Terrorism in Canada

Terrorism and mass attacks in Canadaincludesacts of terrorism,as well asmass shootings,vehicle-ramming attacks,mass stabbings,and other such acts committed inCanadathat people may associate with terroristic tactics but have not been classified as terrorism by the Canadian legal system. (For example, the2018 Toronto shootingwas a mass shooting that law enforcement officials did not connect to terrorism.)

TheCriminal Code of Canadadefines terrorist activity to include an "act oromissionundertaken, in or outside Canada, for a political, religious or ideological purpose, that is intended to intimidate the public with regard to its security, including its economic security, or to compel a person, government or organization (whether in or outside Canada) to do or refrain from doing any act, and that intentionally causes one of a number of specific forms of serious harm. "As such, some of the terrorist acts listed here are related to external events and nationalities, while others, such as theFLQ crisisin 1970, are related to internal tensions within the country.

Matters relevant to overallcounterterrorism in Canada,as well asnational securitywithin the federal government, fall under the jurisdiction of theMinister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness,who headsPublic Safety Canada(PSC).Two other ministers with particularly crucial roles with respect to counter-terrorism are theMinisters of Foreign Affairsandof National Defence.

The Canadian government uses theNational Terrorism Threat Level(NTTL) to identify the probability of terrorism occurring in Canada. As of 22 May 2021,Canada's current threat level is "Medium," which means that a "violent act of terrorism could occur;" it has been at this level since October 2014.

Overview of legal framework and response

Overall issues of national security fall under the jurisdiction of theMinister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness,who headsPublic Safety Canada(PSC).While provincial and territorial governments are responsible for general law enforcement and criminal prosecutions, theRoyal Canadian Mounted Police(part of the PSC portfolio) is given primary responsibility, under theSecurity Offences Act(SOA), for the investigation of offences involving national security.

Canadian federalstatutesestablish a legal regime that prosecutes terrorists for their activities.ThePublic Prosecution Service of Canada(PPSC), under theAttorney General of Canada,prosecutes offenses on behalf of the Canadian government, including those involving national security such as terrorist activities.If a person carries out a terrorist attack or instructs someone else to carry out a terrorist attack, they are given alife sentence.Anyone who facilitates a terrorist attack is liable to imprisonment for no more than 10 years.

TheCriminal Code of Canadadefinesterrorist activityto include an "act or omission undertaken, in or outside Canada, for a political, religious or ideological purpose, that is intended to intimidate the public with regard to its security, including its economic security, or to compel a person, government or organization (whether in or outside Canada) to do or refrain from doing any act, and that intentionally causes one of a number of specific forms of serious harm."

TheCombating Terrorism Act,which came into force in July 2013, renewed parts of the Criminal Code by creating four new offences intended to prevent and deter individuals from leaving Canada for particular terrorism-related purposes.

Canada'sAnti-Terrorism Act(ATA) "provides measures for the Government of Canada to create a list of entities that: have knowingly carried out, attempted to carry out, participated in or facilitated a terrorist activity" or "knowingly acted on behalf of, at the direction of or in association with an entity that has knowingly carried out, attempted to carry out, participated in or facilitated a terrorist activity."The Act specifically provides that "for theGovernor in Councilto establish by regulation a list on which, on the recommendation of the Minister of Public Safety, any entity may be placed. "The ATA replaced theOfficial Secrets Actwith theSecurity of Information Act(SOIA), which focuses on "conduct harmful to, or likely to harm Canada." It also defined the concept of "harm to Canadian interests"to address a broad range of potential harms, including terrorist activity, interference withcritical infrastructure,and the development ofweapons of mass destructionincontraventionof international law.

Terrorist financing,on the other hand, is addressed through theProceeds of Crime (Money Laundering) and Terrorist Financing Act,as well as theIncome Tax Actand theCharities Registration (Security Information) Act.In terms of the cross-bordermovement of potential threats, assessing the admissibility of those applying fortemporaryorpermanent residence,orrefugee statusis facilitated under theImmigration and Refugee Protection Act(IRPA).

TheDepartment of Foreign Affairs and International Trade Actprovides theMinister of Foreign Affairswith responsibility over all matters relating to the conduct ofCanada's external affairs,including counteringinternational terrorismand responding to terrorist incidents abroad.Moreover, the Government of Canada listsstate supporters of terrorismunder theState Immunity Act,which (like theJVTA) revokes certainlegal immunitiesfrom listed countries, allowingcivil suitsto be filed against those countries in Canadian courts for loss or damage resulting from its involvement in terrorism anywhere in the world. In 2012, bothSyriaandIranwere listed.

In terms ofemergency response,leadership of the Public Safety Minister is granted by theEmergency Management Act.

Redress

TheJustice for Victims of Terrorism Act(JVTA) allows Canada's victims of terrorism to sue perpetrators and those that support them for loss or damage that occurred as a result of an act of terrorism committed in Canada or abroad.Similar to the JVTA, amendments made to theState Immunity Act,allow for countries listed by the federal government asstate supporters of terrorismto besuedin Canadian courts for loss or damage resulting from its involvement in terrorism anywhere in the world.

On 1 May 2006, the Government of Canada announced the launch of a fullpublic inquiryinto theAir India Flight 182 bombingand its investigation. Initiated later in June, the inquiry was to look into the ways in whichCanadian lawrestricted fundingterrorist groups,how wellwitness protectionis provided in terrorist cases, if Canada needs to upgrade itsairport security,and if issues of co-operation between the RCMP, CSIS, and other law enforcement agencies had been resolved. It was to also provide a forum wherein families of the victims could testify on the impact of the bombing and would not repeat any criminal trials.

From 1 December 2011 to 31 July 2012, families of the passengers and crew who died on Air India Flight 182 on 23 June 1985 have been offered a one-timeex gratiapayment by Canadian government, as "a demonstration of solicitude and recognition for the administrative disdain families experienced in the years following" the tragedy. Payments have been made to eligible applicants for 275 victims.Moreover, every June 23, some Canadians observeNational Day of Remembrance for Victims of Terrorismto honour the victims.

