Tejanos
![]() | |
Total population | |
---|---|
9,530,419(people of Mexican origin; 2020 Census)[1] | |
Regions with significant populations | |
Texas(especiallyEl Paso,San Antonio,andSouth Texas),Louisiana(Los Adaes) | |
Languages | |
Texan Spanish,Texan English,Spanglish | |
Religion | |
PredominantlyRoman Catholic | |
Related ethnic groups | |
Tejanos(/teɪˈhɑːnoʊz/,[2]Spanish:[teˈxanos]) are descendants ofTexas CreolesandMestizoswho settled inTexasbefore its admission as an American state.[3]The term is also sometimes applied to Texans of Mexican descent.[4][5]
Etymology
[edit]The wordTejano,with aJinstead ofX,comes from the Spanish interpretation of the originalCaddoindigenous wordTayshas,which means "friend" or "ally".[2]
Texas Creoles
[edit]In colonial Texas, the term "Creole" (criollo) distinguished old-world Africans and Europeans from their descendants born in the new world, Creoles; they composed the citizen class ofNew Spain's Tejas province.[6][7][8]
Texas Creole culture revolved around "ranchos"(Tejano ranches), attended mostly byvaqueros(cowboys) of African, Spaniard, or Mestizo descent who established a number of settlements in southeastern Texas and western Louisiana (e.g.Los Adaes).[6][7][9][10]
BlackTexas Creoles have been present in Texas ever since the 17th century; they served as soldiers in Spanish garrisons of eastern Texas. Generations of Black Texas Creoles, also known as "Black Tejanos", played a role in later phases of Texas history: Mexican Texas, Republic of Texas, and American Texas.[8]
History
[edit]History ofTexas | ||||||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
![]() | ||||||||||||||||||
Timeline | ||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||||||
![]() | ||||||||||||||||||
Spanish government and Mexican Texas
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Ranchero_de_Texas%2C_1828.jpg/248px-Ranchero_de_Texas%2C_1828.jpg)
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Frederic_Remington_-_The_Mier_Expedition-_The_Drawing_of_the_Black_Bean_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/300px-Frederic_Remington_-_The_Mier_Expedition-_The_Drawing_of_the_Black_Bean_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg)
As early as 1519,Alonso Álvarez de Pinedaclaimed the area which is now Texas forSpain.The Spanish monarchy paid little attention to the province until 1685. In that year, the Crown learned of a French colony in the region and worried that it might threaten Spanish colonialminesand shipping routes.King Carlos IIsent ten expeditions to find the French colony, but they were unsuccessful. Between 1690 and 1693 expeditions were made to the Texas region, and they acquired better knowledge of it for the provincial government and the settlers who came later.[11]
Tejano settlements developed in three distinct regions: the northernNacogdochesregion, theBexar–Goliadregion along theSan Antonio River,and the frontier between theNueces Riverand the Rio Grande, an area used largely for ranching. These populations shared certain characteristics, yet they were independent of one another. The main unifying factor was their shared responsibility for defending the northern frontier ofNew Spain.Some of the first settlers wereIsleñosfrom theCanary Islands.Their families were among the first to reside at thePresidio San Antonio de Bexarin 1731, which is modern-day San Antonio, Texas.
Ranchingwas a major activity in the Bexar-Goliad area, which consisted of a belt of ranches that extended along the San Antonio River between Bexar (San Antonioarea) andGoliad.TheNacogdochessettlement was located farther north and east. Tejanos from Nacogdoches traded with the French and Anglo residents of Louisiana, and they were culturally influenced by them. The third settlement was located north of the Rio Grande, toward the Nueces River. The ranchers were citizens ofSpanish originfromTamaulipasand (what is now) northern Mexico, and they identified with SpanishCriolloculture.[12]
On September 16, 1810,Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla,a Catholic priest, launched the Mexican War of Independence with the issuing of hisGrito de Dolores,or “Cry of Delores.” He marched across Mexico and gathered an army of nearly 90,000 poor farmers and civilians. These troops ran up into an army of 6,000 well-trained and armed Spanish troops; most of Hidalgo's troops fled or were killed at the Battle of Calderón Bridge.[13]Bernardo Gutiérrez de Lara,a believer in independence from Spain, organized a revolution army together with José Menchaca from the Villa de San Fernando de Bejar. After the defeat and execution of Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, Gutiérrez de Lara traveled to Washington, D.C. to request help from the United States. He requested an audience with PresidentJames Madison,but was refused. He did meet with Secretary of State James Monroe, who was busy planning the invasion of Canada in the War against Great Britain. On December 10, 1810, Gutiérrez de Lara addressed the United States House of Representatives. There was no official help by the United States government to the revolution. However, Gutiérrez de Lara did return with financial help, weapons and almost 700 "ex-United States Army veterans".
