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Tenochtitlan

Coordinates:19°26′N99°8′W/ 19.433°N 99.133°W/19.433; -99.133
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Not to be confused withTeotihuacan.
"México-Tenochtitlan" redirects here. For the bus station, seeMéxico-Tenochtitlan (Mexico City Metrobús).
For the municipality in the Mexican state of Veracruz, seeTenochtitlán, Veracruz.For the Mexico City Metro station, seeZócalo/Tenochtitlan metro station.

Mexico-Tenochtitlan
1325–1521
Glyph of Tenochtitlan
Glyph
Tenochtitlan and Lake Texcoco in 1519
Tenochtitlan and Lake Texcoco in 1519
First European map of Tenochtitlan, 1524
First European map of Tenochtitlan, 1524
CapitalTenochtitlan
19°26′N99°8′W/ 19.433°N 99.133°W/19.433; -99.133
Common languagesClassical Nahuatl
Religion
Aztec religion
GovernmentMonarchy
Historical eraPre-Columbian
• Foundation
1325
• Formation of theAztec Empire
1428
1521
Population
• Estimate
200,000+[1][2]
 Succeeded by
New Spain
Tenochtitlan
Ruins of theTemplo Mayor,main temple of theMexicapeople
Tenochtitlan is located in Mexico
Tenochtitlan
Location of Tenochtitlan
Tenochtitlan is located in Mesoamerica
Tenochtitlan
Tenochtitlan (Mesoamerica)
Alternative nameMexico-Tenochtitlan
LocationMexico City, Mexico
RegionLake Texcoco,Valley of Mexico
Coordinates19°26′N99°8′W/ 19.433°N 99.133°W/19.433; -99.133
History
FoundedUnclear date, declared 13 March 1325
AbandonedConquered in 1521
PeriodsLate Postclassic
CulturesAztecs
Site notes
Official nameHistoric Centre of Mexico City and Xochimilco
CriteriaCultural: ii, iii, iv, v
Reference412
Inscription1987 (11thSession)

Tenochtitlan,[a]also known asMexico-Tenochtitlan,[b]was a large Mexicanaltepetlin what is now thehistoric center of Mexico City.The exact date of the founding of the city is unclear, but the date 13 March 1325 was chosen in 1925 to celebrate the 600th anniversary of the city.[3]The city was built on an island in what was thenLake Texcocoin theValley of Mexico.The city was the capital of the expandingAztec Empirein the 15th century[4]until it wascaptured by the Tlaxcaltec and the Spanish in 1521.

At its peak, it was the largestcityin thepre-ColumbianAmericas.It subsequently became acabeceraof theViceroyalty of New Spain.Today, the ruins ofTenochtitlanare in the historic center of the Mexican capital. The World Heritage Site ofXochimilcocontains what remains of the geography (water, boats,floating gardens) of the Mexica capital.

Tenochtitlanwas one of two Mexicaāltepētl(city-statesorpolities) on the island, the other beingTlatelolco.

Etymology[edit]

Traditionally, the nameTenochtitlanwas thought to come fromNahuatltetl[ˈtetɬ]( "rock" ) andnōchtli[ˈnoːtʃtɬi]( "prickly pear") and is often thought to mean," Among the prickly pears [growing among] rocks. "However, one attestation in the late 16th-century manuscript known as" the Bancroft dialogues "suggest the second vowel was short, so that the true etymology remains uncertain.[5]Another view is that the city was named afterTenoch.[4]

Geography[edit]

The western side of the shallowLake Texcoco.Tenochtitlanis the southern part of the main island (below the red line). The northern part isTlatelolco.

Tenochtitlancovered an estimated 8 to 13.5 km2(3.1 to 5.2 sq mi),[citation needed]situated on the western side of the shallowLake Texcoco.

