Sources

Further reading

• Johnson, Paul(1987).A History of the Jews(First, hardback ed.). London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson.ISBN978-0-297-79091-4.
• Kuntz, John Kenneth.The People of Ancient Israel: an introduction to Old Testament Literature, History, and Thought,Harper and Row, 1974.ISBN0-06-043822-3.
• Leiman, Sid.The Canonization of Hebrew Scripture(Hamden, CT: Archon, 1976).
• Levenson, Jon.Sinai and Zion: An Entry into the Jewish Bible(San Francisco: Harper San Francisco, 1985).
• Minkoff, Harvey."Searching for the Better Text".Biblical Archaeology Review (online).Archived fromthe originalon 14 March 2012.Retrieved9 June2011.
• Noth, Martin.A History of Pentateuchal Traditions(1948; trans. by Bernhard Anderson; Atlanta: Scholars, 1981).
• Schmid, Konrad.The Old Testament: A Literary History(Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2012).

External links

• Judaica Press Translation of Tanakh with Rashi's commentaryFree online translation of Tanakh andRashi's entire commentary
• Mikraot Gedolot(Rabbinic Bible) atWikisourceinEnglish(sample)andHebrew(sample)
• A Guide to Reading Nevi'im and Ketuvim– Detailed Hebrew outlines of the biblical books based on the natural flow of the text (rather than thechapter divisions). The outlines include a daily study-cycle, and the explanatory material is in English, by Seth (Avi) Kadish.
• Tanakh Hebrew Bible Project—An online project that aims to present critical text of the Hebrew Bible with important ancient versions (Samaritan Pentateuch, Masoretic Text, Targum Onkelos, Samaritan Targum, Septuagint, Peshitta, Aquila of Sinope, Symmachus, Theodotion, Vetus Latina, and Vulgate) in parallel with new English translation for each version, plus a comprehensive critical apparatus and a textual commentary for every verse.