Genghis Khan

Several terms redirect here. For other uses, seeGenghis Khan (disambiguation),Genghis (disambiguation),Chinggis (disambiguation),andTemujin (disambiguation).

Genghis Khan
Reproduction of a 1278 portrait taken from aYuan-eraalbum –National Palace Museum,Taipei
Khan of the Mongol Empire
Reign	1206 – August 1227
Successor	Tolui(regent) Ögedei Khan
Born	Temüjin c. 1162 Khentii Mountains
Died	August 1227 Xingqing,Western Xia
Burial	Unknown
Spouse	Börte others
Issue	Jochi Chagatai Ögedei Tolui others
Names Temüjin (ᠲᠡᠮᠦᠵᠢᠨ) Regnal name Chinggis Khaan (ᠴᠢᠩᠭᠢᠰ ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨ;ThànhCátTưHoàng đế) Posthumous name Fatian Qiyun Shengwu Huangdi (PhápThiênKhảiVậnThánhVõHoàng đế) Temple name Taizu (Thái Tổ)
House	Borjigin
Father	Yesugei
Mother	Hö'elün

Genghis Khan(bornTemüjin;c. 1162– August 1227), also known asChinggis Khan,was the founder and firstkhanof theMongol Empire.After spending most of his life uniting theMongol tribes,he launcheda series of military campaigns,conquering large parts ofChinaandCentral Asia.

Born between 1155 and 1167and given the name Temüjin, he was the eldest child ofYesugei,a Mongol chieftain of theBorjigin clan,and his wifeHö'elün.When Temüjin was eight, his father died and his family was abandoned by its tribe. Reduced to near-poverty, Temüjin killedhis older half-brotherto secure his familial position. His charismatic personality helped to attract his first followers and to form alliances with two prominentsteppeleaders namedJamukhaandToghrul;they worked together to retrieve Temüjin's newlywed wifeBörte,who had been kidnapped by raiders. As his reputation grew, his relationship with Jamukha deteriorated into open warfare. Temüjin wasbadly defeatedinc. 1187,and may have spent the following years as a subject of theJin dynasty;upon reemerging in 1196, he swiftly began gaining power. Toghrul came to view Temüjin as a threat andlaunched a surprise attack on himin 1203. Temüjin retreated, thenregroupedand overpowered Toghrul; after defeating theNaiman tribeand executing Jamukha, he was left as the sole ruler on the Mongolian steppe.

Temüjin formally adopted the title "Genghis Khan", the meaning of which is uncertain, at an assembly in 1206. Carrying out reforms designed to ensure long-term stability, he transformed the Mongols' tribal structure into an integratedmeritocracydedicated to the service of the ruling family. After thwarting acoupattempt from a powerfulshaman,Genghis began to consolidate his power. In 1209, he led a large-scale raid into the neighbouringWestern Xia,who agreed to Mongol terms the following year. He then launcheda campaign against the Jin dynasty,which lasted for four years and ended in 1215 withthe captureof the Jin capitalZhongdu.His generalJebeannexed the Central Asian state ofQara Khitaiin 1218. Genghis was provoked to invade theKhwarazmian Empirethe following year by the execution of his envoys;the campaign toppled the Khwarazmian stateand devastated the regions ofTransoxianaandKhorasan,while Jebe and his colleagueSubutailed an expedition that reachedGeorgiaandKievan Rus'.In 1227, Genghis died while subduing the rebellious Western Xia; following a two-yearinterregnum,his third son and heirÖgedeiacceded to the throne in 1229.

Genghis Khan remains a controversial figure. He was generous and intensely loyal to his followers, but ruthless towards his enemies. He welcomed advice from diverse sources in his quest for world domination, for which he believed the shamanic supreme deityTengrihad destined him.The Mongol armyunder Genghis killed millions of people, yet his conquests also facilitated unprecedented commercial and cultural exchange over a vast geographical area. He is remembered as a backwards, savage tyrant inRussiaand theArab world,while recent Western scholarship has begun to reassess its previous view of him as a barbarian warlord. He was posthumouslydeifiedinMongolia;modern Mongolians recognise him as the founding father of their nation.

Name and title

For the uncertain meanings of the name Temüjin and the title Genghis, see the below sectionsBirth and early lifeandKurultai of 1206respectively.

There is no universalromanisationsystem used forMongolian;as a result, modern spellings of Mongolian names vary greatly and may result in considerably different pronunciations from the original.Thehonorificmost commonly rendered as "Genghis" ultimately derives from the Mongolianᠴᠢᠩᠭᠢᠰ,which may be romanised asČinggis.This was adapted into Chinese asThành cát tưChéngjísī,and into Persian asچنگیزČəngīz.AsArabiclacks a sound similar to[tʃ],represented in the Mongolian and Persian romanisations by ⟨č⟩, writers transcribed the name asJ̌ingiz,whileSyriacauthors usedŠīngīz.

In addition to "Genghis", introduced into English during the 18th century based on a misreading of Persian sources, modern English spellings include "Chinggis", "Chingis", "Jinghis", and "Jengiz".His birth name "Temüjin" (ᠲᠡᠮᠦᠵᠢᠨ;Thiết Mộc ChânTiěmùzhēn) is sometimes also spelled "Temuchin" in English.

When Genghis's grandsonKublai Khanestablished theYuan dynastyin 1271, he bestowed thetemple nameTaizu(Thái Tổ,meaning 'Supreme Progenitor') and theposthumous nameShengwu Huangdi(ThánhVõHoàng đế,meaning 'Holy-Martial Emperor') upon his grandfather. Kublai's great-grandsonKülüg Khanlater expanded this title intoFatian Qiyun Shengwu Huangdi(PhápThiênKhảiVậnThánhVõHoàng đế,meaning 'Interpreter of the Heavenly Law, Initiator of the Good Fortune, Holy-Martial Emperor').

Sources

As the sources are written in more than a dozen languages from across Eurasia, modern historians have found it difficult to compile information on the life of Genghis Khan.All accounts of his adolescence andrise to powerderive from two Mongolian-language sources—theSecret History of the Mongols,and theAltan Debter(Golden Book). The latter, now lost, served as inspiration for two Chinese chronicles—the 14th-centuryHistory of Yuanand theShengwu qinzheng lu(Campaigns of Genghis Khan).TheHistory of Yuan,while poorly edited, provides a large amount of detail on individual campaigns and people; theShengwuis more disciplined in its chronology, but does not criticise Genghis and occasionally contains errors.

TheSecret Historysurvived through beingtransliteratedintoChinese charactersduring the 14th and 15th centuries.Its historicity has been disputed: the 20th-century sinologistArthur Waleyconsidered it a literary work with no historiographical value, but more recent historians have given the work much more credence.Although it is clear that the work's chronology is suspect and that some passages were removed or modified for better narration, theSecret Historyis valued highly because the anonymous author is often critical of Genghis Khan: in addition to presenting him as indecisive and as having aphobia of dogs,theSecret Historyalso recounts taboo events such as hisfratricideand the possibility of his son Jochi's illegitimacy.

15th-century copy of theJami' al-tawarikhbyRashid al-Din Hamadani

Multiple chronicles in Persian have also survived, which display a mix of positive and negative attitudes towards Genghis Khan and the Mongols. BothMinhaj-i Siraj JuzjaniandAta-Malik Juvaynicompleted their respective histories in 1260.Juzjani was an eyewitness to the brutality of the Mongol conquests, and the hostility of his chronicle reflects his experiences.His contemporary Juvayni, who had travelled twice to Mongolia and attained a high position in the administration ofa Mongol successor state,was more sympathetic; his account is the most reliable for Genghis Khan's western campaigns.The most important Persian source is theJami' al-tawarikh(Compendium of Chronicles) compiled byRashid al-Dinon the order of Genghis's descendantGhazanin the early 14th century. Ghazan allowed Rashid privileged access to both confidential Mongol sources such as theAltan Debterand to experts on the Mongol oral tradition, including Kublai Khan's ambassadorBolad Chingsang.As he was writing an official chronicle, Rashid censored inconvenient or taboo details.

There are many other contemporary histories which include additional information on Genghis Khan and the Mongols, although their neutrality and reliability are often suspect. Additional Chinese sources include the chronicles of the dynasties conquered by the Mongols, and the Song diplomatZhao Hong,who visited the Mongols in 1221.Arabic sources include a contemporary biography of the Khwarazmian princeJalal al-Dinby his companional-Nasawi.There are also several later Christian chronicles, including theGeorgian Chronicles,and works by European travellers such asCarpiniandMarco Polo.

