Tattooing in China

Tattoos(Chinese:Hình xăm;pinyin:cì qīng) have a long history inChina.The Chinese word for tattooing ( xăm mình ) means "applying ink to the body". Tattoos are represented in early Chinese texts, including histories, dynasticpenal codes,zhiguai xiaoshuoandbijiworks, and early prose works such as theShangshu.

Three major categories can be used to categorize Chinese tattoo designs: theChinese brush paintingstyle, theChinese realistic paintingstyle, and the "watercolor splash ink" (Màu nước vẩy mực) style. All three categories strongly feature the Chinesenational colors.

History

Lü Xingis an ancient Chinese book that records legal principles, judicial system, and atonement.

Tattoos have been documented since theancientShangdynasty,when theZhourefugeesWu TaiboandZhongyongwere recorded cutting their hair and tattooing themselves to gain the acceptance of theJīngmánpeople(tKinh man,sKinh man)of theYangtze River Deltaprior to the establishment of thestateofWu.

Within the context ofConfucianism,the 4th or 3rd century BCClassic of Filial PietyhasConfuciustelling his discipleZengzithat "Your body, including your hair and skin, has been received from your father and mother, and you should not dare to harm or destroy it. This is the beginning offilial piety."Apart from enjoining the maintenance of long hair and prohibitingsuicidein most contexts, this injunction has generally been understood as prohibiting the use of tattoos as disrespectful towards one's parents andancestors.

Han Chinese tattooing reached an apex of historical development during theTang dynasty,but became increasingly rejected by mainstream society throughout the subsequentSong dynasty.Tattooing went underground during theMongolYuan dynastyand steadily decreased in popularity over theMingandManchuQingeras. In China, this culture has been passed down for thousands of years, although few people are aware of it nowadays.

An early use of punitive tattooing comes from theLü Xing(《 Lữ hình 》;Lü Xing;'Lü on Punishments'')—a chapter of the ancient Chinese textShangshu—which describes a penal code consisting oflegal principles,thejudicial system,andatonementfrom the Western Zhou Dynasty.King Mu of Zhouordered his vassal Lord Lü (Lữ hầu) to formulate theLü Xing.It lists the "Five Punishments":the five primary penalties employed by ancient Chinese officials on criminals.The first (and least severe) of these punishments was the tattooing of the criminal's face with indelible ink. This punishment was known asmò( mặc ) orqíng( xăm ),and latercalledmò xíng( mặc hình ) orrù mò( nhập mặc ).

Qingling,often known as "branding the face", has been used to tattoo the faces of convicts since before theQin dynasty.

In ancientChinese classic literature,there were different types of tattoos, includinglòu shēn(Khắc thân;'tattoo the body'),zhā qīng( trát thanh ),diǎn qīng( điểm thanh ), anddiāo qīng(Điêu thanh;'carving'),among others. Sometimes, tattoos were a warning, such as in the story of Yue Mu Ci Zi ( nhạc mẫu thứ tự ).Gradually, tattoos became a kind of personal decoration. For example, in the 16th-century novelWater Margin,one of theFour Masterworks,there are at least three important characters with tattoos: the Hua monkLu Zhishen,the Nine stripes Long Shijin, and the prodigal sonYan Qing.

Linguistic origin

The characterVăn;wénis apictogram,the oldest of thesix categories of Chinese characters(Lục thư;Lục thư;liùshū;'Six Writings'). The character was first seen inoracle bone script,where it resembles a standing human figure: the top end is the head, below the head are the arms extending to the left and right, and at the bottom are the two legs. Instances of this character also contain different graphical patterns in their centers.

TheChinese bronze inscriptionsof the character văn are basically the same as those of the oracle bone script. In thesmall seal script,the character omits the pattern on the chest. After the change toclerical script,the character became further abstracted, and similar to its modern version.