Gutiérrez de Lara's army would defeat the Spanish army and the first independent Republic of Texas, "the Green Republic" was born with the Declaration of Independence. Spain had reinforced their armies in the colonies and a well-equipped army led by General Juaquin de Arredondo known as the "El Carnicero," invaded the Green Republic of Tejas. During the time of the Republic, the SpaniardJosé Álvarez de Toledo y Duboishad been undermining Gutiérrez de Lara's government. Toledo was successful and de Lara was ousted. Toledo then led the Republican Army of the North (the Green Army) into a trap against the Spanish army and no prisoners were taken by the Spanish at the Battle of Medina. The Spanish army would march into San Antonio, rounding up everyone they could find from Nacogdoches to El Espiritu de Santo (Goliad) and bringing them to San Antonio. The Spanish murdered four males a day for 270 days, eradicating the Tejano population and leaving the women when the Spanish army left in 1814. Toledo returned to Spain, a Spanish hero.[14][15]
In January 1840, the northern Mexican states ofNuevo León,Coahuila,andTamaulipasseceded from Mexico to establish theRio Grande Republic,with its capital in what is nowLaredo, Texas,but became part of Mexico again in November 1840.
Republic of Texas
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Juan_seguin.jpg)
By 1821 at the end of theMexican War of Independence,about 4,000 Tejanos lived in Mexican Texas, alongside a lesser number of foreign settlers. In addition, several thousand New Mexicans lived in the areas of Paso del Norte (nowEl Paso, Texas) andNuevo Santander,incorporatingLaredoand theRio Grande Valley.
During the 1820s, many settlers from the United States and other nations moved toMexican Texas,settling mostly in the eastern area. The passage of a national colonization law encouraged immigration, granting the immigrants citizenship if they declared loyalty to Mexico. By 1830, the 30,000 recent settlers in Texas (who were primarily English speakers from the United States) outnumbered the Hispanos Tejano six to one.[16]
TheTexiansand Tejano alike rebelled against attempts by the government to centralize authority inMexico Cityand other measures implemented bySanta Anna.[17][18][19]Tensions between the central Mexican government and the settlers eventually resulted in theTexas Revolution.
20th century
[edit]In 1915, insurgents in south Texas wrote a manifesto that was circulated in the town ofSan Diegoand all acrossSouth Texas.The manifesto "Plan de San Diego"called on Mexicans, American Indians, Blacks, Germans, and Japanese to liberate south Texas and kill their racist white American oppressors. Numerous cross-border raids, murders, and sabotage took place. Some Tejanos strongly repudiated the Plan. According to Benjamin H. Johnson, middle class Mexicans born in the US desirous of affirming their loyalty to the United States resulted in their founding theLeague of United Latin American Citizens(LULAC). It was headed by professionals, business leaders, and progressives, and it became the central Tejano organization promoting civic pride and civil rights.[20]
Other sources attribute the founding of the organization in 1929 largely to Tejano veterans of World War I, who wanted to improve civil rights for Mexican-American citizens of the United States. They were socially discriminated against in Texas. Only American citizens were admitted as members to LULAC, and there was an emphasis on people becoming educated and assimilated in order to advance.[21][22]
In 1963, Tejanos inCrystal Cityorganized politically and won elections; their candidates dominated the city government and the school board. Their activism signaled the emergence of modern Tejano politics.[23]In 1969–70, a different Tejano coalition, theLa Raza Unida Party,came to office in Crystal City. The new leader wasJosé Ángel Gutiérrez,a radical nationalist who worked to form a Chicano nationalist movement across the Southwest, 1969–79. He promoted cultural terminology (Chicano,Aztlan) designed to unite the militants; but his movement split into competing factions in the late 1970s.[24]
Demographics
[edit]Most Tejanos are concentrated insouthern Texas,in historic areas of Spanish colonial settlement and closer to the border that developed. The city ofSan Antoniois the historic center of Tejano culture.[5]During theSpanish colonial period of Texas,most colonial settlers of northernNew Spain– including Texas, northern Mexico, and the American Southwest – were descendants of Spaniards.[25]
Although the number of Tejanos whose families have lived in Texas since before 1836 is unknown, it was estimated that 5,000 Tejano descendants ofSan Antonio's Canarian founderslived in the city in 2008.[26]The community of Canarian descent still maintains the culture of their ancestors.