At the time of Spanish conquests, Mexico City comprised bothTenochtitlanandTlatelolco.The city extended from north to south, from the north border ofTlatelolcoto theswamps,which by that time were gradually disappearing to the west; the city ended more or less at the present location ofAvenida Bucareli.[citation needed]

The city was connected to the mainland by bridges and causeways leading to the north, south, and west. The causeways were interrupted by bridges that allowed canoes and other water traffic to pass freely. The bridges could be pulled away, if necessary, to protect the city.[6][7]The city was interlaced with a series ofcanals,so that all sections of the city could be visited either on foot or viacanoe.[8]

LakeTexcocowas the largest of five interconnected lakes. Since it formed in anendorheic basin,LakeTexcocowasbrackish.During the reign ofMoctezuma I,the "leveeofNezahualcoyotl"was constructed, reputedly designed byNezahualcoyotl.Estimated to be 12 to 16 km (7.5 to 9.9 mi) in length, the levee was completedc. 1453.The levee kept freshspring-fed water in the waters aroundTenochtitlanand kept the brackish waters beyond the dike, to the east.[9]

Two doubleaqueducts,each more than 4 km (2.5 mi) long and made ofterracotta,[10]provided the city with fresh water from the springs atChapultepec.This was intended mainly for cleaning and washing. For drinking, water from mountain springs was preferred. Most of the population liked to bathe twice a day;Moctezumawas said to take four baths a day. According to the context of Aztec culture in literature, the soap that they most likely used was the root of a plant calledcopalxocotl(Saponariaamericana),[11]and to clean their clothes they used the root ofmetl(Agave americana). Also, the upper classes and pregnant women washed themselves in atemāzcalli,similar to asaunabath, which is still used in the south of Mexico. This was also popular in other Mesoamerican cultures.

City plans[edit]

When we saw so many cities and villages built in the water and other great towns on dry land we were amazed and said that it was like the enchantments (...) on account of the great towers and cues and buildings rising from the water, and all built of masonry. And some of our soldiers even asked whether the things that we saw were not a dream? (...) I do not know how to describe it, seeing things as we did that had never been heard of or seen before, not even dreamed about.

— Bernal Díaz del Castillo,The Conquest of New Spain[12]

The city was divided into four zones, orcamps;eachcampwas divided into 20 districts (calpullis,Nahuatl languages:calpōlli,pronounced[kaɬˈpoːlːi],meaning "large house" ); and eachcalpulli,or 'big house', was crossed by streets ortlaxilcalli.There were three main streets that crossed the city, each leading to one of the three causeways to the mainland ofTepeyac,Iztapalapa,andTlacopan.[13]Bernal Díaz del Castilloreported that they were wide enough for ten horses. Surrounding the raised causeways were artificial floating gardens with canal waterways and gardens of plants, shrubs, and trees.[14]Thecalpulliswere divided by channels used for transportation, with wood bridges that were removed at night.

The earliest European images of the city werewoodcutspublished inAugsburgaround 1522.[15]

Marketplaces[edit]

The Tlatelolco Marketplace as depicted atThe Field Museum,Chicago

Eachcalpullihad its owntiyanquiztli(marketplace), but there was also a main marketplace inTlatelolco–Tenochtitlan's sister city. Cortés estimated it was twice the size of the city ofSalamancawith about 60,000 people trading daily.Bernardino de Sahagúnprovides a more conservative population estimate of 20,000 on ordinary days and 40,000 on feast days. There were also specialized markets in the other central Mexican cities.

Public buildings[edit]

A picture of Tenochtitlan and a model of theTemplo Mayorat theNational Museum of Anthropology of Mexico City

In the center of the city were the public buildings, temples, and palaces. Inside a walled square, 500 meters (1,600 ft) to a side, was the ceremonial center. There were about 45 public buildings, including: theTemplo Mayor,which was dedicated to the Aztec patron deityHuitzilopochtliand the Rain GodTlaloc;the temple ofQuetzalcoatl;thetlachtli(ball gamecourt) with thetzompantlior rack of skulls; the Sun Temple, which was dedicated toTonatiuh;the Eagle's House, which was associated with warriors and the ancient power of rulers; the platforms for the gladiatorial sacrifice; and some minor temples.[16]

Outside was the palace of Moctezuma with 100 rooms, each with its own bath, for the lords and ambassadors of allies and conquered people. Also located nearby was thecuicalli,or house of the songs, and thecalmecac.[17]

The city had great symmetry. All constructions had to be approved by thecalmimilocatl,a functionary in charge of the city planning.