One early meaning of the characterVăn;wénwas "interlaced patterns" or "intertwined drawings".When used as a verb, it is interpreted as to tattoo a pattern or design on the skin, such as in (Hành văn thợ;writing craftsman, writer) and (Xăm mình đoạn phát;Xăm mình đoạn phát;tattoo breaking hair). An early source of its usage is "The System of Kings" in theBook of Rites(Lễ Ký · vương chế;Liji Wangzhi):

Phương đông rằng di, bị gửi công văn đi thân, có không hỏa thực giả rồi.

The people living in the East are calledYi ( di ).They shave their heads and tattooed their bodies. Some of them do not cook their food.

Here, the wordVăn;wénmeans ‘tattoo’. Later generations added the radical mịch ( "silk, thread" ), to help distinguish this meaning from other words it represented, resulting in the characterVăn;Văn;wén;'pattern'.

In Derung culture

TheDerung peopleare one of the least populous ethnic minorities in China. The area in which they live, in northwestYunnanProvince, lies within theGaoligongshan National Nature Reserveand theThree Parallel RiversWorld Heritage Site. The Derung are listed as a National Intangible Cultural Heritage,and are one of the few ethnic groups that still retain traditions such asgroup marriagefamilies andanimism.One unique cultural practice of the Derung people is the tattooing of young women, who sometimes are referred to as the "last tattooed women" in China.

Derung girls receive facial tattoos upon reaching theirjīnchāiyear (Tuổi cài trâm;jīnchāi zhīnián;in ancient times, when a woman was twelve years old) to symbolize reaching adulthood. The process of tattooing involves tracing unique patterns insootwith a bamboo stick around the eyebrows, nose, cheeks, and mouth, and then using a thorn or needle to prick along the patterns. With every prick, blood is wiped away andashor grass juice is applied so it can enter the prick wound. The pinpricks are small, so it can take at least ten days to complete the tattoo.After scabbing, there will be permanent blue and purple marks on the face.

There are three potential origins for the custom of tattooing the faces of Derung women:

1. Historically, theTibetanchieftain( Tây Tạng thổ ty ) Chawalong ( sát ngói long )collectedtributefrom the Derung people every year. If the people could not pay, Derung women were taken from their hometowns and enslaved instead. To avoid enslavement, women resorted toself-mutilationand passive self-rescue, such as by smearing their cheeks with pot smoke or tattooing their face, to frighten their would-be captors. Over time, the custom of tattooing on the face was formed.
2. The custom may have been connected to the uniquetotemworship of the Derung people, which has since disappeared.
3. The custom may have originated as a symbol of beauty. There are only a few people left alive who are known as the "last tattooed women", and they have become the "wealth" of Dulong gian g that is disappearing.

The first theory is the most likely. In the past two or three hundred years, Tibetan chieftains andLisuslave owners have continuously penetrated the Derung area and ruthlessly exploited and squeezed the Derung people.

Significance in ancient China

In ancient times, tattoos were associated with a variety of customs and attributes, including beauty, tribal identity,social hierarchy,andalliances.

As early as primitive times, people would use white mud or charcoal to draw lines on their bodies and faces, as a way to beautify themselves or frighten their enemies.Clay,oil,and plant juice were also used for their perceived medicinal or physiological benefits to the body. For example, the ancientYilou people"smeared their bodies with pork fat in winter to keep out the cold" ( đông lấy thỉ cao đồ thân lấy ngự phong hàn ).Gradually, this custom became associated with beauty.

The scars left by wounds in battle andhuntingwere considered by women to be symbolic of brave and magnificent men, which made residual body decoration popular.

In some cases, people paintedtotemanimals on their skin.These totemic designs represented tribal ancestors or symbolic creatures, and often became closely associated with tribal identity.For example, the ancientYueethnic group is known for tattooing their bodies. In one tribe, a dragon pattern may have originated from acrocodile,which the people may have feared and worshipped.Another custom was the "Tattoo to avoidJiao-loong"( xăm mình để tránh giao long chi hại ), as recorded in someancient books.