Tejanos may identify as being ofMexican,Chicano,Mexican American,Spanish,Hispano,Americanand/or Indigenous ancestry.[27][28]In urban areas, as well as some rural communities, Tejanos tend to be well integrated into both the Hispanic and mainstream American cultures. Especially among younger generations, a number identify more with the mainstream and may understand little or noSpanish.
Most of the people whose ancestors colonized Texas and the northernMexican statesduring the Spanish colonial period identified with theSpaniards,Criollos,orMestizoswho were born in the colony. Many of the latter find their history and identity in thehistory of Spain,Mesoamericaand thehistory of the United States.Spain's colonial provinces(Spanish TexasandSpanish Louisiana) participated on the side of the rebels in theAmerican Revolutionary War.
Ethnic and national origins
[edit]This sectionneeds additional citations forverification.(October 2020) |
In the 2007American Community Survey(ACS) data, [29]Tejanos are defined as those Texans descended from colonists of the Spanish colonial period (before 1821), or descended from IndigenousSpanish Mexicans,and indigenous Mexicans.[30]
Culture
[edit]Music
[edit]GenuineTejano musicis descended from a mixture of German and Czechoslovakian polka and oom papa sounds and Mexican Spanish strings, and is similar to the French folk music of Louisiana, known as "Cajun music",blended with the sounds of rock and roll, R&B, pop, and country, and with Mexican influences such as conjunto music. Narciso Martinez is the father of Conjunto Music, followed by the legendary Santiago Jimenez (Father of Flaco Jimenez). Sunny and the Sunglows lead the rock and roll era in the 1950s along with Little Joe, and Rudy Guerra, who were originators of the Rock and roll portion of genre. Today Tejano music is a wide array of multi cultural genres including Rockteno and Tejano Rap. The American cowboy culture and music was born from the meeting of the European-American Texians, Indigenous people, colonists mostly from the American South, and the original Tejano pioneers and theirvaquero,or "cowboy" culture.[31][32][33][34]
Food
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Burrito_with_rice.jpg/220px-Burrito_with_rice.jpg)
The cuisine that would come to be known as "Tex-Mex" originated with the Tejanos. It developed fromSpanishand North American indigenous commodities with influences fromMexican cuisine.[35]
Tex-Mex cuisine is characterized by its widespread use of meltedcheese,meat(particularlybeef),peppers,beans,andspices,in addition tocornorflourtortillas.Chili con carne,burritos,carne asada,chalupa,chili con queso,enchiladas,andfajitasare all Tex-Mex specialties. A common feature of Tex-Mex is the combination plate, with several of the above on one large platter. Servingtortilla chipsand ahot sauceorsalsaas an appetizer is also a Tex-Mex development.[36]Cabrito,barbacoa,carne seca,and other products ofcattleculture have been common in theranchingcultures ofSouth Texasand northern Mexico. In the 20th century, Tex-Mex took onAmericanizedelements such as yellow cheese, as goods from the rest of the United States became cheap and readily available.[37]Tex-Mex has imported flavors from other spicy cuisines, such as the use ofcumin.Cumin is often referred to by its Spanish name,comino.