Emergency response

In terms ofemergency response,leadership of theMinister of Public Safetyis granted by theEmergency Management Act.The chief means through which the Public Safety Minister facilitates their emergency response is through theGovernment Operations Centre(GOC). The GOC, on behalf of the federal government, supports response coordination across the government and others.

In practice, the immediate response to terrorist incidents in Canada is to be led by local law enforcement and emergency management authorities. This involves the RCMP as being the first police responder in those provinces and territories where it provides local police services. Particular terrorist incidents may involve specific responses from designated agencies; for instance, under theNational Defence Actor through theCrown Prerogative,theCanadian Armed Forcescan be called upon to respond directly to terrorist incidents in Canada. As such, the Minister of National Defence plays a key role in preparation for, and execution of, any deployment of Canadian Forces in response to terrorist activity domestically or abroad.

Immediately following the 2001September 11 attacksin the United States, theRoyal Canadian Mounted PoliceinitiatedProject Shockwhich sought to quickly collect and act on any information or intel related to possible threats posed byMuslims in Canada.Project Threadwas a police operation in 2003 that resulted in the arrest of 24 immigrants in theGreater Toronto Areaamidst allegations that they formed a threat to national security, and maintained "suspected ties toal-Qaeda."

Counter-terrorism in Canada

Matters relevant to overallcounter-terrorism in Canada,as well asnational securitywithin the federal government, fall under the jurisdiction of theMinister of Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness,who headsPublic Safety Canada(PSC).Two other ministers with particularly crucial roles with respect to counter-terrorism are theMinisters of Foreign Affairsandof National Defence.Additionally, theNational Security Advisor(NSA) is responsible for providing information, advice, and recommendations on security and intelligence to the Prime Minister; co-ordinating the security and intelligence community; and overseeing intelligence assessment.

Claiming that the safety and security ofCanadiansto be its first priority, theGovernment of Canadaputs significant attention towards itscounterterrorismefforts."Building Resilience Against Terrorism "(2013)is Canada's first counterterrorism strategy, which aims to counterdomesticandinternational terrorismso to protect Canada, Canadians, and Canadianinterests.The strategy "assesses the nature and scale of the threat, and" sets out basic principles and elements that underpin the Government's counter-terrorism activities. "

The Canadian government uses theNational Terrorism Threat Level(NTTL) to identify the probability of terrorism occurring in Canada. As of 22 May 2021,Canada's current threat level is "Medium," which means that a "violent act of terrorism could occur;" it has been at this level since October 2014.More specifically, this means that "extremist groupsand individuals located in Canada and abroad, have both the intent AND capability to carry out an act of terrorism in Canada. "

Counter-terrorism organizations and jurisdictions

Federal government organizations that have a hand in counterterrorism in Canada include:

• Canadian Security Intelligence Service(part of Public Safety Canada)
  • CSIS Global Operations Centre (CGOC)
  • Integrated Terrorism Assessment Centre(ITAC)
• Department of National Defence/Canadian Armed Forces
  • Canada Command— provides coordination with other federal departments and agencies, as well as domestic and international partners, in responding to national security events.
  • Communications Security Establishment
    • Canadian Centre for Cyber Security— a national center for "cyber securityreadiness and response, exclusive of federal governmentinformation technologyandinformation managementsystems "
  • Defence Research and Development Canada
    • Centre for Security Science
  • Joint Task Force 2(JTF 2) — aspecial forcesunit of theCanadian Special Operations Forces Command,that exists to "protect the Canadian national interests and combat terrorism and threats to Canadians at home and abroad."
• Royal Canadian Mounted Police(part of Public Safety Canada) — the primary agency responsible for national security law enforcement across Canada. The RCMP also conductsextraterritorialinvestigations of terrorist activity when committed against aCanadian citizenor by a Canadian citizen abroad. Among other things, the RCMP also operates:
  • Counter-terrorism Information Officerinitiative — providesfirst responderswith "terrorism awareness training on key indicators of terrorist activities, techniques and practices in order to help detect threats at the earliest stage possible."
  • Integrated National Security Enforcement Teams(INSETs)
  • National Operations Centre— a secure and integrated 24/7command and controlcentre for centralized monitoring and coordination during "critical incidents and major events"
• Government Operations Centre(part of Public Safety Canada) — the chief means through which the Minister of Public Safety facilitates their emergency response. On behalf of the federal government, the Centre supports response coordination across the government and others.

In terms of broader counterterrorism intelligence, other federal organizations also collect information in support of their primary responsibilities; this includes:

• Canada Border Services Agency(part of Public Safety Canada)
• Global Affairs Canada
• Financial Transactions and Reports Analysis Centre
• Transport Canada
  • Canadian Air Transport Security Authority(CATSA)
• Charities Directorate(Canada Revenue Agency)

Intelligence assessment

TheCanadian Security Intelligence Service,part ofPublic Safety Canada,is Canada's primary nationalintelligence agency.Among other things, CSIS compiles the information they collect themselves with information from other sources to provideParliamentwith intelligence assessments on terrorist threats. TheNational Security Advisor(NSA) is responsible for providing information, advice, and recommendations on security and intelligence to the Prime Minister; co-ordinating the security and intelligence community; and overseeing intelligence assessment.

TheIntegrated Terrorism Assessment Centre(ITAC) is a cooperative initiative, housed at CSIS, to facilitateintelligenceinformation sharing and analysis within the Canadianintelligencecommunity and tofirst responders,such aslaw enforcement.Its assessments integrate intelligence from across departments and agencies as well as from external partners. Similarly, theRCMP'sIntegrated National Security Enforcement Teams(INSETs) bring together federal, provincial, and municipal police and intelligence resources "to collect, share, and analyze information in support of criminal investigations and threat assessments."

TheCommunications Security Establishment,administered under theDepartment of National Defence(DND), is responsible for foreignsignals intelligence(SIGINT) and protecting governmentelectronic communication networks.

