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Tangut people

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Tangut people
𗼎𗾧
Tangut officials
Regions with significant populations
Western Xia
Languages
Tangut
Religion
Buddhism,Shamanism,Animism
This article containsTanguttext.Without properrendering support,you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbolsinstead ofTangut characters.
Not to be confused withTungusic peoples.

TheTangut people(Tangut:𗼎𗾧,mjɨ nja̱or𗼇𘓐,mji dzjwo;Chinese:Đảng Hạng;pinyin:Dǎngxiàng;Tibetan:མི་ཉག་,Wylie:mi nyak;Mongolian:Тангуд) were aSino-Tibetanpeople who founded and inhabited theWestern Xia dynasty.The group initially lived underTuyuhunauthority,[1]but later submitted to theTang dynasty.After the collapse of Tang dynasty, the Tanguts established the Western Xia. They spoke theTangut language,which was previously believed to be one of theQiangic languagesorYi languageswhich belong to theTibeto-Burmanfamily. "[2]Phylogenetic and historical linguistic accounts, however, reveal that Tangut belonged instead to theGyalrongic branchof Tibeto-Burman.[3][4][5]Western Xia was annihilated by theMongol Empirein 1227, most of its written records and architecture were destroyed. Today the Tangut language and itsunique scriptare extinct; only fragments ofTangut literatureremain.

Language[edit]

Tangut women

TheTangut language,otherwise known asFan,belongs to theTibeto-Burmanbranch of theSino-Tibetanlanguage family. Like many other Sino-Tibetan languages, it is a tonal language with predominantly mono-syllabic roots, but it shares certain grammatical traits central to the Tibeto-Burman branch. It used to be debated as to whether Tangut belonged to theYiorQiangicsubdivision of Tibeto-Burman.[6]The Tanguts, called the Dangxiang (Đảng Hạng;Dǎngxiàng) in Chinese, are typically regarded by Chinese scholars to be synonymous with or at least related to theQiangpeople. Historically, "Qiang" was a collective term for the multiple ethnic groups who lived on the western borderlands of China, including the modernQiang people(Rma). The name Tangut first appears in theOrkhon inscriptionsof 735. In their own Tangut language, the Tanguts called themselvesMi-niah(Miñak). Until the 19th century, the term Minjak was still used to refer to the area inhabited by Qiang people in today's Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture. Speakers of the QiangicMuya languagein westernKangdingcalls themselves Minyak. Geographic names such asMin riverandMin county(Gansu) are pointed to this root.

Appearance[edit]

According toWilliam of Rubruck,who travelled to various parts of theMongol Empirein the 13th century, the Tanguts were valiant and had big swarthy men among them, in contrast to theUyghurs,who were "of medium size, like us".[7]

The Tangut people I saw were tall but swarthy. The Iugurs are of medium build like our own people.[8]

— William of Rubruck

Origin[edit]

See also:Timeline of the Tanguts

The early Tanguts inhabited the steppes and mountains of southeastQinghaiand northwestSichuan.Their home originally was in the highlands of western Sichuan.[9]These regions correspond to theAmdoandKhamregions of the Tibetan plateau. At some point their leaderTuobaChici, who was likely of mixedXianbeiandQiangheritage, submitted to Tang China rule and was bestowed the title of Captain General of Western-Rong and the surname "Li". In the early 8th century, increasing pressure from theTibetan Empirehad forced the Tanguts to migrate north from their homelands in northeasternTibetto the easternOrdos region.By the time of theAn Lushan Rebellion(755–763), the Tanguts were the predominant local power in what is now easternGansu,Ningxia,and northernShaanxi.[10]

History[edit]