A common Tex-Mex breakfast dish served is a "breakfast taco." This usually consists of a flour tortilla or corn tortilla served using a single fold. This is in contrast to the burrito-style method of completely encasing the ingredients. Some of the typical ingredients used are a combination of:eggs,potatoes,cheese, peppers,bacon,sausage,and barbacoa. Breakfast tacos are traditionally served with an optionalred or green salsa.[38]
Politics
[edit]Historically, the majority of the Tejano population in South Texas had voted forDemocratssince the first half of the 20th century. The2020 United States presidential electionwas considered a turning point in their political support, as part of a "red tide"for South Texas, whereRepublicancandidateDonald Trumpperformed better in areas associated with Tejano population than during former elections.Zapatawas the only county that turned majority Republican from Democratic in South Texas, whileStarr Countysaw the strongest pro-Trump swing of any county in the U.S., a 55% increase compared to the2016 election.[39]
Tejanos are noted to be more supportive of the Republican Party than other Latino populations in Texas. Politically, Tejanos have been compared toCuban Americans in MiamiandVenezuelan Americans,who also disproportionately vote for Republican candidates among Latino voters.The New York Timesattributed the relative success of Donald Trump among the Tejano community to concerns about regional economy, which is based ongasandoil.The Wall Street Journaldescribed concerns about possible unemployment caused byCOVID-19 lockdownsas another source of Republican Tejano support. Reporter Jack Herrera argues that Tejanos are culturally conservative and identify with Republican positions ongun rights,Christianity, and abortion.[39]Also Tejanos are more likely to beEvangelical ProtestantsthanRoman Catholics,the latter denomination in which most Latinos across the US identify as being part of.[40]
Notable people
[edit]Lists of Americans |
---|
By US state |
By ethnicity |
Tejanos of colonial origin or descent
[edit]- Gaspar Flores de Abrego
- Ignacio Lorenzo de Armas
- Simón de Arocha
- Rosa María Hinojosa de Ballí
- Santos Benavides
- José Tomás Canales
- José María Jesús Carbajal
- Henri Castro
- Josef Centeno
- Mariana W. de Coronel
- Juan Curbelo (Tejano settler)
- Juan José Elguézabal
- Blas María de la Garza Falcón
- Manuel N. Flores
- Salvador Flores
- Carlos de la Garza
- José Antonio de la Garza
- Rafael Gonzales
- Damacio Jiménez
- Juan Leal
- Eva Longoria[41]
- Selena Quíntinilla-Pérez
- Antonio Rodríguez Medero
- Antonio Menchaca
- Juan Moya
- Ramón Músquiz
- Jose Antonio Navarro
- Antonio de Olivares
- Salvador Rodríguez (regidor)
- Francisco Antonio Ruiz
- José Francisco Ruiz
- Salvador Rodríguez
- Don Tomás Sánchez
- Juan Seguín
- Erasmo Seguín
- Vicente Álvarez Travieso
- José de Urrutia
- Jaci Velasquez
- Juan Martin de Veramendi
- Tomás Felipe de Winthuisen
- Antonio Gil Ybarbo
- Ignacio Zaragoza
- Lorenzo de Zavala
- Adina Emilia De Zavala
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^US Census Bureau: Table QT-P10 Hispanic or Latino by Type: 2020Retrieved July 13, 2022.
- ^ab"Definition of TEJANO".merriam-webster.Retrieved2021-09-30.
- ^Gerald E. Poyo; Gilberto M. Hinojosa (2011).Tejano Origins in Eighteenth-Century San Antonio.Macquarie University. University of Texas Press. p. 222.
- ^"Encyclopedia of the Great Plains | TEJANOS".plainshumanities.unl.edu.Retrieved2022-04-30.
- ^ab"TSHA | Tejano".tshaonline.org.Retrieved2022-04-30.
- ^abAndrew Delbanco (2019).The War Before the War Fugitive Slaves and the Struggle for America's Soul from the Revolution to the Civil War.Penguin Publishing Group. p. 190.
- ^abWilliam C. Davis (2017).Lone Star Rising.Free Press. pp. 63, 64.
- ^abPhillip Thomas Tucker (2014).Emily D. West and the "Yellow Rose of Texas" Myth.McFarland, Incorporated, Publishers. p. 100.
- ^Francis X. Galan (2020).Los Adaes, the First Capital of Spanish Texas.Texas A&M University Press. p. 416.
- ^Lawrence Clayton; Jim Hoy; Jerald Underwood (2010).Vaqueros, Cowboys, and Buckaroos.University of Texas Press. p. 2.
- ^Álvarez de Pineda, Alonso (unknown–1520)
- ^Tejano Origins in Mexican TexasArchived2008-05-09 at theWayback Machine
- ^[Minster, Christopher. Mexican War of Independence: The Battle of Calderon Bridge]
- ^Jarratt, Rie (1949). "Gutiérrez de Lara: Mexican-Texan The Story of a Creole Hero". Creole Texana. Archived from the original on 2012-04-11. Retrieved 2008-07-04.