ThePrivy Council Office's Security and Intelligence Secretariat provides policy support to the NSA, the Prime Minister, and theClerk of the Privy Council,as well as coordinating committees on security and intelligence issues. The PCO's International Assessment Staff (PCO IAS) helps to coordinate "the efforts of the Canadian assessment community and provides PCO and other senior government clients with policy-neutral assessments of foreign developments and trends that may affect Canadian interests."

Terrorist financing

Terrorist financingin Canada is addressed through theProceeds of Crime (Money Laundering) and Terrorist Financing Act(PCMLTFA), as well as theIncome Tax Actand theCharities Registration (Security Information) Act,which are administered by theDepartment of Finance.

In accordance with thePCMLTFA,theFinancial Transactions and Reports Analysis Centreworks to prevent and deter terrorist financing. Likewise, theCharities Directorateof theCanada Revenue Agencyreviews applications, conductsaudits,and collects and analyzes multi-source intelligence in order to detect and address risks to Canada'scharitable sector.These operations are in accordance with theIncome Tax Act,theCharities Registration (Security Information) Act,and thePCMLTFA.

The Finance Department also leads the Canadian effort in related international activities, particularly regarding the work of theFinancial Action Task Force(FATF).

Border and transportation security

Measures taken in regards to cross-bordermovement of potential threats are facilitated under theImmigration and Refugee Protection Act(IRPA), primarily by theCanada Border Services Agency(CBSA) andImmigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada(IRCC).

The CBSA, which is a part ofPublic Safety Canada,has an "Immigration Security Screening" program, which can "detect the movement of potential subjects of interest as they apply fortemporaryorpermanent residence,orrefugee status,"as perIRPA.CBSA also monitors the cross-border flow of currency, and has the authority to seize "unreported currency flows suspected of being the proceeds of crime or related to terrorist financing."

UnderIRPA,the Canadian government usessecurity certificatesto detain anddeportforeign nationalsand all other non-citizens living in Canada. The certificate can be issued towards a permanent resident or any other non-citizen perceived to be a threat to national security, as well as those suspected of violating human rights or of having membership within organized crime.

The security oftransportation systemsare primarily facilitated byTransport Canada,which is the lead department for responding to transportation security incidents and for transportation-relatedemergency preparedness.This includes the security ofaviation,marine, rail, road, andintermodaltransportation security systems. Transport Canada's responsibilities are granted through several key federal statutes, such as theAeronautics Act,theMarine Transportation Security Act,theRailway Safety Act,theInternational Bridges and Tunnels Actand theTransportation of Dangerous Goods Act.

Public Safety Canada and Transport Canada jointly oversee the Canadianno-fly list,called thePassenger Protectprogram, which identifies individuals who may pose a threat toaviation securityand "reduces their ability to cause harm or threaten aviation by taking action, such as preventing them from boarding an aircraft." Additional security is provided through passenger andbaggage screening,which is conducted by Transport Canada'sCanadian Air Transport Security Authority(CATSA).

International and extraterritorial security

TheCombating Terrorism Act,which came into force in July 2013, was put in place with the intent to prevent and deter individuals from leaving Canada for particular terrorism-related purposes.

TheDepartment of Foreign Affairs and International Trade Actprovides theMinister of Foreign Affairswith responsibility over all matters relating to the conduct ofCanada's external affairs,including counteringinternational terrorismand responding to terrorist incidents abroad.As such, the Foreign Affairs Minister leads Canada's response to terrorist or security-related incidents outside of the country.Global Affairs Canadais accordingly responsible for assessing social, economic, security, and political developments that "help define a global threat environment." Depending on the nature of the incident, the Canadian response can include the provision ofconsular assistanceto Canadians overseas (includingexpatriates); financial or physical aid; or deployments of experts from Canada's national security community.

Extraterritorialinvestigations of terrorist activity are investigated by theRoyal Canadian Mounted Police(part ofPublic Safety Canada) when committed against aCanadian citizenor by a Canadian citizen abroad.

Various federal organizations, particularly the Canada Centre for Community Engagement and Prevention of Violence (Canada Centre; also part of Public Safety Canada), closely collaborate with partners in theFive Eyes(United States,United Kingdom,Australia,New Zealand), theGroup of Seven(G7), and theEuropean Union.The Canada Centre also actively participates inmultilateralforums such as theUnited Nationsand theGlobal Counterterrorism Forum(GCTF), as well as collaborating with theInstitute for Strategic Dialogue,theHedayah Center,and theCentre for Research and Evidence on Security Threats(CREST).

The Canadian government also engages in theGlobal Coalition against Daesh,a partnership of 79 countries that works towards defeatingDaeshthrough such activities as preventing the flow of foreign terrorist fighters across borders and countering the group's communications.

Biosecurity

In terms ofchemical,biological,radiological,andnuclear warfare,the surveillance for diseases and events resulting from the use ofCBRNE agentsis the responsibility ofPublic Health Agency of Canada,who is in charge of coordinating a public health response to such a terrorist incident. Monitoring services, hazard assessments, information, and advisories and decontamination strategies are also provided byHealth Canadafor CBRNE events. PHAC also maintains theNational Emergency Stockpile System,which containsmedical countermeasuresagainst CBRNE agents and disaster medical supplies for use inmass-casualty incidents.

Moreover, all members of the Canadian Forces are trained in CBRNE defense. TheCanadian Joint Incident Response Unitis a unit under the direction of theCanadian Special Operations Forces Commandthat is tasked with supporting the federal government in preventing, controlling, and mitigating CBRN threats to Canada, Canadians, and Canadian interests.

Health Canada is also mandated to provide services to support the overall security objectives for major international events (such as the 2010Winter OlympicsorG20 summit), specifically in the areas of health and safety of federal government employees, surveillance and response to radiological nuclear threats, and support to first-responders in the event of a CBRNE event or disease outbreak.

Designated organizations

Main article:Organizations designated as terrorist by Canada

The government of Canada has banned more than 52terrorist organizations.These includeAl Qaeda,theArmed Islamic Group,Euskadi Ta Askatasuna(ETA),Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam(LTTE), theInternational Sikh Youth Federation,thePalestine Liberation Front,thePopular Front for the Liberation of Palestine,thePopular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command,Hamas,Palestinian Islamic Jihad,Hezbollah,Kahane Chai,and theTaliban.In 2019,Combat 18andBlood & Honourwere the firstneo-Nazi groups in Canadato be banned by the government.