Expansion of theWestern Xiadynasty

In 881 the Tanguts, who were subjects of Tang China, assisted Tang in suppressing theHuang Chaorebellion. As a reward the Tang central government granted the Tangut generalLi Sigongthe three prefectures ofXia(Chinese:Hạ châu,Tangut:𘒂𗉔),Sui(Chinese:Tuy châu,Tangut:𗉢𗉔), andYin(Chinese:Bạc châu,Tangut:𘝰𗉔) as hereditary titles under theDingnan Jiedushi.[11]After the collapse of Tang China, multiple warlords started to form new states in the former territories of Tang China. The Tanguts expanded their realm southwest towards their old homelands. In 1002 they conqueredLing Prefectureand set up their first capital there under the name of Xiping.[12]By 1036 they had annexed theGuiyi Circuitand theGanzhou Uyghur Kingdom,even pushing into Tibetan territory and conqueringXining.The state of Western Xia was proclaimed in 1038.[13][11]

Being subjects of Tang China previously for two centuries, the Tangut people adopted many Han/Tang Chinese culture, but also maintained their own customs, as is proven by the vast amount of literature which survived the Tangut state itself.

The Western Xia founder Li Deming's son, Li Yuanhao, enthroned asEmperor Jingzong,sought to differentiate the Tangut state from that of its rival Han-led Song China and started to nurture a national Tangut identity by ordering the creation of an officialTangut scriptand by instituting laws that reinforced traditional Tangut customs. One of the laws he mandated called for citizens to wear traditional ethnic apparel and another required men to wear their hair short or shaved as opposed to the Chinese custom of wearing hair long and knotted. Abandoning the royal Chinese surnames of "Li", previously bestowed by the Tang dynasty Li royal family, and "Zhao", subsequently bestowed by the Song dynasty Zhao royal family, he adopted a Tangut surname𗼨𗆟,rendered in Chinese as "Weiming" (Chinese:Ngôi danh). He made Xingqing (Chinese:Hưng khánh,modernYinchuan) his capital city.

In the thirteenth century,Genghis Khanunified the northern grasslands ofMongoliaand led his troops in six rounds of attacks against the Western Xia over a period of twenty-two years (1205, 1207, 1209–10, 1211–13, 1214–19, 1225–27). During the last spate of the Mongol attacks, Genghis died in Western Xia territory. The official Mongol history attributes his death to illness, whereas legends claim that he died from a wound inflicted in these battles.

In 1227, the capital of Western Xia was overrun by the Mongols, who devastated its buildings and written records: all was burnt to the ground except its monastery. The last emperor was killed and tens of thousands of civilians massacred. However, many Tangut families joined the Mongol Empire. Some of them led Mongol armies, e.g. Cha'an, into the conquest of China. After theYuan dynasty(1271–1368) was established, the Tangut troops were incorporated into the Mongol army in their subsequent military conquests in central and southern China. The Tangut were consideredSemuunder the Yuan class system, thus separating them from the North Chinese. As late as theMing dynasty(1368–1644), there was evidence of small Tangut communities in Anhui and Henan provinces. The people including members of the royal clan emigrated to western Sichuan, northern Tibet, even possibly northeast India, in some instances becoming local rulers.[14][15][16][17]The Tangut people living in Central China preserved their language until at least the 16th century.

Culture[edit]

Tangut society was divided into two classes: the "Red Faced" and the "Black Headed". The Red Faced Tanguts were seen as commoners while the Black Headed Tanguts made up the elitepriestly caste.AlthoughBuddhismwas extremely popular among the Tangut people, many Tangut herdsmen continued to practice a kind ofshamanismknown as Root West (Melie). The black caps worn by Root Westshamansgive the Black Headed caste its name. According to Tangut myth, the ancestor of the Black Headed Tanguts was aheavenly white crane,while the ancestor of the Red Faced Tanguts was a monkey.[18]Tangut kings went by the title of Wuzu.