Palaces of Moctezuma II[edit]

The palace ofMoctezuma IIalso had two houses orzoos,one forbirds of preyand another for otherbirds,reptiles,andmammals.About 300 people were dedicated to the care of the animals.

There was also abotanical gardenand anaquarium.The aquarium had ten ponds of salt water and ten ponds of fresh water, containing various fish and aquatic birds. Places like this also existed inTexcoco,Chapultepec,Huaxtepec(now calledOaxtepec), andTexcotzingo.[18]

Social classes[edit]

National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City. Reconstruction of an Aztec market in Tenochtitlan.

Tenochtitlan can be considered the most complex society in Mesoamerica in regard to social stratification. The complex system involved manysocial classes.Themacehualtinwere commoners who lived outside the island city of Tenochtitlan. Thepipiltinwere noblemen who were relatives of leaders and former leaders, and lived in the confines of the island.Cuauhipiltin,or eagle nobles, were commoners who impressed the nobles with their martial prowess, and were treated as nobles.[13]Teteuctinwere the highest class, rulers of various parts of the empire, including the king.Tlacohtinwereslaves or indentured servants.Finally, thepochtecawere merchants who traveled all of Mesoamerica trading. The membership of this class was based on heredity.Pochtecacould become very rich because they did not pay taxes, but they had to sponsor the ritual feast ofXocotl Huetzifrom the wealth that they obtained from their trade expeditions.

Status was displayed by the location and type of house where a person lived. Ordinary people lived in houses made of reeds plastered with mud and roofed with thatch. People who were better off had houses of adobe brick with flat roofs.[13]The wealthy had houses of stone masonry with flat roofs. They most likely made up the house complexes that were arranged around the inner court. The higher officials in Tenochtitlan lived in the great palace complexes that made up the city.

Adding even more complexity to Aztec social stratification was thecalpōlli.Calpōlliis a group of families related by either kinship or proximity. These groups consist of both elite members of Aztec society and commoners. Elites provided commoners with arable land and nonagricultural occupations, and commoners performed services for chiefs and gave tribute.[19]

History[edit]

A Mexico Citymonument commemorating the foundation of Tenochtitlan

Tenochtitlan was the capital of the Mexican civilization of theMexicapeople, founded in 1325. The state religion of the Mexica civilization awaited the fulfillment of an ancient prophecy: the wandering tribes would find the destined site for a great city whose location would be signaled by an eagle with a snake in its beak perched atop a cactus (Opuntia), which had grown from the heart ofCopil.[20][21]

The Mexica saw this vision on what was then a small swampy island in LakeTexcoco,a vision that is now immortalized inMexico's coat of armsand on theMexican flag.Not deterred by the unfavourable terrain, they set about building their city, using thechinampasystem (misnamed as "floating gardens" ) for agriculture and to dry and expand the island.

A thriving culture developed, and the Mexica civilization came to dominate other tribes around Mexico. The small natural island was perpetually enlarged asTenochtitlangrew to become the largest and most powerful city inMesoamerica.Commercial routes were developed that brought goods from places as far as theGulf of Mexico,the Pacific Ocean and perhaps even theInca Empire.[22]

After a flood ofLake Texcoco,the city was rebuilt during the rule ofAhuitzotl,which was between 1486 and 1502, in a style that made it one of the grandest ever in Mesoamerica.

Spanish conquistadorHernán Cortésarrived in Tenochtitlan on 8 November 1519. Although there are not precise numbers, the city's population has been estimated at between 200,000 and 400,000 inhabitants,[23]placing Tenochtitlan among the largest cities in the world at that time.[24]Compared to the cities of Europe, onlyParis,VeniceandConstantinoplemight have rivaled it. It was five times the size of theLondonofHenry VIII.[13]In a letter to the Spanish king, Cortés wrote thatTenochtitlanwas as large asSevilleorCórdoba.Cortes' men were in awe at the sight of the splendid city and many wondered if they were dreaming.[25]

Although some popular sources put the number as high as 350,000,[26]the most common estimates of the population are of over 200,000 people. One of the few comprehensive academic surveys of Mesoamerican city and town sizes arrived at a population of 212,500 living on 13.5 km2(5.2 sq mi).[27]It is also said that at one time, Moctezuma had rule over an empire of almost five million people in central and southern Mexico because he had extended his rule to surrounding territories to gain tribute and prisoners to sacrifice to the gods.[14]

Conquest[edit]

Further information:Fall of Tenochtitlan
The Conquest of Tenochtitlan

When Cortés and his men invadedTenochtitlan,Moctezuma IIchose to welcome Cortés as an ambassador rather than risk a war which might quickly be joined by aggrieved indigenous people.