Another significance of the tattoo for prehistoric peoples was the right to havesex.Tattoos were often connected to coming-of-age customs, which signified reaching adulthood and thus the possibility of having sex. This also implies these societies upheld a sexual age limit.

Significance in modern China

Tattooed person inHong Kong

Although the practice ofmò xíng( mặc hình; tattooing the faces of criminals) has long since disappeared, there still remains a traditional consensus in China that tattoos are a sign of bad people. Tattoos are still used by gangs and criminals, which exacerbates the stigma of tattoos.

In some groups, tattoos represent courage or social recognition. Inunderworldgangs,tattooing can be a test of membership. This has led to associations between tattoos and the criminal underworld. In modernHong Kong,gang members usually have a greendragonon the left arm and awhite tigeron the right arm; this has led to the phrase "left green dragon, right white tiger" ( tả Thanh Long, hữu Bạch Hổ ) to represent the underworld.

In films and television during the early days ofChinese economic reform,characters representing the underworld, evil forces, and social evil often had tattoos on their bodies. An especially influential example was the 1996Hong Kong movieYoung and Dangerous—the rebellious characters Shanji ( gà rừng ) and Haonan ( hạo nam ) became very prominent in popular culture, and images of them half-tattooed and holdingmachetesspread widely. Under the influence of film (and televisionpropaganda), tattoos during that period were almost synonymous with the underworld, and therefore even less respectable in mainstream society.

Additionally, tattoos have a poor reputation because they run counter to standard domesticConfucian philosophy.

Thân thể tóc da, nhận từ cha mẹ, không dám phá hoại, hiếu chi thủy cũng

Everything on the body is given by the parents, and there must be no damage in the slightest. It means that loving the body is like loving the parents.

Even lost hair and nails should be carefully collected and preserved,not to mention skin-destroying tattoos. Even in the eyes ofscholar-bureaucrats,tattoos (like haircuts) are the only things that "barbarians"are keen on. Under the influence of Confucian culture, which has always been critical of tattoos, tattoos are ‘alternative’ and ‘non-mainstream’ in the eyes of Chinese people.

In recent decades, however, acceptance of tattoos has become more common. With the improvement of the Chinese economy, the development of tattoo technology, and the penetration of foreign cultures, the attitude of Chinese domestic society towards tattoos is much more tolerant than before.Tattoo enthusiasts form associations and holdexhibitionsregularly. Tattoo designs are regarded as social artworks, and famous tattoo masters are regarded asartists;there are evensociologicaloranthropologicalscholars who also study this culture from a popular perspective. Especially among thepost-80sandpost-90sgenerations, who grew up in an open environment, tattoos have taken on new meaning, and no longer have only negative associations. Tattoos now represent more than just identity distinction, and have personal meanings such as commemoration, publicity, belief, beauty, and fashion.

Styles

Chinese brush painting style

Ink wash painting(Tranh thuỷ mặc;Tranh thuỷ mặc;shuǐmòhuà) is a form of traditionalChinese brush paintingwhich uses only water andink.Rich, atmospheric, and evocative images are produced by varying the focus, distribution, and concentration of the ink. "Ink is color" ( mặc tức là sắc ) means representing changes in color with changes in ink intensity. "Ink is divided into five colors" ( mặc phân ngũ sắc ) means that differenthuescan be represented by layering thin washes of ink.

This style can be vividly displayed on silky skin as an ‘ink and washes’ tattoo. In this style, the intensity of a single color of ink (often black) is varied to represent changes inhue,saturation,andvalue.It focuses on the overall "vivid charm" ( ý vị sinh động ) of the picture, and emphasizing the subjective interest of the creator, rather than realistic accuracy. It is meant to "convey the spirit with images" ( lấy hình viết thần ) and pursue a sense of "the beauty is between the likeness and the non-likeness".The imagery is elegant and broad, including natural elements such as flowers, grass, fish, birds, and the sun, moon, and stars. Different from theexaggerationfound inAmerican tattoo stylesand the visual impact ofJapanese tattoo styles,Chinese brush painting tattoos apply the strength and strokes of Chinese calligraphy to create images that are soft, peaceful, and unique.