Early life

Birth and childhood

The year of Temüjin's birth is disputed, as historians favour different dates: 1155, 1162 or 1167. Some traditions place his birth in theYear of the Pig,which was either 1155 or 1167.While a dating to 1155 is supported by the writings of both Zhao Hong and Rashid al-Din, other major sources such as theHistory of Yuanand theShengwufavour the year 1162.The 1167 dating, favoured by the sinologistPaul Pelliot,is derived from a minor source—a text of the Yuan artistYang Weizhen—but is more compatible with the events of Genghis Khan's life than a 1155 placement, which implies that he did not have children until after the age of thirty and continued actively campaigning into his seventh decade.1162 is the date accepted by most historians;the historian Paul Ratchnevsky noted that Temüjin himself may not have known the truth.The location of Temüjin's birth, which theSecret Historyrecords asDelüün Boldogon theOnon River,is similarly debated: it has been placed at eitherDadalinKhentii Provinceor in southernAgin-Buryat Okrug,Russia.

TheOnon River,near which Temüjin was born, pictured here inKhentii Province,Mongolia

Temüjin was born into theBorjiginclan of theMongol tribetoYesügei,a chieftain who claimed descent from the legendary warlordBodonchar Munkhag,and his principal wifeHö'elün,originally of theOlkhonudclan, whom Yesügei had abducted from herMerkitbridegroom Chiledu.The origin of his birth name is contested: the earliest traditions hold that his father had just returned from a successful campaign against theTatarswith a captive named Temüchin-uge, after whom he named the newborn in celebration of his victory, while later traditions highlight theroottemür(meaning 'iron') and connect to theories that "Temüjin" means 'blacksmith'.

Several legends surround Temüjin's birth. The most prominent is that he was born clutching ablood clotin his hand, a motif in Asian folklore indicating the child would be a warrior.Others claimed that Hö'elün wasimpregnated by a ray of lightwhich announced the child's destiny, a legend which echoed that of the mythical Borjigin ancestorAlan Gua.Yesügei and Hö'elün had three younger sons after Temüjin:Qasar,Hachiun,andTemüge,as well as one daughter,Temülün.Temüjin also had two half-brothers,BehterandBelgutei,from Yesügei's secondary wifeSochigel,whose identity is uncertain. The siblings grew up at Yesugei's main camp on the banks of the Onon, where they learned how to ride a horse and shoot a bow.

When Temüjin was eight years old, his father decided to betroth him to a suitable girl. Yesügei took his heir to the pastures of Hö'elün's prestigiousOnggirattribe, which had intermarried with the Mongols on many previous occasions. There, he arranged a betrothal between Temüjin andBörte,the daughter of an Onggirat chieftain namedDei Sechen.As the betrothal meant Yesügei would gain a powerful ally and as Börte commanded a highbride price,Dei Sechen held the stronger negotiating position, and demanded that Temüjin remain in his household to work off his future debt.Accepting this condition, Yesügei requested a meal from a band of Tatars he encountered while riding homewards alone, relying on the steppe tradition of hospitality to strangers. However, the Tatars recognised their old enemy and slipped poison into his food. Yesügei gradually sickened but managed to return home; close to death, he requested a trusted retainer called Münglig to retrieve Temüjin from the Onggirat. He died soon after.

Adolescence

Statue of Hö'elün located near theequestrian statue of her sonat Tsonjin Boldog,Mongolia

Yesügei's death shattered the unity of his people, which included members of the Borjigin,Tayichiud,and other clans. As Temüjin was not yet ten and Behter around two years older, neither was considered experienced enough to rule. The Tayichiud faction excluded Hö'elün from theancestor worshipceremonies which followed a ruler's death and soon abandoned her camp. TheSecret Historyrelates that the entire Borjigin clan followed, despite Hö'elün's attempts to shame them into staying by appealing to their honour.Rashid al-Din and theShengwuhowever imply that Yesügei's brothers stood by the widow. It is possible that Hö'elün may have refused to join inlevirate marriagewith one, resulting in later tensions, or that the author of theSecret Historydramatised the situation.All the sources agree that most of Yesügei's people renounced his family in favour of the Tayichiuds and that Hö'elün's family were reduced to a much harsher life.Taking up ahunter-gathererlifestyle, they collected roots and nuts, hunted for small animals, and caught fish.

Tensions developed as the children grew older. Both Temüjin and Behter had claims to be their father's heir: although Temüjin was the child of Yesügei's chief wife, Behter was at least two years his senior. There was even the possibility that, as permitted under levirate law, Behter could marry Hö'elün upon attaining hismajorityand become Temüjin's stepfather.As the friction, exacerbated by frequent disputes over the division of hunting spoils, intensified, Temüjin and his younger brother Qasar ambushed and killed Behter. This taboo act was omitted from the official chronicles but not from theSecret History,which recounts that Hö'elün angrily reprimanded her sons. Behter's younger full-brother Belgutei did not seek vengeance, and became one of Temüjin's highest-ranking followers alongside Qasar.Around this time, Temüjin developed a close friendship withJamukha,another boy of aristocratic descent; theSecret Historynotes that they exchangedknucklebonesand arrows as gifts and swore theandapact—the traditional oath of Mongolblood brothers–at eleven.

As the family lacked allies, Temüjin was taken prisoner on multiple occasions.Captured by the Tayichiuds, he escaped during a feast and hid first in the Onon and then in the tent ofSorkan-Shira,a man who had seen him in the river and not raised the alarm. Sorkan-Shira sheltered Temüjin for three days at great personal risk before helping him to escape.Temüjin was assisted on another occasion byBo'orchu,an adolescent who aided him in retrieving stolen horses. Soon afterwards, Bo'orchu joined Temüjin's camp as his firstnökor('personal companion';pl.nökod).These incidents, related by theSecret History,are indicative of the emphasis its author put on Genghis' personal charisma.

Rise to power

Main article:Rise of Genghis Khan

Early campaigns

Burkhan Khaldunmountain, where Temüjin hid during theMerkitattack, and which he later came to honour as sacred

Temüjin returned to Dei Sechen to marry Börte when he reached theage of majorityat fifteen. Delighted to see the son-in-law he feared had died, Dei Sechen consented to the marriage and accompanied the newlyweds back to Temüjin's camp; his wife Čotan presented Hö'elün with an expensivesablecloak.Seeking a patron, Temüjin chose to regift the cloak toToghrul,khan(ruler) of theKeraittribe, who had fought alongside Yesügei and sworn theandapact with him. Toghrul ruled a vast territory in central Mongolia but distrusted many of his followers. In need of loyal replacements, he was delighted with the valuable gift and welcomed Temüjin into his protection. The two grew close, and Temüjin began to build a following, asnökodsuch asJelmeentered into his service.Temüjin and Börte had their first child, a daughter named Qojin, around this time.

Soon afterwards, seeking revenge for Yesügei's abduction of Hö'elün, around 300 Merkits raided Temüjin's camp. While Temüjin and his brothers were able to hide onBurkhan Khaldun mountain,Börte and Sochigel were abducted. In accordance with levirate law, Börte was given in marriage to the younger brother of the now-deceased Chiledu.Temüjin appealed for aid from Toghrul and his childhoodandaJamukha, who had risen to become chief of theJadarantribe. Both chiefs were willing to field armies of 20,000 warriors, and with Jamukha in command, the campaign was soon won. A now-pregnant Börte was recovered successfully and soon gave birth to a son,Jochi;although Temüjin raised him as his own, questions over his true paternity followed Jochi throughout his life.This is narrated in theSecret Historyand contrasts with Rashid al-Din's account, which protects the family's reputation by removing any hint of illegitimacy.Over the next decade and a half, Temüjin and Börte had three more sons (Chagatai,Ögedei,andTolui) and four more daughters (Checheyigen,Alaqa,Tümelün, andAl Altan).

The followers of Temüjin and Jamukha camped together for a year and a half, during which their leaders reforged theirandapact and slept together under one blanket, according to theSecret History.The source presents this period as close friends bonding, but Ratchnevsky questioned if Temüjin actually entered into Jamukha's service in return for the assistance with the Merkits.Tensions arose and the two leaders parted, ostensibly on account of a cryptic remark made by Jamukha on the subject of camping;in any case, Temüjin followed the advice of Hö'elün and Börte and began to build an independent following. The major tribal rulers remained with Jamukha, but forty-one leaders gave their support to Temüjin along with many commoners: these includedSubutaiand others of theUriankhai,theBarulas,the Olkhonuds, and many more.Many were attracted by Temüjin's reputation as a fair and generous lord who could offer better lives, while hisshamansprophesied that heaven had allocated him a great destiny.

Temüjin andToghrul,illustrated in a 15th-centuryJami' al-tawarikhmanuscript

Temüjin was soon acclaimed by his close followers as khan of the Mongols.Toghrul was pleased at his vassal's elevation but Jamukha was resentful. Tensions escalated into open hostility, and in around 1187 the two leaders clashed in battleat Dalan Baljut:the two forces were evenly matched but Temüjin suffered a clear defeat. Later chroniclers including Rashid al-Din instead state that he was victorious but their accounts contradict themselves and each other.