As Cortés approachedTenochtitlan,theTenochcahcelebratedToxcatl.At this event the most prominent warriors ofaltepetl[clarification needed]would dance in front of a huge statue ofHuitzilopochtli.The Spanish leader,Pedro de Alvarado,who was left in charge, worried that the natives planned a surprise attack. He captured three natives and tortured them until they said that this[clarification needed]was indeed true. During the festival, the Spaniards came heavily armed and closed off every exit from the courtyard so that no one would escape. This happened during their last days in Tenochtitlan.[28]

Nobles lined each side of the city's main causeway, which extended about a league. Walking down the center came Moctezuma II, with two lords at his side, one his brother, the ruler ofIztapalapa.Cortés dismounted and was greeted by the ruler and his lords, but forbidden to touch him. Cortés gave him a necklace of crystals, placing it over his neck.[29]

Mexica pyramid of Ehecatl in the Metro Pino Suárez station, Mexico City Subway.

They were then brought to a large house that would serve as their home for their stay in the city. Once they were settled, Moctezuma himself sat down and spoke with Cortés. The great ruler declared that anything that they needed would be theirs to have.[30]He was thrilled to have visitors of such stature. Although the Spaniards were seeking gold, Moctezuma expressed that he had very little of the sort, but all of it was to be given to Cortés if he desired it.[31]

Soon after arriving inTenochtitlan,Cortés came up against problems. AtVera Cruz,the officer left in charge received a letter fromQualpopoca,the leader ofNueva Almería,asking to become a vassal of the Spaniards. He requested that officials be sent to him so that he could confirm his submission. To reach the province, the officers would have to travel through hostile land. The officer in charge of Vera Cruz decided to send four officers to meet with Qualpopoca.[32]

When they arrived, they were captured and two were killed, the other two escaping through the woods. Upon their return to Vera Cruz, the officer in charge was infuriated, and led troops to storm Almería. Here they learned that Moctezuma was supposedly the one who ordered the officers executed.[33]Back inTenochtitlan,Cortés detained Moctezuma and questioned him.[34]Though no serious conclusions were reached, this negatively affected the relationship between Moctezuma and the Spaniards.[35]

Cortés subsequently besiegedTenochtitlanfor over 90 days, causing a famine.[14]Having gained control, he then directed the systematic destruction and leveling of the city;[36]and began its rebuilding, despite opposition. The reconstruction involved the creation of a central area designated for Spanish use (thetraza). The outer Indian section, now dubbedSan Juan Tenochtitlan,continued to be governed by the previous indigenous elite and was divided into the same subdivisions as before.[37]

The people ofTenochtitlanwere soon exposed to diseases to which they had no immunity. Symptoms were often delayed for up to ten days, when the infection would spread throughout the body, causing sores, pain, and high fever. People were weak to the point that they could not move, nor obtain food and water. Burial of the dead became difficult to impossible, due to the pervasiveness of the people's illness. The people of Tenochtitlan began to starve and weaken. The death toll rose steadily over the course of the next 60 days.[38][when?][clarification needed]

Colonial era[edit]

Main article:History of Mexico City
Districts of Tenochtitlan overlaid on a map of modern streets of Mexico City, with thetrazashown in gray