In April 2006, the Canadian government designated theLiberation Tigers of Tamil Eelamas a terrorist group.In December that year, the government expanded the federal ban of Hezbollah from the purely militant wing to all 16 sub-organizations.

Research on extremism in Canada

TheKanishka Projectwas aCA$10-million, five-year initiative ofPublic Safety Canadathat provided funding to research on terrorism-related matters affecting Canada.

Announced by theGovernment of Canadain June 2011, the Project was named after theBoeing 747-237B(Emperor Kanishka) plane that was bombed in theAir India Flight 182 attackof 1985.It funded nearly 70 projects and contributed to hosting various events related to discussing counter-terrorism.As part of the Project, $3.7 million was invested withSocial Sciences and Humanities Research Council(SSHRC) towards supporting research and related activities that addressed the issues identified by the Kanishka Project.

TheCanadian Network for Research on Terrorism, Security and Society(TSAS), located at theUniversity of Waterloo,is an academicresearch networkpurposed to form "multidisciplinary researchon terrorist radicalization "and" the coordinated interaction of academic researchers with government officials. "It was created in 2012 with funding both the Kanishka Project and a grant from the SSHRC.TSAS' co-directors areLorne Dawsonand Veronica Kitchen.

Radicalization in Canada

TheConstitution of Canada,through theCharter of Rights and Freedoms,protects thefreedom of thought,belief,opinion,andexpressionof Canadians. As a result, having radical ideals is not considered to be illegal in Canada.

In terms of radicalization to violence, various federal and provincial/territorial government initiatives have been established, particularly underPublic Safety Canadaon the federal level. Particularly, the Canada Centre for Community Engagement and Prevention of Violence (Canada Centre) leads the Canadian government's efforts to "counterradicalizationto violence. "It does not manage or advise on individual cases, but rather addresses the issue in terms of broad strategy.The Centre was mandated in 2015; thefederal budget the following yearallocated $35 million over five years to establish and support the Centre, in addition to $10 million per year on-going.The Canada Centre also leads the Canadian government's engagement and cooperation with theGlobal Internet Forum to Counter Terrorism(GIFCT), established byGoogle,Facebook,Twitter,andMicrosoftin 2017.

On 11 December 2018, the Canada Centre launched the "National Strategy on Countering Radicalization to Violence," which is meant to "explain[] radicalization to violence and the destructive and harmful behaviours involved," as well as outlining the federal government's "approach and key priorities in countering and preventing radicalization to violence." Implementation of the National Strategy is supervised by the National Expert Committee on Countering Radicalization to Violence.

The Community Resilience Fund (CRF) is a system, administered by the Canada Centre, for supporting "partnerships in countering radicalization to violence in Canada," providing funding to organizations towards engagement (e.g., research, cooperation, engaging communities, etc.) with the issue.As of 2019‑2020 onward, the Fund has been promised $7 million available each year for existing and new projects. Through CRF, the Canada Centre has supported theCentre for the Prevention of Radicalization Leading to Violence,located inMontréal,in conducting research on "better understanding risk and protective factors within families of individuals who radicalize to violence and also the role families and communities can play in mitigating radicalization to violence." Also through the Fund, the Canada Centre has supported "multi-agencyintervention programs to build capacity to manage cases of individuals who are radicalizing to violence. "

Counter-radicalization programs

A number of government departments deliver "social programming that contribute" to supporting approaches "to preventing radicalization to violence". Such federal departments include:

• Royal Canadian Mounted Police— First Responders Terrorism Awareness Program
• Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada— Settlement Program, and Resettlement Assistance Program
• Defence Research and Development Canada,Centre for Security Science — Canadian Safety and Security Program
• Global Affairs Canada— Anti-Crime Capacity Building Program, and the Counter-Terrorism Capacity Building Program
• Department of Justice Canada— Victims Fund
• Canadian Heritage— Community Support, Multiculturalism, and Anti-Racism Initiatives Program
• Status of Women Canada— Strategy to Prevent and Address Gender-Based Violence

Local government/non-profit initiatives funded by the Community Resilience Fund include:

• Furthering Our Communities by Uniting Services(FOCUS) Toronto — a program led by theToronto Police Service,City of Toronto,andUnited Way Toronto and York Region,which is "building capacity to add radicalization to violence to the range of issues" that it addresses.
• Ottawa Multiagency Early Risk Intervention Tables(MERIT) — a collaborativeinterventionprogram supported by theOttawa Police Service,local agencies, and service partners that is "building capacity to address cases of individuals radicalizing to violence," in addition to its existing capabilities.
• Edmonton Resiliency Project— a "collaborative approach" delivered by theEdmonton Police Service,City of Edmonton,andOrganization for the Prevention of Violence"to prevention and intervention that draws on trusted community and organizational relationships to prevent violent extremism."
• Calgary Re-Direct— a partnership between theCity of Calgary,Community and Neighbourhood Services, theCalgary Police Service,and others that "uses a multidisciplinary approach to intervention with youth and young adults who are vulnerable to radicalization to violence."
• Social Polarizations— a team of mental-health professionals who specialize in interventions to counter radicalization to violence, based in a local Integrated Health and Social Services Centre inQuebec.
• Centre for the Prevention of Radicalization Leading to Violence (CPRLV; often called the Montreal Centre)
• John Howard Society of Ottawa