Modern historians such as Ratchnevsky and Timothy May consider it very likely that Temüjin spent a large portion of the decade following the clash at Dalan Baljut as a servant of the JurchenJin dynastyinNorth China.Zhao Hong recorded that the future Genghis Khan spent several years as a slave of the Jin. Formerly seen as an expression of nationalistic arrogance, the statement is now thought to be based in fact, especially as no other source convincingly explains Temüjin's activities between Dalan Baljut andc. 1195.Taking refuge across the border was a common practice both for disaffected steppe leaders and disgraced Chinese officials. Temüjin's reemergence having retained significant power indicates that he probably profited in the service of the Jin. As he later overthrew that state, such an episode, detrimental to Mongol prestige, was omitted from all their sources. Zhao Hong was bound by no such taboos.

Defeating rivals

The sources do not agree on the events of Temüjin's return to the steppe. In early summer 1196, he participated in a joint campaign with the Jin against the Tatars, who had begun to act contrary to Jin interests. As a reward, the Jin awarded him the honorificcha-ut kuri,the meaning of which probably approximated "commander of hundreds" inJurchen.At around the same time, he assisted Toghrul with reclaiming the lordship of the Kereit, which had been usurped by one of Toghrul's relatives with the support of the powerfulNaiman tribe.The actions of 1196 fundamentally changed Temüjin's position in the steppe—although nominally still Toghrul's vassal, he wasde factoan equal ally.

Jamukha behaved cruelly following his victory at Dalan Baljut—he allegedlyboiled seventy prisoners aliveand humiliated the corpses of leaders who had opposed him. A number of disaffected followers, including Yesügei's follower Münglig and his sons,defectedto Temüjin as a consequence; they were also probably attracted by his newfound wealth.Temüjin subdued the disobedientJurkintribe that had previously offended him at a feast and refused to participate in the Tatar campaign. After executing their leaders, he had Belgutei symbolically break a leading Jurkin's back in a stagedwrestlingmatch in retribution. This latter incident, which contravened Mongol customs of justice, was only noted by the author of theSecret History,who openly disapproved. These events occurred c. 1197.

The tribal polities united by Temüjin to found the Mongol Empire

During the following years, Temüjin and Toghrul campaigned against the Merkits, the Naimans, and the Tatars; sometimes separately and sometimes together. In around 1201, a collection of dissatisfied tribes including the Onggirat, the Tayichiud, and the Tatars swore to break the domination of the Borjigin-Kereit alliance, electing Jamukha as their leader andgurkhan(lit. '"khan of the tribes"'). After some initial successes, Temüjin and Toghrul routed this loose confederationat Yedi Qunan,and Jamukha was forced to beg for Toghrul's clemency.Desiring complete supremacy in eastern Mongolia, Temüjin defeated first the Tayichiud and then, in 1202, the Tatars; after both campaigns, he executed the clan leaders and took the remaining warriors into his service. These included Sorkan-Shira, who had come to his aid previously, and a young warrior namedJebe,who, by killing Temüjin's horse and refusing to hide that fact, had displayed martial ability and personal courage.

The absorption of the Tatars left three military powers in the steppe: the Naimans in the west, the Mongols in the east, and the Kereit in between.Seeking to cement his position, Temüjin proposed that his son Jochi marry one of Toghrul's daughters. Led by Toghrul's son Senggum, the Kereit elite believed the proposal to be an attempt to gain control over their tribe, while the doubts over Jochi's parentage would have offended them further. In addition, Jamukha drew attention to the threat Temüjin posed to the traditional steppearistocracyby his habit of promoting commoners to high positions, which subverted social norms. Yielding eventually to these demands, Toghrul attempted to lure his vassal into an ambush, but his plans were overheard by two herdsmen. Temüjin was able to gather some of his forces, but was soundly defeated at theBattle of Qalaqaljid Sands.

TheBaljuna Covenant

"[Temüjin] raised his hands and looking up at Heaven swore, saying" If I am able to achieve my 'Great Work', I shall [always] share with you men the sweet and the bitter. If I break this word, may I be like the water of the River, drunk up by others. "
Among officers and men there was none who was not moved to tears.

TheHistory of Yuan,vol 120 (1370)

Retreating southeast to Baljuna, an unidentified lake or river, Temüjin waited for his scattered forces to regroup: Bo'orchu had lost his horse and was forced to flee on foot, while Temüjin's badly wounded sonÖgedeihad been transported and tended to byBorokhula,a leading warrior. Temüjin called in every possible ally and swore a famousoath of loyalty,later known as theBaljuna Covenant,to his faithful followers, which subsequently granted them great prestige.The oath-takers of Baljuna were a veryheterogeneousgroup—men from nine different tribes who included Christians, Muslims, and Buddhists, united only by loyalty to Temüjin and to each other. This group became a model for the later empire, termed a "proto-government of a proto-nation" by historianJohn Man.The Baljuna Covenant was omitted from theSecret History—as the group was predominantly non-Mongol, the author presumably wished to downplay the role of other tribes.

Aruse de guerreinvolving Qasar allowed the Mongols to ambush the Kereit at the Jej'er Heights, but though the ensuing battle still lasted three days, it ended in adecisive victoryfor Temüjin. Toghrul and Senggum were both forced to flee, and while the latter escaped toTibet,Toghrul was killed by a Naiman who did not recognise him. Temüjin sealed his victory by absorbing the Kereit elite into his own tribe: he took the princessIbaqaas a wife, and married her sisterSorghaghtaniand nieceDoquzto his youngest son Tolui.The ranks of the Naimans had swelled due to the arrival of Jamukha and others defeated by the Mongols, and they prepared for war. Temüjin was informed of these events byAlaqush,the sympathetic ruler of theOngudtribe. In May 1204, at theBattle of Chakirmautin theAltai Mountains,the Naimans were decisively defeated: their leaderTayang Khanwas killed, and his sonKuchlugwas forced to flee west.The Merkits were decimated later that year, while Jamukha, who had abandoned the Naimans at Chakirmaut, was betrayed to Temüjin by companions who were executed for their lack of loyalty. According to theSecret History,Jamukha convinced his childhoodandato execute him honourably; other accounts state that he was killed bydismemberment.

Early reign: reforms and Chinese campaigns (1206–1215)

Kurultaiof 1206 and reforms

Temüjin being proclaimed as Genghis Khan, as illustrated in a 15th-centuryJami' al-tawarikhmanuscript.

Now sole ruler of the steppe, Temüjin held a large assembly called akurultaiat the source of the Onon River in 1206.Here, he formally adopted the title Genghis Khan, the etymology and meaning of which have been much debated. Some commentators hold that the title had no meaning, simply representing Temüjin's eschewal of the traditionalgurkhantitle, which had been accorded to Jamukha and was thus of lesser worth.Another theory suggests that the word "Genghis" bears connotations of strength, firmness, hardness, or righteousness.A third hypothesis proposes that the title is related to theTurkictängiz('ocean'), the title "Genghis Khan" would mean "master of the ocean", and as the ocean was believed to surround the earth, the title thus ultimately implied "Universal Ruler".

Having attained control over one million people,Genghis Khan began a "social revolution", in May's words.As traditional tribal systems had primarily evolved to benefit small clans and families, they were unsuitable as the foundations for larger states and had been the downfall of previous steppe confederations. Genghis thus began a series of administrative reforms designed to suppress the power of tribal affiliations and to replace them with unconditional loyalty to the khan and the ruling family.As most of the traditional tribal leaders had been killed during his rise to power, Genghis was able to reconstruct the Mongol social hierarchy in his favour. The highest tier was occupied solely by his and his brothers' families, who became known as thealtan uruq(lit.'Golden Family') orchaghan yasun(lit.'white bone'); underneath them came theqara yasun(lit.'black bone'; sometimesqarachu), composed of the surviving pre-empire aristocracy and the most important of the new families.

To break any concept of tribal loyalty, Mongol society was reorganised into a military decimal system. Every man between the age of fifteen and seventy was conscripted into aminqan(pl.minkad), a unit of a thousand soldiers, which was further subdivided into units of hundreds (jaghun,pl.jaghat) and tens (arban,pl.arbat).The units also encompassed each man's household, meaning that each militaryminqanwas supported by aminqanof households in what May has termed "amilitary–industrial complex".Eachminqanoperated as both a political and social unit, while the warriors of defeated tribes were dispersed to differentminqadto make it difficult for them to rebel as a single body. This was intended to ensure the disappearance of old tribal identities, replacing them with loyalty to the "Great Mongol State", and to commanders who had gained their rank through merit and loyalty to the khan.This particular reform proved extremely effective—even after thedivision of the Mongol Empire,fragmentation never happened along tribal lines. Instead, the descendants of Genghis continued to reign unchallenged, in some cases until as late as the 1700s, and even powerful non-imperial dynasts such asTimurandEdiguwere compelled to rule from behind a puppet ruler of his lineage.