Cortés founded the Spanish capital of Mexico City on the ruins of Tenochtitlan. Despite the extensive damage to the built environment, the site retained symbolic power and legitimacy as the capital of the Aztec empire, which Cortés sought to appropriate. For a time thisciudad de españoles,the highest rank in the Spanish hierarchy of settlement designation, was called Mexico–Tenochtitlan.Charles Gibsondevotes the final chapter of his classic work,The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule,to what he called "The City",[39]with later historians building on his work.[40]The Spaniards established acabildoor town council, which had jurisdiction over the Spanish residents. The Spanish established a Europeans-only zone in the center of the city, an area of 13 blocks in each direction of the central plaza, which was thetraza.Although many native residents died during the siege of Tenochtitlan, the indigenous still had a strong presence in the city, and were settled in two main areas of the island, designated San Juan Tenochtitlan and Santiago Tlatelolco, each with a municipal council that functioned the entire colonial period. San Juan Tenochtitlan was a Spanish administrative creation, which amalgamated four indigenous sections, with each losing territory to the Spanishtraza.The Spanish laid out the streets of thetrazain a checker board pattern, with straight streets and plazas at intervals, whereas the indigenous portions of the city were irregular in layout and built of modest materials. In the colonial period both San Juan Tenochtitlan and Santiago Tlatelolco retained jurisdiction over settlements on the mainland that they could draw on for labor and tribute demanded by the Spanish, but increasingly those subordinate settlements (sujetos) were able to gain their autonomy with their own rulers and separate relationship with the Spanish rulers.[41]Concern about the health of the indigenous population in early post-conquest Mexico–Tenochtitlan led to the founding of a royal hospital for indigenous residents.[42]

There are a number of colonial-era pictorial manuscripts dealing with Tenochtitlan–Tlatelolco, which shed light on litigation between Spaniards and indigenous over property.[43]An account with information about the war of Tenochtitlan against its neighbor Tlatelolco in 1473 and the Spanish conquest in 1521 is theAnales de Mexico y Tlatelolco, 1473, 1521–22.[44]Anthropologist Susan Kellogg has studied colonial-era inheritance patterns of Nahuas in Mexico City, usingNahuatl- and Spanish-language testaments.[45] On the 13th of August 1521, after over two months of fighting,Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés succeeded in bringing about the fall of Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec empire, and consequently brought an end to the Aztec empire

Ruins[edit]

TheTemplo MayorinMexico-Tenochtitlan,the Aztec capital.
Templo Mayorof Mexico-Tenochtitlan ruins.
The ruins of the Templo Mayor
Fundación de México(The foundation of Mexico) – Tenochtitlán byRoberto Cueva del Río

Tenochtitlan's main temple complex, theTemplo Mayor,was dismantled and the central district of the Spanish colonial city was constructed on top of it. The great temple was destroyed by the Spanish during the construction of a cathedral. The location of the Templo Mayor was rediscovered in the early 20th century, but major excavations did not take place until 1978–1982, after utility workers came across a massive stone disc depicting the nude dismembered body of the moon goddessCoyolxauhqui.The disc is 3.25 meters (10 ft 8 in) in diameter, and is held at the Templo Mayor Museum.[46]

The ruins, constructed over seven periods, were built on top of each other. The resulting weight of the structures caused them to sink into the sediment of Lake Texcoco; the ruins now rest at an angle instead of horizontally.

Mexico City'sZócalo,thePlaza de la Constitución,is located at the site of Tenochtitlan's original central plaza and market, and many of the originalcalzadasstill correspond to modern city streets. TheAztec calendar stonewas located in the ruins. This stone is 4 meters (13 ft 1 in) in diameter and weighs over 18.1 metric tons (20 short tons; 17.9 long tons). It was once located half-way up the great pyramid. This sculpture was carved around 1470 under the rule of KingAxayacatl,the predecessor ofTizoc,and is said to tell the history of the Mexicas and to prophesy the future.[47]

In August 1987, archaeologists discovered a mix of 1,789 human bones five meters (16 ft 5 in) below street level in Mexico City.[48]The burial dates back to the 1480s and lies at the foot of the main temple in the sacred ceremonial precinct of the Aztec capital. The bones are from children, teenagers and adults. A complete skeleton of a young woman was also found at the site.[48]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^EitherTenochtitlanpronounced[tenot͡ʃˈtít͡ɬan̥]orTenōchtitlanpronounced[tenoːt͡ʃˈtít͡ɬan̥]
  2. ^EitherMēxihco Tenochtitlanpronounced[meːˈʃíʔkotenot͡ʃˈtít͡ɬan̥]orMēxihco Tenōchtitlanpronounced[meːˈʃíʔkotenoːt͡ʃˈtít͡ɬan̥];Spanish:México-Tenochtitlan