- ^James Monroe during the War of 1812 by Eugene van Sickle, University of North Georgia http:// bandyheritagecenter.org/Content/Uploads/Bandy%20Heritage%20Center/files/1812/James%20Monroe%20during%20the%20War%20of%201812.pdf
- ^"Tejano Patriots".bexargenealogy.Archived fromthe originalon 2008-05-02.Retrieved2008-10-04.
- ^De La Teja, Jesús F."Tejanos and the Siege and Battle of the Alamo".Handbook of Texas.Texas State Historical Association.RetrievedJanuary 19,2021.
- ^Santos, John Phillip (2014)."Remember the Tejanos!".Texas Monthly.RetrievedJanuary 19,2021.
- ^Schmal, John P. (2004)."The Texas Revolution: Tejano Patriots".Houston Institute for Culture.RetrievedJanuary 19,2021.
- ^Johnson, Benjamin H. (2003).Revolution in Texas: How a Forgotten Rebellion and Its Bloody Suppression turned Mexicans into Americans.Yale University Press.ISBN9780300094251.
- ^Gutierrez, David G. (March 1995).Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity.University of California Press.ISBN978-0-520-20219-1,p. 9
- ^Orozco, Cynthia E.(2009).No Mexicans, Women, or Dogs Allowed: The Rise of the Mexican American Civil Rights Movement.Austin: University of Texas Press.ISBN978-0-292-72132-6.
- ^Miller, Michael V. (1975). "Chicano Community Control in South Texas: Problems And Prospects".Journal of Ethnic Studies.3(3): 70–89.
- ^Jensen, Richard J.;Hammerback, John C. (1980). "Radical Nationalism Among Chicanos: The Rhetoric of José Angel Gutiérrez".Western Journal of Speech Communication.44(3): 191–202.doi:10.1080/10570318009374005.
- ^Census and Inspection Report of 1787 of the Colony of Nuevo Santander,performed by Dragoon Captain Jose Tienda de Cuervo, Knight of the Order of Santago, with Historical Report by Fray Vicente Santa Maria.
- ^Canarias en el Mundo. Niños canarios y tejanos conocerán detalles de la fundación de San Antonio, en EEUU(In Spanish; "Canarian and Tejano Children Will Know How Some Isleños Founded San Antonio in the U.S." )
- ^Tejano HistoryArchived2008-01-07 at theWayback Machine
- ^"Hispanic or Latino? Many don't care, except in Texas".28 October 2013.
- ^"Hispanics in Texas-Tejanos".Archived fromthe originalon 2020-02-12.Retrieved2007-05-05.
- ^Richard G. Santos (2000).Silent Heritage: The Sephardim and the Colonization of the Spanish North American Frontier 1492-1600.New Sepharad Press. p. 385.ISBN9780967472713.
- ^Hill, Gene.Americans All, Americanos Todos.Añoranza Press.
- ^Chavez’, Gilbert Y.Cowboys-Vaqueros, Origins of the First American Cowboys.
- ^Clayton, Lawrence (2001).Vaqueros, Cowboys and Buckaroos.University of Texas Press.ISBN9780292712386.
- ^Loya, Alex.The Legacy and Heritage of the Spaniard Texians.chapter 15.
- ^Juan de Oñatefrom theHandbook of TexasOnline
- ^Etienne MARTINEZ, "Mexicans in the U.S.A: Mexican-American / Tex-Mex Cousine",Light Millennium
- ^Robb Walsh.The Tex-Mex Cookbook(New York:Broadway Books,2004), XVI
- ^"How Austin Became the Home of the Crucial Breakfast Taco".19 February 2016.
- ^abHerrera, Jack."Trump Didn't Win the Latino Vote in Texas. He Won the Tejano Vote".POLITICO.Retrieved2021-09-30.
- ^https:// axios /2023/03/30/catholic-evangelical-latino-religion[bare URL]
- ^"Eva Longoria".Faces of America.PBS.4 January 2010.