List of international threats and attacks

Date	Location	Details	Alleged motive	Type
April 17, 1840	Queenston, ON	Benjamin Lett,anAnglo-Irish-Canadianfilibusterer,bombs theBrock's Monument,which honouredBritishgeneral SirIsaac Brock.The explosion did serious and irreparable damage to the monument although it failed to bring it down.	Opposition to British rule in Canada	Bombing
October 1864	Montreal, QC	Historians have discussed the potential for aconspiracyto have partially formed when agents of theConfederate Secret Servicehosted a visit to Montreal byJohn Wilkes Booth,thefuture assassinof U.S. PresidentAbraham Lincoln.After police shot Booth in 1865, they found amoney orderfor $184,000 drawn from the Montreal Branch of theOntario Bank.	Anti-Lincoln	Assassination conspiracy
April 7, 1868	Ottawa, ON	Thomas D'Arcy McGee,one of theFathers of Confederation,isassassinatedby an allegedIrish nationalistorFenianrebel sympathizer namedPatrick J. Whelan.	Irish nationalism	Assassination
November 25, 1965	Toronto, ON	Croatiannationalists bomb theYugoslavconsulate at 377Spadina Roadin Toronto. The blast "destroyed the door, door jamb, cement threshold, and foyer ceiling, and heavily damaged avestibuleandanteroom;"it blew out the door and windows, and collapsed part of the first floor ceiling. No people were killed.	Anti-Tito(Croatian nationalism)	Bombing
September 22, 1966	Ottawa, ON	Abazookaattack on theCuban embassy in Ottawais made.	Anti-Castro(Cuban nationalism)	Bazooka
October 5, 1966	Ottawa, ON	Anti-Castro forcesbomb the offices of the Cuban trade delegation in Ottawa.	Anti-Castro	Bombing
January 29, 1967	Ottawa and Toronto, ON	TheYugoslavembassy in Ottawa and the consulate in Toronto are among 6 Yugoslav offices inNorth Americaattacked as part of a synchronized bombing, on the eve of the anniversary of the adoption ofYugoslavia’s constitution.(The other bombs went off in the embassy ofWashington, D.C.,and the consulates inChicago,New York,andSan Francisco.) The explosion destroyed windows in 15 houses, 35 apartments, and 6 nearby stores. No people were killed.	Anti-Tito	Bombing
May 31, 1967	Montreal, QC	A small bomb explodes at theCubaPavilion atExpo 67in Montreal. The attack is attributed toCuban Nationalistaction.	Anti-Castro (Cuban nationalism)	Bombing
October 15, 1967	Montreal, QC	A bomb explodes at the offices of the native trade delegation in Montreal.	Anti-Castro (Cuban nationalism)	Bombing
May 29, 1969	Montreal, QC	A bomb is placed in the doorway of the Cuban consulate in Montreal but fails to go off.	Anti-Castro (Cuban nationalism)	Bombing attempt
July 12, 1971	Montreal, QC	A small bomb goes off at the offices of the native trade delegation in Montreal.	Anti-Castro	Bombing
April 4, 1972	Montreal, QC	Cuban officialSergio Pérez Castillois killed by an explosion at the Cuban consulate in Montreal.	Anti-Castro	Bombing
January 21, 1974	Ottawa, ON	A bomb explodes at the Cuban embassy in Ottawa. It is attributed toOrlando Bosch,head of theCoordination of United Revolutionary Organizations(CORU).	Anti-Castro	Bombing
September 22, 1976	Montreal, QC	Anexplosive deviceis thrown from a car at the Cuban consulate in Montreal.	Anti-Castro
January 14, 1980	Montreal, QC	A large explosion significantly damages the Cuban consulate in Montreal.
April 8, 1982	Ottawa, ON	TurkishCommercial Counsellor toCanada,Kani Güngör, is paralyzed after an attack byArmeniannationalists at his apartment in Ottawa.	Armenian nationalism	Assassination attempt
August 23, 1982	Ottawa, ON	Turkishmilitary attachéto Canada Col.Atilla Altıkat,is assassinated by Armenian militants in Ottawa while sitting in his vehicle at a traffic light.	Armenian nationalism	Assassination
September 3, 1984	Montreal, QC	1984 Montreal bombing:Montreal Central Stationis bombed, killing 3 French tourists and wounding more than 30.Thomas Bernard Brigham,an elderly retired American armed forces officer, claims to have been protestingPope John Paul II's visit to Canada.	Anti-popery	Bombing
March 12, 1985	Ottawa, ON	1985 Turkish embassy attack in Ottawa:a group belonging to theArmenian Revolutionary Armyseize theEmbassy of the Republic of Turkey in Ottawa,killing a Canadian security guard.	Armenian nationalism	Shooting
June 23, 1985	Montreal, QC (origin) andTokyo, Japan	Two attacks carried out bySikh extremistsliving inBritish Columbia: Air India Flight 182 bombing:a commercial aircraft leaving Montreal'sMirabel International Airportis blown up mid-flight toLondon, England.This is considered the world's deadliest terrorist attack prior to11 September 2001. Narita International Airport bombing:an explosion at Tokyo'sNarita International Airportkills two baggage handlers, and injures four. The bomb was intended forAir India Flight 301,with 177 passengers and crew on board, bound for Bangkok International Airport.	Khalistani	Bombing
May 26, 1986	Vancouver, BC	An attempt is made to assassinateMalkiat Singh Sidhu,a cabinet minister in theIndianprovince ofPunjabvisiting Vancouver. Sidhu is shot and wounded, but survives.	Khalistani	Assassination attempt
April 9, 1989	Ottawa, ON	Charles Yacoub,aLebanese Canadian,hijacks aNew York-boundGreyhound busand drives it toParliament Hillto protest theSyrian invasion of Lebanon.There were no casualties.	Pro-Lebanon	Vehicular hijacking
August 28, 1988	Surrey, BC	Indo-Canadian TimeseditorTara Singh Hayeris shot and partially paralyzed, probably due to his statements connected to the Flight 182 investigation.	Khalistani	Assassination attempt
November 18, 1998	Surrey, BC	Indo-Canadian Timeseditor Tara Singh Hayer is shot to death.	Khalistani	Assassination
2004	United Kingdom	Police arrest Ottawa-nativeMomin Khawaja,who worked withBritish Islamistson a plot to detonate bombs in the United Kingdom. Khawaja was convicted in 2008 underCanada'sAnti-Terrorism Act.	Islamic extremism	Bombing conspiracy