References[edit]

  1. ^"Aztecs".history.9 September 2020.
  2. ^http:// famsi.org/research/pohl/sites/tenochtitlan.html#:~:text=Scholars%20estimate%20that%20between%20200%2C000,the%20mainland%20into%20the%20city.
  3. ^Castillo Ledon, Luis (1925).La Fundación de la Ciudad de México 1325–1925Editorial CVLTURA pp. 5, 55, 56
  4. ^ab"Tenochtitlán, la capital Azteca".National Geographic(in Spanish). No. 54. p. 76. Archived fromthe originalon 22 March 2012.Retrieved8 April2011.
  5. ^Frances Karttunen(1983)An Analytical Dictionary of Nahuatlp. 225, Texas linguistic series, University of Texas, AustinISBN978-0-2927-0365-0;OCLC230535203
  6. ^Thomas, Hugh (1994).The Conquest Of Mexico.p. 277.ISBN0-7126-6079-8.
  7. ^Biar, Alexandra (2021). "Navigation Paths and Urbanism in the Basin of Mexico Before the Conquest".Ancient Mesoamerica.34:104–123.doi:10.1017/S0956536121000328.ISSN0956-5361.S2CID244567487– via Cambridge Journals Online.
  8. ^Thomas, Hugh (1994).The Conquest Of Mexico.pp. 3–5.ISBN0-7126-6079-8.
  9. ^Thomas, Hugh (1994).The Conquest Of Mexico.p. 493.ISBN0-7126-6079-8.
  10. ^Cortés, H.
  11. ^Aguilar-Moreno, Manuel (2006).Handbook to life in the Aztec world.Infobase Publishing.p. 368.ISBN978-0-8160-5673-6.Retrieved2 November2010.
  12. ^Bernal Diaz Del Castillo, "The Discovery And Conquest Of Mexico 1517 1521", Edited by Genaro Garcia, Translated with an Introduction and Notes?, pp. 269–, A. P. Maudslay, first pub 1928[1]
  13. ^abcdCoe, M. 2008, p. 193.
  14. ^abcWalker, C. 1980, p. 162.
  15. ^"Newspaper About the Country that the Spaniards Found in 1521, Called Yucatan".World Digital Library.17 October 2011.Retrieved22 June2014.
  16. ^Coe, M. 2008, p. 193
  17. ^Cortés, H. 1520, p. 87.
  18. ^Cortés, H. 1520, p. 89.
  19. ^Coe, M. 2008, pp. 194–196.
  20. ^Bahr, Donald M. (2004)."Temptation and Glory in One Pima and Two Aztec Mythologies".Journal of the Southwest.46(4): 742.ISSN0894-8410.JSTOR40170283.
  21. ^Aveni, A. F.; Calnek, E. E.; Hartung, H. (1988)."Myth, Environment, and the Orientation of the Templo Mayor of Tenochtitlan".American Antiquity.53(2): 292.doi:10.2307/281020.ISSN0002-7316.JSTOR281020.S2CID162323851.
  22. ^Blainey, G.A Very Short History of the World,2007
  23. ^The Native population of the Americas in 1492.Denevan, William M. (2nd ed.). Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press. 1992.ISBN9780299134334.OCLC648253221.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: others (link)
  24. ^Levy, Buddy (2008).Conquistador: Hernán Cortés, King Montezuma, and the Last Stand of the Aztecs.Bantam Books. p. 106.ISBN978-0553384710.
  25. ^Butterworth, Douglas; Chance, John K. (1981).Latin American urbanization.CUP Archive. p. 2.ISBN978-0-521-28175-1.
  26. ^Stannard, D. (1992)
  27. ^Smith (2005), p. 411
  28. ^Townsend, Camilla. 2006. 102–103.
  29. ^Cortés, H. 1520, p. 69.
  30. ^Cortés, H. 1520, p. 71.
  31. ^Cortés, H. 1520, p. 70.
  32. ^Cortés, H. 1520, p. 72.
  33. ^Cortés, Hernan. 1520, p. 73.
  34. ^Cortés, H. 1520, p. 77.
  35. ^Stannard, D. 1992, 214.
  36. ^"The Colonial Spanish-American City: Urban Life in the Age of Atlantic Capitalism",Jay Kinsbruner,University of Texas Press, 2005, p. 20,ISBN0-292-70668-5
  37. ^Stannard, D. 1992, 109.
  38. ^Townsend, Camilla. 2006, 109–110.
  39. ^Charles Gibson,The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule.Stanford: Stanford University Press 1964.
  40. ^Barbara Munday,The Death of Aztec Tenochtitlan, the Life of Mexico City.Austin: University of Texas Press 2016.ISBN978-1477317136
  41. ^Gibson,Aztecs Under Spanish Rule,pp. 368–377.
  42. ^Leiby, John S. (1995). "The Royal Indian Hospital of Mexico City, 1553–1680".The Historian.57(3): 573–580.doi:10.1111/j.1540-6563.1995.tb02021.x.JSTOR24451466.
  43. ^Glass, John B. in collaboration with Donald Robertson. "A Census of Native Middle American Pictorial Manuscripts". article 23,Guide to Ethnohistorical SourcesPart 3;Handbook of Middle American Indians.University of Texas Press 1975, census #209, 210 p. 166–167.ISBN0-292-70154-3
  44. ^Glass and Robertson. "A Census of Native Middle American Pictorial Manuscripts". article 23, census #211 p. 167.ISBN0-292-70154-3
  45. ^Susan Kellogg,Law and the Transformation of Aztec Culture, 1500–1700.Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1995.
  46. ^Snow, Dean R. (2010).Archaeology of Native North America.Boston: Prentice Hall.ISBN978-0-13-615686-4.
  47. ^Walker, pp. 162–167
  48. ^abA.R. Williams (29 August 2012)."Venerable Bones".National Geographic.Archived fromthe originalon 1 September 2012.