Further reading
[edit]- Alonzo, Armando C.Tejano Legacy: Rancheros and Settlers in South Texas, 1734-1900(1998)
- Hubert Howe Bancroft.The Works of Hubert Howe Bancroft,
- Buitron Jr., Richard A.The Quest for Tejano Identity in San Antonio, Texas, 1913-2000(2004)excerpt and text search
- Chávez, John R.The Lost Land: The Chicano Image of the Southwest(Albuquerque, 1984)
- De León, Arnoldo.They Called Them Greasers: Anglo Attitudes toward Mexicans in Texas, 1821–1900(Austin, 1983)
- De León, Arnoldo.Mexican Americans in Texas: A Brief History,2nd ed. (1999)
- García, Richard A.Rise of the Mexican American Middle Class: San Antonio, 1929-19411991
- Montejano, David.Anglos and Mexicans in the Making of Texas, 1836-1986(1987)
- Martinez de Vara, Art (2020).Tejano Patriot: The Revolutionary Life of Jose Francisco Ruiz, 1783 - 1840.Austin, TX:Texas State Historical AssociationPress.ISBN978-1625110589.
- Navarro, Armando.Mexican American Youth Organization: Avant-Garde of the Movement in Texas(University of Texas Press, 1995)
- Ramos, Ratil A.Beyond the Alamo: Forging Mexican Ethnicity in San Antonio, 1821-1861(University of North Carolina Press, 2008)
- San Miguel, Guadalupe.Tejano Proud: Tex-Mex Music in the Twentieth Century(2002)
- Taylor, Paul S.Mexican Labor in the United States.2 vols. 1930–1932, on Texas
- Stewart, Kenneth L., and Arnoldo De León.Not Room Enough: Mexicans, Anglos, and Socioeconomic Change in Texas, 1850-1900(1993)
- de la Teja, Jesús F.San Antonio de Béxar: A Community on New Spain's Northern Frontier(1995).
- Tijerina, Andrés.Tejanos and Texas under the Mexican Flag, 1821-1836(1994),
- Tijerina, Andrés.Tejano Empire: Life on the South Texas Ranchos(1998).
- Timmons, W. H.El Paso: A Borderlands History(1990).
- Weber, David J.The Mexican Frontier, 1821-1846: The American Southwest under Mexico(1982)
Politics
[edit]- Guglielmo, Thomas A. "Fighting for Caucasian Rights: Mexicans, Mexican Americans, and the Transnational Struggle for Civil Rights in World War II Texas,"Journal of American History,92 (March 2006)in History Cooperative
- MacDonald, L. LloydTejanos in the 1835 Texas Revolution(2009)excerpt and text search
- Márquez, Benjamin.LULAC: The Evolution of a Mexican American Political Organization(1993)
- Marquez, Benjamin; Espino, Rodolfo. "Mexican American support for third parties: the case of La Raza Unida,"Ethnic & Racial Studies(Feb 2010) 33#2 pp 290–312. (online)
- Navarro, Armando.La Raza Unida Party: A Chicano Challenge to the U.S. Two Party Dictatorship(Temple University Press, 2000)
- Quintanilla, Linda J., “Chicana Activists of Austin and Houston, Texas: A Historical Analysis” (PhD University of Houston, 2005). Order No. DA3195964.
- de la Teja, Jesus F. ed.Tejano Leadership in Mexican and Revolutionary Texas(Texas A&M University Press, 2010) 274ppexcerpt and text search
Religion
[edit]- Martinez, Juan Francisco.Sea La Luz: The Making of Mexican Protestantism in the American Southwest, 1829-1900(2006)
- Matovina, Timothy.Guadalupe and Her Faithful: Latino Catholics in San Antonio, from Colonial Origins to the Present(2005). 232 pp.
- Matovina, Timothy M.Tejano Religion and Ethnicity, San Antonio, 1821-1860(1995)
- Trevino, Roberto R.The Church in the Barrio: Mexican American Ethno-Catholicism in Houston.(2006). 308pp.
Women
[edit]- Blackwelder, Julia Kirk.Women of the Depression: Caste and Culture in San Antonio1984.excerpt and text search
- Deutsch, SarahNo Separate Refuge: Culture, Class, and Gender on the Anglo-Hispanic Frontier in the American Southwest, 1880-19401987
- Dysart, Jane. "Mexican Women in San Antonio, 1830-1860: The Assimilation Process"Western Historical Quarterly7 (October 1976): 365–375.in JSTOR
- Fregoso; Rosa Linda.Mexicana Encounters: The Making of Social Identities on the Borderlands(2003)
Historiography
[edit]- Garcia, Richard A. "Changing Chicano Historiography,"Reviews in American History34.4 (2006) 521–528 inProject MUSE