This style of tattoo is difficult to produce, and requires different technology.Because ink and wash are like a cloud of fog, without clear boundaries, tattoo artists cannot cut lines, draw outlines, and block color like other styles of tattoos. This requires the artist to deeply understand the tattoo's graphical structure and have high technical ability.

Chinese realistic painting style

The traditional style ofChinese realistic paintingadvocatesrealism,accuracy, carefulness, and neatness. It is characterized by defining forms with lines via fine brushwork which is neat, delicate, and rigorous. Usually, center pens(Trung phong;zhōng fēng) are used. Generally, the style is bright, calm, elegant, with unified colors, and has a strong aesthetic interest in the Chinesenational colors.

In this style of tattoo, the characteristics of fine brushwork are applied to the tattoo patterns. Meticulous and delicate painting techniques are reflected in the tattoo's details. Also, an understanding of traditional painting composition and human anatomy are combined in the placement of the tattoo. This style of tattoo has certain requirements on theenduranceand technical brushwork skills of the tattoo artist.

Watercolor splash ink style

The "watercolorsplash ink "( màu nước vẩy mực ) style is similar to the Chinese brush painting style in artistic conception, but differs in its use of multiple colors. In this style, the usage of water to" smudge "colors and the layering of colors produces special effects, similar to a traditional watercolor painting.

Laws and regulations

Chinese lawhas nomandatorynorms for adult tattooing, as long as the individual has reached the age of 18 and has full capacity for civil conduct. The law does not place any restrictions on tattoos; it is completely determined by the individual according to circumstances and voluntary choice. However, some work units—such asconscription,government agencies,orpublic institutions—do not recruit people with tattoos.

According to Article 4 ofSpecial Medical Examination Standards for Civil Servants Employment (Trial)—jointly formulated by theMinistry of Human Resources and Social Security,Ministry of Health,andNational Civil Service Administration—civil servantswith special requirements of physical condition are not qualified to have tattoos.(Tattoo refers to the skin tattooed with "dots, words, patterns", or despite surgical treatment, still have obvious tattooscars.)Additionally, theInternal Affairs Regulations of the People's Police of Public Security Organs(Chapter 4, Article 37), issued by theMinistry of Public Security,mentions that "tattoos shall not be allowed" for police officers.

Citizens with tattoos are eligible for conscription only under certain circumstances. According to thePhysical Examination Standards for Citizens Eligible(Chapter 1, Article 11), issued by theMinistry of National Defense,people with face or neck tattoos, with tattoos larger than 3cm on other visible body parts (not covered by theirmilitary uniform), or with tattoos larger than 10cm (anywhere), are not eligible.

In sports, theAdministrative Measures for National Team Playersof theChinese Football Association,revised by theGeneral Administration of Sport of China,also forbids tattoos: "Athletes of the national team and the U23 national team are forbidden to have new tattoos. [...] Tattooed athletes are not allowed to be drafted into the U20 national team and the national teams..."It also advises players with preexisting tattoos to have their tattoos removed, or, if permitted by the team, covered during training and competitions.

According to theWorking Measures for the Treatment of Tattoos for Minorsissued by the Office of the Leading Group for the Protection of Minors underThe State Councilof the Ministry of Civil Affairs: "Any enterprise, organization, or individual in China shall not provide tattoo services tominors... coerce, lure, or instill minors to get tattoos, and shall not publish, broadcast, paste, or distribute anyadvertisementthat contains contents that induce minors to get tattoos... [T]he state, society, schools, and families should educate and help minors to fully understand the possible harm caused by tattoos, enhance their awareness and ability to protect themselves, and rationally refuse tattoos. The guardian of a minor shall promptly dissuade the minor from getting a tattoo. "