Bibliography[edit]

Further reading[edit]

  • Calnek, Edward. "Settlement Pattern and Chinampa Agriculture at Tenochtitlan."American Antiquity37.1. (1973) 190–95.
  • Calnek, Edward. "El sistema de mercado en Tenochtitlan." InEconomía política e ideología en el México prehispánico.Eds. Pedro Carrasco and Johanna Broda, pp. 97–114. Mexico City: Centro de Investigaciones Superiores del Instituto de Antropología e Historia, 1978.
  • Calnek, Edward. "Tenochtitlan in the Early Colonial Period." Acts of the XLII International Congress of Americanists 8, 1976 (1979) 35–40.
  • Calnek, Edward. "Tenochtitlan-Tlatelolco: the Natural History of a City." InEl Urbanismo en Mesoamérica/Urbanism in Mesoamerica,vol. 1. edited by W.T. Sanders et al., 149–202. Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia; University Park: Pennsylvania State University 2003.
  • Gibson, Charles.The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule.Stanford: Stanford University Press 1964.ISBN978-0804709125
  • Molina Montes, Augusto F. (December 1980). "The building of Tenochtitlan".National Geographic.Vol. 158, no. 6. pp. 753–764.ISSN0027-9358.OCLC643483454.
  • Mundy, Barbara E. "Mapping the Aztec Capital: the 1524 Nuremberg Map of Tenochtitlan, Its Sources and Meanings."Imago Mundi50 (1998), 1–22.
  • Mundy, Barbara E. "Place-Names in Mexico-Tenochtitlan."Ethnohistory61 (2) Spring 2014. 329–355.
  • Mundy, Barbara E.The Death of Aztec Tenochtitlan, the Life of Mexico City.Austin: University of Texas Press 2015.ISBN978-1477317136
  • Toussaint, Manuel, Federico Gómez de Orozco, and Justino Fernández,Planos de la Ciudad de México.XVI Congreso Internacional de Planificación y de la Habitación. Mexico City: Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México 1938.
  • Townsend, Richard F.State and Cosmos in the Art of Tenochtitlan.Studies in Pre-Columbian Art and Archeology 20. Washington D.C., Dumbarton Oaks 1979.

External links[edit]

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