According to sources in the Tangut language, the Tangut state known now as theWestern Xiawas named𗴂𗹭𗂧𘜶translated as "Great State of White and Lofty" (phôn¹ mbın² lhi̯ə tha²).[19]Although the Chinese translation of this name (Chinese:Bạch cao lớn quốc;pinyin:Báigāo Dàguó) was occasionally used in Tangut sources,[20]the state was most commonly referred to as the "Great Xia" ( đại hạ ) in Chinese-language sources of the Tangut or as the "Xia State" (Chinese:Hạ quốc) to the Song.[21]In later historiography and in modern Chinese the Tangut state is referred to as the "Western Xia" (Xī XiàTây Hạ ). TheMongolsand other steppe tribes referred to the Tangut kingdom as "Qashi" or "Qashin", which was derived from the Middle Chinese name forHexi,the region the Tanguts controlled (Chinese:Hà Tây).

Religion[edit]

TheGolden Light Sutrawritten in theTangut script
Praying Tangut man

The Tanguts were primarily Buddhists. Tangut Buddhism was influenced by external elements. The entireChinese Buddhist canonwas translated into the Tangut language over a span of 50 years and published around 1090 in about 3700 fascicles. Buddhism in the Tangut state is believed to be an amalgamation of Tibetan and Chinese traditions, among which theHuayan-Chantradition ofGuifeng Zongmi(Chinese: Khuê phong tông mật, 780–841) and his masterHuayan Chengguanwas the most influential. A number of texts previously believed to be of native Tangut origin turned out to be translations ofKhitansource texts.[citation needed]The degree of Tibetan impact on the formation of Tangut Buddhism still remains unexplored, especially in the light of new discoveries showing that Tangut Buddhism owed more to the local culture inNorth Chinathan to pure Tibetan or Chinese influences. Texts belonging to the TibetanMahamudratradition demonstrate that Tangut Buddhism initially evolved along theKarma Kagyurather thanSakyalines of Buddhist transmission.

A number of Tangut Buddhist institutions, such as "Imperial Preceptor" survived the Tangut State itself and could be found during theYuan dynasty.One of the more definite sources of Tangut Buddhism wasMount Wutai,where both Huayan andChinese Esoteric Buddhismflourished from the lateTang dynastyup to the time of theMongol conquest.

Solonin (2005: unpaginated) links the Tanguts, theHelan Mountainsand the Chan teachings of bothKim Hwasangand Baotang Wuzhu:

The origins of the Tangut Chan can also be traced deeper than previously believed: information on Bao-tang Wu-zhu ( bảo đường vô trụ 720～794) travels in North-Western China from theNotes on Transmitting the Dharma Treasure through Generationsimplies that at the period of 760's some sort of Buddhism was spread in the region of Helanshan, where the Tangut were already residing. Concerning the late 8th century Helanshan Buddhism, little can be said: the doctrines of the lu ( luật ) school and the teaching of Sichuan Chan of Rev. Kim ( kim hòa thượng ) seem to be known there.[22]

Worship ofConfucianismalso existed in the Western Xia, which has led to some[who?]claims that the Tangut religion was rooted in Confucianism, but this was incomparable with the degree of popularity of Buddhism. Tangut literature is dominated by Buddhist scriptures while secular teachings including theChinese classicswere rarely available in the Tangut language.

The Tangut state enforced strict laws pertaining to the teaching of religious beliefs and rigorously screened potential teachers. Before he was allowed to teach, a newcomer entering the state from Tibet or India first had to seek the approval of local authorities. Doctrines taught and methods used were carefully supervised to ensure there was no possibility that the Tangut people might misunderstand the teachings. Anyone found to be a fortune-teller or charlatan faced immediate persecution. Deeming it contrary to Buddhist ethical beliefs, the Tangut state strictly forbade religious teachers from accepting compensation or reward for their teaching services.

Although the state did not support an official school of Buddhism, it did protect all religious sites and objects within the country's boundaries.