Modern statues ofMuqali(top) andBo'orchu(bottom) inSükhbaatar Square,Ulaanbaatar

Genghis's seniornökodwere appointed to the highest ranks and received the greatest honours. Bo'orchu andMuqaliwere each given ten thousand men to lead as commanders of the right and left wings of the army respectively.The othernökodwere each given commands of one of the ninety-fiveminkad.In a display of Genghis' meritocratic ideals, many of these men were born to low social status: Ratchnevsky cited Jelme and Subutai, the sons of blacksmiths, in addition to a carpenter, a shepherd, and even the two herdsmen who had warned Temüjin of Toghrul's plans in 1203.As a special privilege, Genghis allowed certain loyal commanders to retain the tribal identities of their units. Alaqush of the Ongud was allowed to retain five thousand warriors of his tribe because his son had entered into an alliance pact with Genghis, marrying his daughter Alaqa.

A key tool which underpinned these reforms was the expansion of thekeshig('bodyguard'). After Temüjin defeated Toghrul in 1203, he had appropriated this Kereit institution in a minor form, but at the 1206kurultaiits numbers were greatly expanded, from 1,150 to 10,000 men. Thekeshigwas not only the khan's bodyguard, but his household staff, a military academy, and the centre of governmental administration.All the warriors in this elite corps were brothers or sons of military commanders and were essentially hostages. The members of thekeshignevertheless received special privileges and direct access to the khan, whom they served and who in return evaluated their capabilities and their potential to govern or command.Commanders such as Subutai,Chormaqan,andBaijuall started out in thekeshig,before being given command of their own force.

Consolidation of power (1206–1210)

Further information:Mongol conquest of Western Xia

From 1204 to 1209, Genghis Khan was predominantly focused on consolidating and maintaining his new nation.He faced a challenge from theshamanKokechu, whose father Münglig had been allowed to marry Hö'elün after he defected to Temüjin. Kokechu, who had proclaimed Temüjin as Genghis Khan and taken theTengristtitle "Teb Tenggeri" (lit."Wholly Heavenly" ) on account of his sorcery, was very influential among the Mongol commoners and sought to divide the imperial family.Genghis's brother Qasar was the first of Kokechu's targets—always distrusted by his brother, Qasar was humiliated and almost imprisoned on false charges before Hö'elün intervened by publicly reprimanding Genghis. Nevertheless, Kokechu's power steadily increased, and he publicly shamed Temüge, Genghis's youngest brother, when he attempted to intervene.Börte saw that Kokechu was a threat to Genghis's power and warned her husband, who still superstitiously revered the shaman but now recognised the political threat he posed. Genghis allowed Temüge to arrange Kokechu's death, and then usurped the shaman's position as the Mongols' highest spiritual authority.

During these years, the Mongols imposed their control on surrounding areas. Genghis dispatched Jochi northwards in 1207 to subjugate theHoi-yin Irgen,a collection of tribes on the edge of theSiberian taiga.Having secured a marriage alliance with theOiratsand defeated theYenisei Kyrgyz,he took control of the region's trade in grain and furs, as well as itsgold mines.Mongol armies also rode westwards, defeating the Naiman-Merkit alliance on theRiver Irtyshin late 1208. Their khan was killed and Kuchlug fled intoCentral Asia.Led byBarchuk,theUyghursfreed themselves from the suzerainty of theQara Khitaiand pledged themselves to Genghis in 1211 as the firstsedentary societyto submit to the Mongols.

The states of East and Central Asia in the early 13th century

The Mongols had started raiding the border settlements of theTangut-ledWestern Xiakingdom in 1205, ostensibly in retaliation for allowing Senggum, Toghrul's son, refuge.More prosaic explanations include rejuvenating the depleted Mongol economy with an influx of fresh goods andlivestock,or simply subjugating a semi-hostile state to protect the nascent Mongol nation.Most Xia troops were stationed along the southern and eastern borders of the kingdom to guard against attacks from theSongandJindynasties respectively, while its northern border relied only on theGobi desertfor protection.After a raid in 1207 sacked the Xia fortress ofWulahai,Genghis decided to personally leada full-scale invasionin 1209.

Wulahai was captured again in May and the Mongols advanced on the capital Zhong xing (modern-dayYinchuan) but suffered a reverse against a Xia army. After a two-month stalemate, Genghis broke the deadlock with afeigned retreat;the Xia forces were deceived out of their defensive positions and overpowered.Although Zhong xing was now mostly undefended, the Mongols lacked anysiege equipmentbetter than crudebattering ramsand were unable to progress the siege.The Xia requested aid from the Jin, butEmperor Zhangzongrejected the plea. Genghis's attempt to redirect theYellow Riverinto the city with a dam initially worked, but the poorly-constructedearthworksbroke—possibly breached by the Xia—in January 1210 and the Mongol camp was flooded, forcing them to retreat. A peace treaty was soon formalised: the Xia emperorXiangzongsubmitted and handed over tribute, including his daughter Chaka, in exchange for the Mongol withdrawal.

Campaign against the Jin (1211–1215)

Main article:Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty

Depictions of Mongol-Jin conflict from 14th-century Persian manuscripts. From top: theBattle of Yehuling(1211); a skirmish between Mongol and Jin cavalry; Genghis enteringZhongduafter capturing it in 1215.

Wanyan Yongjiusurped the Jin throne in 1209. He had previously served on the steppe frontier and Genghis greatly disliked him.When asked to submit and pay the annual tribute to Yongji in 1210, Genghis instead mocked the emperor, spat, and rode away from the Jin envoy—a challenge that meant war.Despite the possibility of being outnumbered eight-to-one by 600,000 Jin soldiers, Genghis had prepared to invade the Jin since learning in 1206 that the state was wracked by internal instabilities.Genghis had two aims: to take vengeance for past wrongs committed by the Jin, foremost among which was the death ofAmbaghai Khanin the mid-12th century, and to win the vast amounts of plunder his troops and vassals expected.

After calling for akurultaiin March 1211, Genghis launchedhis invasion of Jin Chinain May, reaching theouter ring of Jin defencesthe following month. Theseborderfortifications were guarded by Alaqush's Ongud, who allowed the Mongols to pass without difficulty.The three-prongedchevauchéeaimed both to plunder and burn a vast area of Jin territory to deprive them of supplies and popular legitimacy, and to secure themountain passeswhich allowed access to theNorth China Plain.The Jin lost numerous towns and were hindered by a series of defections, the most prominent of which led directly to Muqali's victory at theBattle of Huan'erzhuiin autumn 1211.The campaign was halted in 1212 when Genghis was wounded by an arrow during the unsuccessful siege of Xijing (modernDatong).Following this failure, Genghis set up a corps ofsiege engineers,which recruited 500 Jin experts over the next two years.

The defences ofJuyong Passhad been strongly reinforced by the time the conflict resumed in 1213, but a Mongol detachment led by Jebe managed to infiltrate the pass and surprise the elite Jin defenders, opening the road to the Jin capitalZhongdu(modern-dayBeijing).The Jin administration began to disintegrate: after theKhitans,a tribe subject to the Jin, entered open rebellion, Hushahu, the commander of the forces at Xijing, abandoned his post and staged a coup in Zhongdu, killing Yongji and installing his own puppet ruler,Xuanzong.This governmental breakdown was fortunate for Genghis's forces; emboldened by their victories, they had seriously overreached and lost the initiative. Unable to do more than camp before Zhongdu'sfortificationswhile his army suffered from an epidemic and famine—they resorted tocannibalismaccording toCarpini,who may have been exaggerating—Genghis opened peace negotiations despite his commanders' militance.He secured tribute, including 3,000 horses, 500 slaves, a Jin princess, and massive amounts of gold and silk, before lifting the siege and setting off homewards in May 1214.

As the northern Jin lands had been ravaged by plague and war, Xuanzong moved the capital andimperial court600 kilometres (370 mi) southwards toKaifeng.Interpreting this as an attempt to regroup in the south and then restart the war, Genghis concluded the terms of the peace treaty had been broken. He immediately prepared to return and capture Zhongdu.According to Christopher Atwood, it was only at this juncture that Genghis decided to fully conquer northern China.Muqali captured numerous towns inLiaodongduring winter 1214–15, and although the inhabitants of Zhongdu surrendered to Genghis on 31 May 1215, the city was sacked.When Genghis returned to Mongolia in early 1216, Muqali was left in command in China.He waged a brutal but effective campaign against the unstable Jin regime until his death in 1223.