List of domestic threats and attacks

Date	Location	Details	Alleged motive	Type
1920s		Arson and bombing byFreedomites(who called themselvessvobodniki,Russian: "sovereign people" ) targeted wood structures and government buildings such as schools to protestmaterialism,and government pressure to school Svobodnik children	Anti-materialism	Bombings and arson
October 29, 1924	British Columbia	Peter Verigin,aged 65, is killed in a still-unsolvedCanadian Pacific Railwaytrain explosion on theKettle Valley Railway(now known locally as theColumbia and Western Railway) line nearFarron,betweenCastlegarandGrand Forks.It also kills Verigin's 17-year-old female companion Marie Strelaeff, member of the provincial legislatureJohn McKie,P.J Campbell, Hakim Singh, Harry J. Bishop, W. J. Armstrong, and Neil E. Armstrong. The government initially (during investigation) had stated the crime was perpetrated by people within theDoukhoborcommunity, while the Doukhobors suspected Canadian government involvement. To date, it is still unknown who was responsible for the bombing.	Anti-materialism	Bombing
1960s	British Columbia	Arson and bombings by SOF (Sons of Freedom), mostly conducted in the nude, took place throughout the 1960s: August 25, 1960 — A section of a Canadian Pacific Railway track nearThrums, BC,is bombed. Pieces of the timing device (including a watch) were found at the scene by police. Three members of SOF (Sons of Freedom) were convicted for the incident and received jail terms ranging from 6 to 12 years. 1961 — a railway bridge inNelson, BCis bombed.	Anti-materialism	Bombing and arson
1963-1970	Montreal, QC,andOttawa, ON	Front de libération du Québec(FLQ), a separatist group, begins a bombing campaign at the average rate of one every ten days, detonating over 950 bombs in total and culminating in the1970 October Crisis.Targets included English owned businesses, banks,McGill University,and the homes of prominent English speakers. April 21, 1963 — FLQ bombing of the Canadian Army Recruiting Centre in Montreal, killing Sgt. Wilfred V. O'Neil. late 1960s — FLQ places a bomb in a mailbox next to theCanadian Tirestore onWellington StreetinOttawa. February 13, 1969–Montreal Stock Exchange bombing:FLQ sets off a powerful bomb that rips through theMontreal Stock Exchangecausing massive destruction and seriously injuring 27 people. February 22, 1969 — FLQ terrorist bomb explodes atLiberal Partysocial club in Montreal, injuring two people. June 24, 1970 — FLQ places a bomb in a window well of theNational Defence Headquarterson Lisgar Street in Ottawa. The explosion killed a cleaning lady.	Quebec nationalism	Bombing campaign
January 29, 1965	Edmonton, AB	Edmonton aircraft bombing:Two U.S. jets (F-84s) being overhauled byNorthwest Industriesin Edmonton are destroyed and a third damaged when aleft-winggroup protesting theVietnam Wardynamites the planes; a security guard is killed during the incident.	Anti-Vietnam War	Bombing
July 8, 1965	Vancouver, BC(origin)	Canadian Pacific Air Lines Flight 21 bombing:A bomb destroys a commercialDouglas DC-6Bairliner flying from Vancouver toWhitehorse,killing all 52 people on board. The case remainsunsolved.	Unknown	Bombing
May 18, 1966	Ottawa, ON	Paul Joseph Chartier's attempt to bomb theHouse of Commonsfails when the device goes off prematurely in aCentre Blockwashroom, killing Chartier.	anti-Canadian government	Bombing
October 5, 1970	Montréal, Qc	British diplomatJames Crossand (on October 10) Quebec Minister of LabourPierre Laporteare kidnapped by the FLQ in Montreal. (Laporte's dead body was discovered in the trunk of a car in Montreal on October 17, and the murderers were arrested on December 26; Cross was released on December 3.)	Quebec nationalism	Kidnapping & assassination
October 14, 1982	Ontario	TheanarchistgroupSquamish Fivebombs aLitton Industriesfactory north ofToronto,that is manufacturing guidance devices for Americancruise missiles,injuring ten.	Anarchism	Bombing
1983	Toronto, ON	ActivistHenry Morgentalerwas attacked by a man wielding garden shears; the attack was blocked by feminist activistJudy Rebick,who was standing nearby.	Anti-abortion	Stabbing attempt
May 8, 1984	Quebec City, QC	SoldierDenis Lortie,afederalist,entered theNational Assembly of Quebecwith the intent of killingRené Lévesqueand the deputies of theParti Québécois.By chance, he came in too early, so fails to kill any deputies; though, he kills 3 other people and wounds 13. Unarmed employeeRené Jalbertnegotiated with Lortie for several hours and convinced him to give up his gun and be arrested. Jalbert was decorated the next week.	Anti-Quebec nationalism	Mass shooting and assassination attempt
June 23, 1985	Montreal, QC (origin) andTokyo, Japan	Two attacks carried out bySikh extremistsliving inBritish Columbia: Air India Flight 182 bombing:a commercial aircraft leaving Montreal'sMirabel International Airportis blown up mid-flight toLondon, Englandkilling all 329 people aboard, including 268 Canadian citizens, 27 British citizens, and 24 Indian citizens. This is considered the world's deadliest terrorist attack prior to11 September 2001. Narita International Airport bombing:an explosion at Tokyo'sNarita International Airportkills two baggage handlers, and injures four. The bomb was intended forAir India Flight 301,with 177 passengers and crew on board, bound for Bangkok International Airport.	Khalistani	Bombing
1989	Montreal, QC	École Polytechnique massacre(or Montreal massacre): 25-year-oldMarc Lépine,armed with a rifle and a hunting knife, shoots 28 people, killing 14 women, before committing suicide at thePolytechnique Montréal.He claimed he was "fightingfeminism"and calling the women" a bunch of feminists, "he shot all 9 women in the room, killing 6. He then moved through corridors, the cafeteria, and another classroom, specifically targeting women to shoot.	Misogyny(antifeminism)	Mass shooting
1992	Toronto, ON	ActivistHenry Morgentaler's clinic isfirebombedand sustained severe damage. The event occurred at night, so no one was injured, although a nearby bookstore was damaged. Appointments were switched to another clinic in Toronto and no abortions were prevented.	Anti-abortion	Bombing
November 8, 1994	Vancouver, BC	Dr.Garson Romalisis shot in the leg.	Anti-abortion	Shooting
April 20, 1995	Charlottetown, PEI	Roger Charles Bell(aliasLoki 7), a high-school teacher, places a bomb outsideProvince Houseat thePrince Edward Island legislature,injuring one. The explosion occurred several minutes after a class of school children passed through the area, and one day after theOklahoma City bombingattack in the United States. The 1995 attack was part of a string of bombings by Bell, which began in 1988 with apipe bombdenoting in a flower bed outside theProvincial Courtin Charlottetown; followed by a garbage can explosion inHalifax'sPoint Pleasant Parkin 1994; ending in 1996 with undetonated explosives that were planted at a Charlottetown propane station.	"revenge at society"	Bombing
November 10, 1995	Ancaster, ON	Dr. Hugh Short is shot in the elbow.	Anti-abortion	Shooting
November 11, 1997	Winnipeg, MB	Dr.Jack Fainmanis shot in the shoulder.	Anti-abortion	Shooting
December 14, 1999	Victoria, BC	LAX bombing plot:Ahmed Ressam(alias Millennium Bomber) is arrested upon entering the United States by a ferry from Victoria. He was smuggling explosives in his car from Canada in a plot to bomb theLos Angeles International Airport(LAX) onNew Year's Eve1999, as part of the foiled2000 millennium attack plots.	Islamic extremism	Bombing attempt
July 11, 2000	Vancouver, BC	Dr. Garson Romalis is stabbed by an unidentified assailant in the lobby of his clinic.	Anti-abortion	Stabbing
September 20, 2000	Montreal, QC	The Brigade d'autodéfense du français bombs the St. Nicholas Antiochian Orthodox Church in Montreal where an English fundraiser was to be held.	Quebec nationalism	Bombing