As in China, becoming aBuddhist monkrequired government approval and anyone found to have taken the vows of a monk without such government oversight faced severe punishment. Remarkably for the time, women played a role in Tangut religious practices by serving asnuns,a position that could only be held by a woman who had been widowed or who was an unmarried virgin.[citation needed]

Suchan (1998) traces the influence of the first severalKarmapasupon the Yuan andMingcourts as well as the Western Xia, and mentionsDüsum Khyenpa, 1st Karmapa Lama:

The first several Karmapas are distinguished by their important status at the Yuan and Ming courts of China where they served as the spiritual guides to princes and emperors. Their influence also extended to the court of the Tangut Xia Kingdom where a disciple of Dusum Khyenpa was given the title "Supreme Teacher" by a Tangut Xixia King[.][23][24]

After the fall of the Western Xia, the influx of refugees into Tibet led to the adoption of thePehar deityintoTibetan Buddhism,eventually in the important role as the state oracle, theNechung Oracle.[25]

Gallery[edit]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^Skaff 2012,p. 38.
  2. ^van Driem, George (2001).Handbuch Der Orientalistik.BRILL.ISBN90-04-12062-9.
  3. ^Sagart et al. (2019).
  4. ^Lai et al. (2020).
  5. ^Beaudouin (2023).
  6. ^Vovin 2020,p. 162-163.
  7. ^Rockhill 1967,p. 152.
  8. ^Jackson 1990,p. 159.
  9. ^Waugh, Daniel C."The Tanguts".depts.washington.edu.RetrievedMarch 24,2023.
  10. ^Vovin 2020,p. 7.
  11. ^abBeckwith 2009,p. 171.
  12. ^Beckwith 2009,p. 172.
  13. ^Skaff 2012,p. 236.
  14. ^"Tây Hạ pháp chế địa lý — về Khiết Đan, Đảng Hạng cùng Nữ Chân di duệ vấn đề ( tam )".Archived fromthe originalon 2011-07-07.Retrieved2010-03-07.
  15. ^Đảng ích dân: Đảng Hạng Khương văn minh cùng Tây Hạ mai một chi mê
  16. ^《 vương tộc bóng dáng 》 tác giả: Đường vinh Nghiêu
  17. ^eds. Franke, Herbert & Twitchett, Denis (1995).The Cambridge History of China: Vol. VI: Alien Regimes & Border States, 907–1368.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 214.
  18. ^Keping, Xenia. "Black Headed and Red Faced Tanguts." Kepping 0th ser. 0.1 (2004). KEPPING.NET. Russian Orthodox Mission In China, 2004. Web. 5 Mar. 2016. <http://kepping.net/pdfs/works/The_Black-headed_and_the_Red-faced.pdf>
  19. ^Kepping, Ksenia(1994). "The name of the Tangut Empire".T'oung Pao.2nd.80(4–5). trans.George van Driem:357–376.doi:10.1163/156853294X00151.
  20. ^Fan Qianfeng phàn tiên phong.Tây Hạ vương lăng[Western Xia Imperial Tombs] (in Chinese).Xinhua News Agency.Archived fromthe originalon 2012-03-20.Retrieved2012-04-18.
  21. ^Dunnell, Ruth W. (1996).The Great State of White and High: Buddhism and State Formation in Eleventh-Century Xia.University of Hawaii Press.ISBN9780824817190.
  22. ^Solonin, K. J. (2005),Tangut Chan Buddhism and Guifeng Zong-miArchived2015-02-12 at theWayback Machine,Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal, No. 11, (1998). Taipei: Chung-Hwa Institute of Buddhist Studies.ISSN1017-7132
  23. ^Rhie, Marylin & Thurman, Robert (1991).Wisdom and Compassion.New York: Harry N. Abrams. p. 236.
  24. ^Suchan, Tom (1998). The Third Karmapa Lama, Rang Jung Dorje (T: Rang 'Byung rDo rJe). Source:[1](accessed: January 29, 2008)
  25. ^Buswell, Robert Jr;Lopez, Donald S. Jr.(2014).The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism.Princeton University Press. p. 638.ISBN978-0-691-15786-3.

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External links[edit]

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