Later reign: western expansion and return to China (1216–1227)

Defeating rebellions and Qara Khitai (1216–1218)

Further information:Mongol conquest of the Qara Khitai

In 1207, Genghis had appointed a man named Qorchi as governor of the subdued Hoi-yin Irgen tribes in Siberia. Appointed not for his talents but for prior services rendered, Qorchi's tendency to abduct women asconcubinesfor hisharemcaused the tribes to rebel and take him prisoner in early 1216. The following year, they ambushed and killedBoroqul,one of Genghis's highest-rankingnökod.The khan was livid at the loss of his close friend and prepared to lead a retaliatory campaign; eventually dissuaded from this course, he dispatched his eldest son Jochi and aDörbetcommander. They managed to surprise and defeat the rebels, securing control over this economically important region.

Kuchlug,theNaimanprince who had been defeated in 1204, had usurped the throne of the Central Asian Qara Khitai dynasty between 1211 and 1213. He was a greedy and arbitrary ruler who probably earned the enmity of the nativeIslamicpopulace whom he attempted toforcibly converttoBuddhism.Genghis reckoned that Kuchlug could be a threat to his empire, and Jebe was sent with an army of 20,000 cavalry to the city ofKashgar;he undermined Kuchlug's rule by emphasising the Mongol policies of religious tolerance and gained the loyalty of the local elite.Kuchlug was forced to flee southwards to thePamir Mountains,but was captured by local hunters. Jebe had him beheaded and paraded his corpse through Qara Khitai, proclaiming the end of religious persecution in the region.

Invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire (1219–1221)

Main article:Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire

Campaigns of Genghis Khan between 1207 and 1225

Genghis had now attained complete control of the eastern portion of theSilk Road,and his territory bordered that of theKhwarazmian Empire,which ruled over much of Central Asia,PersiaandAfghanistan.Merchants from both sides were eager to restart trading, which had halted during Kuchlug's rule; the Khwarazmian rulerMuhammad IIdispatched an envoy shortly after the Mongol capture of Zhongdu, while Genghis instructedhis merchantsto obtain the high-quality textiles and steel of Central and Western Asia.Many members of thealtan uruqinvested in one particular caravan of 450 merchants which set off to Khwarazmia in 1218 with a large quantity of wares.Inalchuq,the governor of the Khwarazmian border town ofOtrar,decided to massacre the merchants on grounds ofespionageand seize the goods; Muhammad had grown suspicious of Genghis's intentions and either supported Inalchuq or turned a blind eye.A Mongol ambassador was sent with two companions to avert war, but Muhammad killed him and humiliated his companions. The killing of an envoy infuriated Genghis, who resolved to leave Muqali with a small force in North China and invade Khwarazmia with most of his army.

Muhammad's empire was large but disunited: he ruled alongside his motherTerken Khatunin what the historianPeter Goldenterms "an uneasy diarchy", while the Khwarazmian nobility and populace were discontented with his warring and the centralisation of government. For these reasons and others he declined to meet the Mongols in the field, instead garrisoning his unruly troops in his major cities.This allowed the lightly armoured, highly mobile Mongol armies uncontested superiority outside city walls.Otrar was besiegedin autumn 1219—the siege dragged on for five months, but in February 1220 the city fell and Inalchuq was executed.Genghis had meanwhile divided his forces. Leaving his sons Chagatai andÖgedeito besiege the city, he had sent Jochi northwards down theSyr Daryariver and another force southwards into centralTransoxiana,while he and Tolui took the main Mongol army across theKyzylkum Desert,surprising the garrison ofBukharain apincer movement.

Depiction ofJalal al-Dincrossing theIndus River,from a late 17th-centuryJami al-tawarikhmanuscript

Bukhara's citadel was capturedin February 1220 and Genghis moved against Muhammad's residenceSamarkand,whichfell the following month.Bewildered by the speed of the Mongol conquests, Muhammad fled fromBalkh,closely followed by Jebe and Subutai; the two generals pursued the Khwarazmshah until he died fromdysentryon aCaspian Seaisland in winter 1220–21, having nominated his eldest sonJalal al-Dinas his successor.Jebe and Subutai then set out on a 7,500-kilometre (4,700 mi)-expedition around theCaspian Sea.Later called theGreat Raid,this lasted four years and saw the Mongols come into contact with Europe for the first time.Meanwhile, the Khwarazmian capital ofGurganjwas being besieged by Genghis's three eldest sons.The long siegeended in spring 1221 amid brutal urban conflict.Jalal al-Din moved southwards to Afghanistan, gathering forces on the way and defeating a Mongol unit under the command ofShigi Qutuqu,Genghis's adopted son, in theBattle of Parwan.Jalal was weakened by arguments among his commanders, and after losing decisively at theBattle of the Indusin November 1221, he was compelled to escape across theIndus riverinto India.

Genghis's youngest son Tolui was concurrently conductinga brutal campaignin the regions ofKhorasan.Every city that resisted was destroyed—Nishapur,MervandHerat,three of the largest and wealthiest cities in the world, were all annihilated.This campaign established Genghis's lasting image as a ruthless, inhumane conqueror. Contemporary Persian historians placed the death toll from the three sieges alone at over 5.7 million—a number regarded as grossly exaggerated by modern scholars.Nevertheless, even a total death toll of 1.25 million for the entire campaign, as estimated by John Man, would have been a demographic catastrophe.

Return to China and final campaign (1222–1227)

Main article:Mongol conquest of China

Genghis abruptly halted his Central Asian campaigns in 1221.Initially aiming to return viaIndia,Genghis realised that the heat and humidity of the South Asian climate impeded his army's skills, while theomenswere additionally unfavourable.Although the Mongols spent much of 1222 repeatedly overcoming rebellions in Khorasan, they withdrew completely from the region to avoid overextending themselves, setting their new frontier on theAmu Daryariver.During his lengthy return journey, Genghis prepared a new administrative division which would govern the conquered territories, appointingdarughachi(commissioners,lit."those who press the seal" ) andbas QAQ(local officials) to manage the region back to normalcy.He also summoned and spoke with theTaoistpatriarchChangchunin theHindu Kush.The khan listened attentively to Changchun's teachings and granted his followers numerous privileges, includingtax exemptionsand authority over all monks throughout the empire—a grant which the Taoists later used to try to gain superiority over Buddhism.

The usual reason given for the halting of the campaign is that theWestern Xia,having declined to provide auxiliaries for the 1219 invasion, had additionally disobeyed Muqali in his campaign against the remaining Jin inShaanxi.May has disputed this, arguing that the Xia fought in concert with Muqali until his death in 1223, when, frustrated by Mongol control and sensing an opportunity with Genghis campaigning in Central Asia, they ceased fighting.In either case, Genghis initially attempted to resolve the situation diplomatically, but when the Xia elite failed to come to an agreement on the hostages they were to send to the Mongols, he lost patience.

Returning to Mongolia in early 1225, Genghis spent the year in preparation for a campaign against them. This began in the first months of 1226 with the capture ofKhara-Khotoon the Xia's western border.The invasion proceeded apace. Genghis ordered that the cities of theGansu Corridorbe sacked one by one, grantingclemencyonly to a few.Having crossed theYellow Riverin autumn, the Mongols besieged present-dayLingwu,located just 30 kilometres (19 mi) south of the Xia capitalZhong xing,in November. On 4 December, Genghis decisively defeated a Xiarelief army;the khan left the siege of the capital to his generals and moved southwards with Subutai to plunder and secure Jin territories.

Death and aftermath

See also:Burial place of Genghis Khan

Early 15th-century miniature of Genghis Khan advising his sons on his deathbed, taken fromMarco Polo's section of theLivre des merveilles manuscript.

Genghis fell from his horse while hunting in the winter of 1226–27 and became increasingly ill during the following months. This slowed the siege of Zhong xing 's progress, as his sons and commanders urged him to end the campaign and return to Mongolia to recover, arguing that the Xia would still be there another year.Incensed by insults from Xia's leading commander, Genghis insisted that the siege be continued. He died on either 18 or 25 August 1227, but his death was kept a closely guarded secret and Zhong xing, unaware, fell the following month. The city was put to the sword and its population was treated with extreme savagery—the Xia civilization was essentially extinguished in what Man described as a "very successfulethnocide".The exact nature of the khan's death has been the subject of intense speculation. Rashid al-Din and theHistory of Yuanmention he suffered from an illness—possiblymalaria,typhus,orbubonic plague.Marco Poloclaimed that he was shot by an arrow during a siege, whileCarpinireported that Genghis wasstruck by lightning.Legends sprang up around the event—the most famous recounts how the beautiful Gurbelchin, formerly the Xia emperor's wife, injured Genghis's genitals with a dagger during sex.

After his death, Genghis was transported back to Mongolia and buried on or near the sacredBurkhan Khaldunpeak in theKhentii Mountains,on a site he had chosen years before.Specific details of thefuneral processionand burial were not made public knowledge; the mountain, declaredikh khorig(lit."Great Taboo"; i.e. prohibited zone), was out of bounds to all but itsUriankhaiguard. When Ögedei acceded to the throne in 1229, the grave was honoured with three days of offerings and the sacrifice of thirty maidens.Ratchnevsky theorised that the Mongols, who had no knowledge ofembalming techniques,may have buried the khan in theOrdosto avoid his body decomposing in the summer heat while en route to Mongolia; Atwood rejects this hypothesis.