2001	Montreal, QC	Second Cup firebombing:The FLQ/Brigade d'autodéfense du français firebombs threeSecond Cuplocations in Montreal. They were targeted because of the company's use of its incorporated English name "Second Cup".Rhéal Mathieu,a previously convicted FLQ terrorist, was convicted for all three bombings. SevenMcDonald'srestaurants were also firebombed.	Quebec nationalism	Bombing
2006	Ottawa, ON	2006 Ontario terrorism plot:Canadian counter-terrorism forces arrest 18 terrorists (dubbed the "Toronto 18" ) inspired byal-Qaeda.They are accused of planning to detonatetruck bombs;to open fire in a crowded area; and to storm theCanadian Broadcasting Centre,theCanadian Parliament building,theCanadian Security Intelligence Service(CSIS) headquarters, and the parliamentaryPeace Tower,to take hostages and to behead thePrime Ministerand other leaders.	Islamic extremism	Bombing / shooting / assassination conspiracy
October 2008 to July 2009	Dawson Creek, BC	2008–09 British Columbia pipeline bombings:sixnatural gaspipelines owned byEnCana Corp.in Dawson Creek, were bombed after letters were sent to a local newspaper opposing the gas industry.	Environmentalism	Bombing
August 2010	Ottawa, ON	Misbahuddin Ahmed, a former hospital technician, is arrested (later convicted in July 2014) of conspiring to knowingly facilitate a terrorist activity, of participation in the activities of a terrorist group, and of possession of explosives with intent to do harm.	Islamic extremism	Conspiracy
September 4, 2012	Montreal, QC	2012 Montreal shooting:The night of theQuebec provincial elections,Richard Bain, ananglophone Quebecer,attempted to assassinateParti Québécoisleader and Premier electPauline Maroisat a victory gathering in Montreal. He also set fire to theMétropolis concert hallwhere the event was being held. A man was killed and another was injured in the terrorist act. It is said that Bain's ultimate goal was to kill Marois following the Parti Québécois victory. Bain was arrested shortly after the attack.On August 23, 2016, Bain was found guilty ofsecond-degree murder,and on November 18, was sentenced tolife imprisonmentwith the possibility ofparoleafter 20 years.	Anti-Quebec nationalism	Shooting
2013	Toronto, ON	2013 Via Rail Canada terrorism plot:Chiheb EsseghaierandRaed Jaserof Montreal and Toronto, respectively, are charged as part of an alleged Al-Qaeda plot to derail a Toronto-bound train fromNew Yorkon the Canadian side of the border.Canadian Muslimshelped to foil the alleged plot.The suspects said they were arrested based on their appearance.	Islamic extremism (allegiance toAl-Qaeda)	Bombing conspiracy
June 4, 2014	Moncton, NB	Moncton shootings:Justin Bourque, a 24-year-old, shot five officers from theRoyal Canadian Mounted Police(RCMP), killing three and severely injuring two.Bourque admittedly planned to kill as many officers as he could, in an attempt to start a rebellion against what he considers an oppressive, corrupt government that he insists is suppressing the freedom of most Canadians and serving only the rich.	Anti-Canadian government (pro-rebellion)	Shooting
October 20, 2014	Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, QC	2014 Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu ramming attack:twoCanadian Forcesmembers are hit by Martin Couture-Rouleau, a recent Muslim convert. Warrant officerPatrice Vincentdied of his injuries. Couture-Rouleau was eventually gunned down and killed.	Islamic extremism	Vehicle-ramming
October 22, 2014	Ottawa, ON	2014 shootings at Parliament Hill:Michael Zehaf-Bibeau,a convert to Islam, fatally shoots Corporal Nathan Cirillo, a Canadian soldier on ceremonial sentry duty at theNational War Memorial,and then forced his way intoCanada's parliament building,where he has a shootout with parliament security personnel. He is shot 31 times and dies at the scene. Zehaf-Bibeau made a video prior to the attack in which he expressed his motives as being related "to Canada's foreign policy and in respect of his religious beliefs."	Islamic extremism and anti-Canadian foreign policy	Shooting
August 10, 2016	Strathroy, ON	Aaron Driver is killed in a confrontation with police after detonating an explosive in the back seat of a taxi. The confrontation followed a tip from theFBIthat Driver had made a "martyrdomvideo "and was planning an attack on an urban area.	Islamic extremism (allegiance toISIS)	Bombing (failed)
January 29, 2017	Quebec City, QC	Quebec City mosque shooting:During evening prayer at theIslamic Cultural Centremosque in Quebec City, one gunman enters and opens fire on Muslim worshipers, killing 6 people and injuring 19 (5 critically).The gunman called police from a second location about 20 minutes after the shooting and was arrested byQuebec policewithout incident. The gunman, Alexandre Bissonnette from Quebec City, was inspired byextreme right-wingviews onMuslims,refugees,andfeminists,which he shared online and atLaval University.He was also a supporter ofRassemblement NationalleaderMarine Le PenofFranceandU.S. PresidentDonald Trump.	Islamophobia	Shooting
September 30, 2017	Edmonton, AB	2017 Edmonton attack:30-year-old Abdulahi Sharif drives intoEdmonton policeconstable Mike Chernyk, then stabs him nearCommonwealth Stadium,fleeing and later hitting four pedestrians with a rental truck during a police pursuit.Police have investigated the incident as an act of terrorism and confirmed the presence of anISISflag in the van that struck the police officer.Sharif was confirmed byRCMPassistant commissioner Marlin Degrand as aSomali nationalknown to the RCMP and Edmonton Police as having past displayed signs of extremism.	Islamic extremism (allegiance to ISIS)	Vehicle-ramming and stabbing
April 23, 2018	Toronto, ON	Toronto van attack:after 25-year-old Alek Minassian's van attack in Toronto, aFacebookpost was uncovered which tied him to predominantly male online communities wherein terminology such as "Incel Rebellion","Beta Uprising,"and"Beta MaleUprising "is used, referring to a violent response to sexlessness.Minassian was reported to have self-identified as an incel, an abbreviation ofinvoluntary celibacy,which describes the state of being unable to find a romantic or sexual relationship despite desiring one.	Misogynist terrorism/incelextremism	Vehicle-ramming
July 22, 2018	Toronto, ON	2018 Toronto shooting:Faisal Hussain killed 2 and injured 13 on Toronto'sDanforth Avenue.Authorities were unable to determine a motive despite a year long investigation.Hussain was alleged to have been inspired byElliot Rodger(part of theincelmovement).Daeshclaimed responsibility but law enforcement rejected this claim.	Unknown	Shooting
February 21, 2020	Toronto, ON	Saad Akhtar kills a 64-year-old woman with a hammer in Toronto. The victim was chosen at random. Akhtar left a note on the victim's body, expressing support for ISIS. He was arrested and charged with terrorism offences.	Islamic extremism (allegiance to ISIS)	Hammer attack
February 24, 2020	Toronto, ON	2020 Toronto machete attack:A 17-year-old boy stabs a female spa worker to death, attempts to kill her coworker, and injures another at asensual massageparlour in Toronto. On May 19, theToronto Police Servicesaid the attack was attributed to the incel ideology and was being considered an act ofterrorism.	Misogynist terrorism / incel extremism	Stabbing
June 6, 2021	London, ON	London, Ontario truck attack:A man uses a pickup truck to run down a family of five, killing four and seriously injuring the fifth. The family is alleged to have been targeted because they were visibly Muslim.	Islamophobia	Vehicle-ramming
April 1, 2023	Surrey, B.C	A man was stabbed and wounded in the throat on a bus in Surrey by an Islamic State sympathyzer.	Islamic extremism	Stabbing attack