Succession

The tribes of the Mongol steppe had no fixed succession system, but often defaulted to some form ofultimogeniture—succession of the youngest son—because he would have had the least time to gain a following for himself and needed the help of his father's inheritance.However, this type of inheritance applied only to property, not to titles.

TheSecret Historyrecords that Genghis chose his successor while preparing for the Khwarazmian campaigns in 1219; Rashid al-Din, on the other hand, states that the decision came before Genghis's final campaign against the Xia.Regardless of the date, there were five possible candidates: Genghis's four sons and his youngest brother Temüge, who had the weakest claim and who was never seriously considered.Even though there was a strong possibility Jochi was illegitimate, Genghis was not particularly concerned by this;nevertheless, he and Jochi became increasingly estranged over time, due to Jochi's preoccupation with his own appanage. After the siege of Gurganj, where he only reluctantly participated in besieging the wealthy city that would become part of his territory, he failed to give Genghis the normal share of the booty, which exacerbated the tensions.Genghis was angered by Jochi's refusal to return to him in 1223, and was considering sending Ögedei and Chagatai to bring him to heel when news came that Jochi had died from an illness.

Chagatai's attitude towards Jochi's possible succession—he had termed his elder brother "a Merkit bastard" and had brawled with him in front of their father—led Genghis to view him as uncompromising, arrogant, and narrow-minded, despite his great knowledge ofMongol legal customs.His elimination left Ögedei and Tolui as the two primary candidates. Tolui was unquestionably superior in military terms—his campaign in Khorasan had broken the Khwarazmian Empire, while his elder brother was far less able as a commander.Ögedei was also known todrink excessivelyeven by Mongol standards—it eventually caused his death in 1241.However, he possessed talents all his brothers lacked—he was generous and generally well-liked. Aware of his own lack of military skill, he was able to trust his capable subordinates, and unlike his elder brothers, compromise on issues; he was also more likely to preserve Mongol traditions than Tolui, whose wife Sorghaghtani, herself aNestorian Christian,was a patron of many religions including Islam. Ögedei was thus recognised as the heir to the Mongol throne.

AYuan dynastyportrait ofÖgedei,Genghis's third son and eventual successor.

Serving asregentafter Genghis's death, Tolui established a precedent for the customary traditions after a khan's death. These included the halting of all military offensives involving Mongol troops, the establishment of a lengthy mourning period overseen by the regent, and the holding of akurultaiwhich would nominate successors and select them.For Tolui, this presented an opportunity. He was still a viable candidate for succession and had the support of the family of Jochi. Any generalkurultai,attended by the commanders Genghis had promoted and honoured, would however observe their former ruler's desires without question and appoint Ögedei as ruler. It has been suggested that Tolui's reluctance to hold thekurultaiwas driven by the knowledge of the threat it posed to his ambitions.In the end, Tolui had to be persuaded by the advisorYelü Chucaito hold thekurultai;in 1229, it crowned Ögedei as khan, with Tolui in attendance.

Family

Further information:Wives of Genghis Khan

Börte, whom Temüjin marriedc. 1178,remained his senior wife.She gave birth to four sons and five daughters, who all became influential figures in the empire.Genghis granted Börte's sons lands and property through theMongol appanage system,while he secured marriage alliances by marrying her daughters to important families.Her children were:

1. Qojin, a daughter bornc. 1179,who later married Butu of the Ikires, one of Temüjin's earliest and closest supporters and the widower ofTemülün.
2. Jochi,a son bornc. 1182after Börte's kidnapping, whose paternity was thus suspect even though Temüjin accepted his legitimacy.Jochi predeceased Genghis; his appanage, along theIrtysh riverand extending intoSiberia,evolved into theGolden Horde.
3. Chagatai,a son bornc. 1184;his appanage was the formerQara Khitaiterritories surroundingAlmalighinTurkestan,which became theChagatai Khanate.
4. Ögedei,a son bornc. 1186,who received lands inDzungariaand who succeeded his father as ruler of the empire.
5. Checheyigen,a daughter bornc. 1188,whose marriage to Törelchi secured the loyalty of theOiratsto the north.
6. Alaqa,a daughter bornc. 1190,who married several members of theOngudtribe between 1207 and 1225.
7. Tümelün, a daughter bornc. 1192,who married Chigu of theOnggirattribe.
8. Tolui,a son bornc. 1193,who received lands near theAltai Mountainsas an appanage; two of his sons,MöngkeandKublai,later ruled the empire, while another,Hulagu,founded theIlkhanate.
9. Al Altan, a daughter bornc. 1196,married the powerfulUighurrulerBarchuk.Shortly after the accession ofGüyük Khanin the 1240s, she was tried and executed on charges that were later suppressed.

After Börte's final childbirth, Temüjin began to acquire a number of junior wives through conquest. These wives had all previously been princesses or queens, and Temüjin married them to demonstrate his political ascendancy. They included the Kereit princessIbaqa;the Tatar sistersYesugenandYesui;Qulan,a Merkit; Gürbesu, the queen of the NaimanTayang Khan;and two Chinese princesses, Chaqa and Qiguo, of the Western Xia and Jin dynasties respectively.The children of these junior wives were always subservient to those of Börte, with daughters married off to seal lesser alliances and sons, such as Qulan's childKölgen,never a candidate for succession.

Character and achievements

No eyewitness description or contemporaneous depiction of Genghis Khan survives.The Persian chronicler Juzjani and the Song diplomat Zhao Hong provide the two earliest descriptions.Both recorded that he was tall and strong with a powerful stature. Zhao wrote that Genghis had a broad brow and long beard while Juzjani commented on his cat's eyes and lack of grey hair. TheSecret Historyrecords that Börte's father remarked on his "flashing eyes and lively face" when meeting him.

Atwood has suggested that many of Genghis Khan's values, especially the emphasis he placed on an orderly society, derive from his turbulent youth.He valued loyalty above all and mutual fidelity became a cornerstone of his new nation.Genghis did not find it difficult to gain the allegiance of others: he was superbly charismatic even as a youth, as shown by the number of people who left existing social roles behind to join him.Although his trust was hard to earn, if he felt loyalty was assured, he granted his total confidence in return.Recognised for his generosity towards his followers, Genghis unhesitatingly rewarded previous assistance. Thenökodmost honoured at the 1206 kurultai were those who had accompanied him since the beginning, and those who had sworn the Baljuna Covenant with him at his lowest point.He took responsibility for the families ofnökodkilled in battle or who otherwise fell on hard times by raising a tax to provide them with clothing and sustenance.

Heaven grew weary of the excessive pride and luxury in China... I am from the barbaric North... I wear the same clothing and eat the same food as the cowherds and horse-herders. We make the same sacrifices and we share our riches. I look upon the nation as a new-born child and I care for my soldiers as if they were my brothers.

Genghis Khan's letter toChangchun

The principal source of steppe wealth was post-battle plunder, of which a leader would normally claim a large share; Genghis eschewed this custom, choosing instead to divide booty equally between himself and all his men.Disliking any form of luxury, he extolled the simple life of the nomad in a letter to Changchun, and objected to being addressed with obsequious flattery. He encouraged his companions to address him informally, give him advice, and criticise his mistakes.Genghis's openness to criticism and willingness to learn saw him seeking the knowledge of family members, companions, neighbouring states, and enemies.He sought and gained knowledge of sophisticated weaponry from China and the Muslim world, appropriated theUyghur Alpha betwith the help of the captured scribeTata-tonga,and employed numerous specialists across legal, commercial, and administrative fields.He also understood the need for a smooth succession and modern historians agree he showed good judgement in choosing his heir.

Although he is today renowned for his military conquests, very little is known about Genghis's personal generalship. His skills were more suited to identifying potential commanders.His institution of a meritocraticcommand structuregave the Mongol army military superiority, even though it was not technologically or tactically innovative.The army that Genghis created was characterised by its draconiandiscipline,its ability to gather and usemilitary intelligenceefficiently, a mastery ofpsychological warfare,and a willingness to be utterly ruthless.Genghis thoroughly enjoyed exacting vengeance on his enemies—the concept lay at the heart ofachi qari'ulqu(lit. '"good for good, evil for evil"'), the steppe code of justice. In exceptional circumstances, such as when Muhammad of Khwarazm executed his envoys, the need for vengeance overrode all other considerations.

Genghis came to believe the supreme deityTengrihad ordained a great destiny for him. Initially, the bounds of this ambition were limited only to Mongolia, but as success followed success and the reach of the Mongol nation expanded, he and his followers came to believe he was embodied withsuu(lit. ''divine grace'').Believing that he had an intimate connection with Heaven, anyone who did not recognise his right to world power was treated as an enemy. This viewpoint allowed Genghis to rationalise any hypocritical or duplicitous moments on his own part, such as killing hisandaJamukha or killingnökodwho wavered in their loyalties.

Legacy and historical assessment

Further information:Genghis Khan in popular culture,Pax Mongolica,andDestruction under the Mongol Empire

Genghis Khan and seven of his successors fromBust Portraits of Yuan Dynasty Emperors,by Anonymous, Yuan dynasty (1271–1368)

Genghis Khan left a vast and controversial legacy. His unification of the Mongol tribes and his foundation of thelargest contiguous state in world history"permanently alter[ed] the worldview of European, Islamic, [and] East Asian civilizations", according to Atwood.His conquests enabled the creation ofEurasiantrading systems unprecedented in their scale, which brought wealth and security to the tribes.Although he very likely did not codify the written body of laws known as theGreatYasa,he did reorganise the legal system and establish a powerful judicial authority underShigi Qutuqu.

On the other hand, his conquests were ruthless and brutal. The prosperous civilizations of China, Central Asia, and Persia were devastated by the Mongol assaults, and underwent multi-generational trauma and suffering as a result.Perhaps Genghis's greatest failing was his inability to create a working succession system—his division of his empire intoappanages,meant to ensure stability, actually did the reverse, as local and state-wide interests diverged and the empirebegan splittinginto theGolden Horde,theChagatai Khanate,theIlkhanate,and theYuan dynastyin the late 1200s.In the mid-1990s, theWashington Postacclaimed Genghis Khan as the "man of the millennium" who "embodied the half-civilized, half-savage duality of the human race".This complex image has remained prevalent in modern scholarship, with historians emphasising both Genghis Khan's positive and negative contributions.

Mongolia

For many centuries, Genghis was remembered in Mongolia as a religious figure, not a political one. AfterAltan Khanconverted toTibetan Buddhismin the late 1500s, Genghis wasdeifiedand given a central role in the Mongolian religious tradition.As a deity, Genghis drew upon Buddhist, shamanistic, andfolk traditions:for example, he was defined as a new incarnation of achakravartin(idealised ruler) likeAshoka,or ofVajrapani,the martialbodhisattva;he was connected genealogically to theBuddhaand to ancient Buddhist kings; he was invoked during weddings and festivals; and he took a large role inancestor venerationrituals.He also became the focus point of asleeping hero legend,which says he will return to help the Mongol people in a time of great need.His cult was centred at thenaiman chagan ordon(lit. '"Eight White Yurts"'), todaya mausoleuminInner Mongolia,China.

In the 19th and early 20th century, Genghis began to be viewed as thenational heroof the Mongolian people. Foreign powers recognised this: during itsoccupation of Inner Mongolia,Imperial Japanfunded the construction of a temple to Genghis, while both theKuomintangand theChinese Communist Partyused the memory of Genghis to woo potential allies in theChinese Civil War.This attitude was maintained duringWorld War II,when theSoviet-alignedMongolian People's Republicpromoted Genghis to build patriotic zeal against invaders; however, as he was a non-Russian hero who could serve as ananticommunistfigurehead, this attitude swiftly changed after the war's end. According to May, Genghis "was condemned as afeudaland reactionary lord [who] exploited the people. "His cult was repressed, the Alpha bet he chose was replaced with theCyrillic script,and celebrations planned for the 800th anniversary of his birth in 1962 were cancelled and denigrated after loud Soviet complaints. Because Chinese historians were largely more favourable towards him than their Soviet circumstances, Genghis played a minor role in theSino-Soviet split.

Depictions of Genghis Khan in modern Mongolia. Clockwise from top left: a statue outside theGovernment Palace;theequestrian statue at Tsonjin Boldog;anOrder of Genghis Khanmedal, the highestdecoration of Mongolia;and a₮20,000 banknote.

The arrival of the policies ofglasnostandperestroikain the 1980s paved the way for official rehabilitation. Less than two years afterthe 1990 revolution,Lenin Avenue in the capital Ulaanbaatar was renamed Chinggis Khan Avenue.Since then, Mongolia has namedChinggis Khaan International Airportand erected a large statue inSükhbaatar Square(which was itself renamed after Genghis between 2013 and 2016). His visage appears on items ranging frompostage stampsandhigh-value banknotesto brands of alcohol and toilet paper. In 2006, the Mongolian parliament officially discussed the trivialization of his name through excessive advertising.

Modern Mongolians tend to downplay Genghis's military conquests in favour of his political and civil legacy—they view the destructive campaigns as "a product of their time", in the words of the historian Michal Biran, and secondary to his other contributions to Mongolian and world history.His policies—such his use of thekurultai,his establishment of the rule of law through an independent judiciary, and human rights—are seen as the foundations that allowed the creation of the modern, democratic Mongolian state. Viewed as someone who brought peace and knowledge rather than war and destruction, Genghis Khan is idealised for making Mongolia the centre of international culture for a period.He is generally recognised as the founding father of Mongolia.

Elsewhere

The historical and modernMuslim worldhas associated Genghis Khan with a myriad of ideologies and beliefs.Its first instinct, as Islamic thought had never previously envisioned being ruled by a non-Muslim power, was to view Genghis as the herald ofthe approaching Judgement Day.Over time, as the world failed to end and as his descendants began converting to Islam, Muslims began to see Genghis as an instrument of God's will who was destined to strengthen the Muslim world by cleansing its innate corruption.

In post-Mongol Asia, Genghis was also a source of political legitimacy, becausehis descendantshad been recognised as the only ones entitled to reign. As a result, aspiring potentates not descended from him had to justify their rule, either by nominating puppet rulers of Genghis's dynasty, or by stressing their own connections to him.Most notably, the great conquerorTimur,who establishedhis own empirein Central Asia, did both: he was obliged to pay homage to Genghis's descendantsSoyurgatmishandSultan Mahmud,and his propaganda campaigns vastly exaggerated the prominence of his ancestorQarachar Noyan,one of Genghis's lesser commanders, depicting him as Genghis's blood relative and second-in-command. He also married at least two of Genghis's descendants.Babur,the founder of theMughal Empirein India,in turn derived his authority through his descent from both Timur and Genghis.Until the eighteenth century in Central Asia, Genghis was considered the progenitor of the social order, and was second only to the prophetMuhammadin legal authority.

Depiction of the 1258Siege of Baghdad,conducted by Genghis's grandsonHulegu Khanand seen in the modern Arab world as the culmination of Genghis's destructive conquests.

With the rise ofArab nationalismin the nineteenth century, theArab worldbegan to view Genghis increasingly negatively. Today, he is perceived as the ultimate "accursed enemy", a "barbarian savage who began the demolition of civilization which culminated in [theSiege of Baghdadin 1258] "by his grandsonHulegu.Similarly, Genghis is viewed extremely negatively in Russia, where historians have consistently portrayed the rule of the Golden Horde—the "Tatar Yoke" —as backwards, destructive, inimical to all progress, and the reason for all of Russia's flaws.His treatment in modern Central Asia and Turkey is more ambivalent: his position as a non-Muslim means other national traditions and heroes, such as Timur and theSeljuks,are viewed more highly.

Under the Yuan dynasty in China, Genghis was revered as the nation's creator, and he remained in this position even after the foundation of theMing dynastyin 1368. Although the late Ming somewhat disavowed his memory, the positive viewpoint was restored under theManchuQing dynasty(1644–1911), who positioned themselves as his heirs. The rise of 20th-centuryChinese nationalisminitially caused the denigration of Genghis as a traumatic occupier, but he was later resurrected as a useful political symbol on a variety of issues. ModernChinese historiographyhas generally viewed Genghis positively and he has been portrayed as a Chinese hero.In contemporary Japan, he is most known forthe legendthat he was originallyMinamoto no Yoshitsune,a samurai and tragic hero who was forced to commitseppukuin 1189.

The Western world, never directly affected by Genghis, has viewed him in shifting and contrasting ways. During the 14th century, as shown by the works of Marco Polo andGeoffrey Chaucer,he was seen as a just and wise ruler, but during the eighteenth century he came to embody theEnlightenmentstereotype of a tyrannical Oriental despot, and by the twentieth century he represented a prototypical barbarian warlord. In recent decades, Western scholarship has become increasingly nuanced, viewing Genghis as a more complex individual.

References

Bibliography

• Achenbach, Joel(31 December 1995)."The Era of His Ways".Washington Post.Retrieved27 November2023.
• Atwood, Christopher P.(2004).Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire.New York: Facts on File.ISBN978-0-8160-4671-3.
• Atwood, Christopher P.(2004a)."Validation by Holiness or Sovereignty: Religious Toleration as Political Theology in the Mongol World Empire of the Thirteenth Century"(PDF).The International History Review.26(2): 237–256.doi:10.1080/07075332.2004.9641030.ISSN0707-5332.JSTOR40109471.S2CID159826445.
• Barthold, Vasily(1992) [1900].Bosworth, Clifford E.(ed.).Turkestan Down To The Mongol Invasion(Third ed.). New Delhi:Munshiram Manoharlal.ISBN978-8-1215-0544-4.
• Bawden, Charles(2022)."Genghis Khan".Encyclopædia Britannica.Archivedfrom the original on 11 October 2022.Retrieved17 October2022.
• Biran, Michal (2012).Chinggis Khan.Makers of the Muslim World. London:Oneworld Publications.ISBN978-1-7807-4204-5.
• Birge, Bettine; Broadbridge, Anne F. (2023). "Women and Gender under Mongol Rule". In Biran, Michal;Kim, Hodong(eds.).The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.pp. 628–654.ISBN978-1-3163-3742-4.
• Boyle, John Andrew(1968).The Cambridge History of IranVolume 5: The Saljuq and Mongol Periods.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521069366.ISBN978-1-1390-5497-3.
• Broadbridge, Anne F. (2018).Women and the Making of the Mongol Empire.Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1-1086-3662-9.
• Brose, Michael C. (2014)."Chinggis (Genghis) Khan".InBrown, Kerry(ed.).The Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography.Great Barrington:Berkshire Publishing Group.ISBN978-1-9337-8266-9.
• Buell, Paul D. (2010)."Some Royal Mongol Ladies: Alaqa-beki, Ergene-Qatun and Others".World History Connected.7(1).Retrieved25 November2023.
• Cleaves, Francis Woodman(1955)."The Historicity of The Baljuna Covenant".Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies.18(3): 357–421.doi:10.2307/2718438.
• Craig, Erin (19 July 2017)."Why Genghis Khan's tomb can't be found".BBC.Archivedfrom the original on 18 July 2023.Retrieved19 July2023.
• Favereau, Marie(2021).The Horde: How the Mongols Changed the World.Cambridge:Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0-6742-7865-3.
• Fiaschetti, Francesca (2014)."Tradition, Innovation and the construction of Qubilai's diplomacy"(PDF).Ming Qing Yanjiu.18(1): 82.Archived(PDF)from the original on 11 June 2022.Retrieved10 January2020.
• Fitzhugh, William W.;Rossabi, Morris;Honeychurch, William, eds. (2009).Genghis Khan and the Mongolian Empire.Washington: Mongolian Preservation Foundation.ISBN978-0-2959-8957-0.
• Fogel, Joshua(2008)."Chinggis on the Japanese Mind".Mongolian Studies.30/31: 259–269.
• Golden, Peter(2009). "Inner Asia c.1200". InDi Cosmo, Nicola;Frank, Allen J.;Golden, Peter(eds.).The Chinggisid Age.The Cambridge History of Inner Asia.pp. 9–25.ISBN978-1-1390-5604-5.
• de Hartog, Leo (1999) [1979].Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World.London:I.B. Tauris.ISBN978-1-8606-4972-1.
• Hung, William(1951)."The Transmission of The Book Known as The Secret History of The Mongols".Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies.14(3/4): 433–492.doi:10.2307/2718184.
• Jackson, Peter(2017).The Mongols and the Islamic World: From Conquest to Conversion.New Haven:Yale University Press.ISBN978-0-3001-2533-7.
• Jackson, Peter(2023).From Genghis Khan to Tamerlane: The Reawakening of Mongol Asia.New Haven:Yale University Press.ISBN978-0-3002-5112-8.
• Jagchid, Sechin (1979)."The Mongol Khans and Chinese Buddhism and Taoism".The Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies.2(1): 7–28.
• Kwanten, Luc(1978)."The Career of Muqali: A Reassessment".Bulletin of Sung and Yüan Studies.14:31–38.
• Lane, George(2004).Genghis Khan and Mongol Rule.Westport:Greenwood Publishing Group.ISBN978-0-3133-2528-1.
• Liu, Fang-ju; Cheng, Shu-fang (2015).Quốc lập cố cung viện bảo tàng tàng Mông Cổ văn vật tổng hợp[Cultural Relics of the Mongols in the National Palace Museum Collection] (in Chinese). Taipei:National Palace Museum.ISBN978-9-5756-2734-8.
• Lkhagvasuren, Gavaachimed; et al. (2016)."Molecular Genealogy of a Mongol Queen's Family and Her Possible Kinship with Genghis Khan".PLoS ONE.11(9): 433.Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1161622L.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0161622.ISSN1932-6203.PMC5023095.PMID27627454.
• Man, John(2004).Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection.London:Bantam Press.ISBN978-0-3129-8965-1.
• Man, John(2014).The Mongol Empire: Genghis Khan, His Heirs, and the Founding of Modern China.London:Penguin Random House.ISBN978-0-5521-6880-9.
• May, Timothy (2007).The Mongol Art of War: Chinggis Khan and the Mongol Military System.Yardley:Westholme.ISBN978-1-5941-6046-2.
• May, Timothy (2008).Culture and Customs of Mongolia.Culture and Customs of Asia.Westport:Greenwood Publishing Group.ISBN978-0-3133-3983-7.
• May, Timothy (2012).The Mongol Conquests in World History.London:Reaktion Books.ISBN978-1-8618-9971-2.
• May, Timothy (2018).The Mongol Empire.Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press.ISBN978-0-7486-4237-3.
• McLynn, Frank(2015).Genghis Khan: His Conquests, His Empire, His Legacy.New York:Hachette Books.ISBN978-0-3068-2395-4.
• Morgan, David(1986).The Mongols.The Peoples of Europe. Oxford:Blackwell Publishing.ISBN978-0-6311-7563-6.
• Morgan, David(1990)."Čengīz Khan".Encyclopædia Iranica.Vol. V. pp. 133–135.Retrieved10 December2022.
• Mote, Frederick W.(1999).Imperial China, 900–1800.Cambridge:Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0-6740-1212-7.
• Pelliot, Paul(1959).Notes on Marco Polo(PDF).Vol. I. Paris:Imprimerie nationale.OCLC1741887.Archived(PDF)from the original on 31 August 2021.Retrieved17 October2022.
• Porter, Jonathan (2016).Imperial China, 1350–1900.Lanham:Rowman & Littlefield.ISBN978-1-4422-2293-9.
• Pow, Stephen (2017). "The Last Campaign and Death of Jebe Noyan".Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.27(1): 31–51.doi:10.1017/S135618631600033X.
• The Secret History of the Mongols: A Mongolian Epic Chronicle of the Thirteenth Century(Shorter Version; edited by John C. Street). Translated byde Rachewiltz, Igor.2015.Retrieved22 November2022.
• Ratchnevsky, Paul (1991).Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy.Translated byThomas Haining.Oxford:Blackwell Publishing.ISBN978-0-6311-6785-3.
• Rosenfeld, Gavriel D.(2018)."Who Was" Hitler "Before Hitler? Historical Analogies and the Struggle to Understand Nazism, 1930–1945".Central European History.51(2): 249–281.
• Sanders, Alan J. K. (2017).Historical Dictionary of Mongolia.Vol. 1 (Fourth ed.).Lanham:Rowman & Littlefield.ISBN978-1-5381-0227-5.
• Sverdrup, Carl (2017).The Mongol Conquests: The Military Campaigns of Genghis Khan and Sübe'etei.Solihull:Helion & Company.ISBN978-1-9133-3605-9.
• Togan, Isenbike (2016). "Otchigin's Place in the Transformation from Family to Dynasty". In Zimonyi, Istvan; Karatay, Osman (eds.).Central Asia in the Middle Ages: Studies in Honour of Peter B. Golden.Turcologica.Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz Verlag.pp. 407–424.ISBN978-3-4471-0664-1.
• Waley, Arthur(2002).The Secret History of the Mongols: and other pieces.London: House of Stratus.ISBN978-1-8423-2370-0.
• Waterson, James (2013).Defending Heaven: China's Mongol Wars, 1209–1370.Barnsley:Frontline Books.ISBN978-1-7834-6943-7.
• Weatherford, Jack(2004).Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World.New York:Crown Publishing Group.ISBN978-0-3072-3781-1.
• Wilkinson, Endymion(2012) [1973].Chinese History: A New Manual(Third ed.).Cambridge:Harvard University Press.ISBN978-0-6740-6715-8.
• Wright, David Curtis (2017) [2016]."Genghis Khan".Oxford Bibliographies:Military History.Oxford:Oxford University Press.doi:10.1093/OBO/9780199791279-0154.
• You, Wenpeng; Galassi, Francesco M.; Varotto, Elena; Henneberg, Maciej (2021)."Genghis Khan's death (AD 1227): An unsolvable riddle or simply a pandemic disease?".International Journal of Infectious Diseases.104:347–348.doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2020.12.089.hdl:10447/620953.ISSN1201-9712.PMID33444749.S2CID231610775.