Suspected terrorism

• March 5, 2015 — While new anti-terrorism law was under consideration and months before federal election, fourConservative PartyMembers of Parliament (Denis Lebel,Steven Blaney,Christian ParadisandMaxime Bernier) inQuebecreceived letters with white powder (Anthrax hoaxes) and message "Conservateurs, vous serez anéantis,"which translates to" Conservatives, you will be annihilated "at their constituency offices.

Terrorism abroad

Canadian victims of non-Canada-related extremism abroad include:

• September 11, 2001–9/11 attacks(USA): United Airlines Flight 175 and American Airlines Flight 11 were purposefully crashed into theWorld Trade CenterinNew York City,killing thousands of people, includingGarnet Bailey(53), a Canadian professionalice hockeyplayer and scout who was a member ofStanley CupandMemorial Cupwinning teams.
• August 19, 2003–Canal Hotel bombing(Iraq): Asuicidetruck bombinginBaghdadsupposedly carried out byJama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihadkilled 22 people, including two Canadians—Christopher Klein-Beekman (31), aUNICEFrepresentative, andGillian Clark(47), anaid workerfor theChristian Children's Fund(CCF).
• September 2013–Westgate shopping mall attack(Nairobi, Kenya): An attack carried out byAl-Shabaabkilled 68 people, including two Canadians—a businessman and a Government of Canada official.
• June 13, 2016–Killing of Robert Hall(Philippines): On 21 September 2015, Canadian citizenRobert Hall(66) was kidnapped byAbu Sayyafmilitants in the Philippines and beheaded nine months later nearPatikul, Sulu.
• January 15, 2006–Killing of Glyn Berry(Afghanistan): Acar bombattack inAfghanistankilledGlyn Berry,the firstCanadian diplomatto be killed while on duty in Afghanistan. Two other civilians were killed in the incident and 10 people were wounded, including three Canadian soldiers,MCpl.Paul Franklin,Pte.William Edward Salikin andCpl.Jeffrey Bailey.

Extremists with Canadian connections abroad

TheCombating Terrorism Act,which came into force in July 2013, was put in place with the intent to prevent and deter individuals from leaving Canada for particular terrorism-related purposes. In 2018, the Canadian government states that there has not been an increase, nor does it expect an increase, in the number ofCanadian Extremist Travellers(CETs) who have returned to Canada. The total number of CETs identified by the government includes around 190 individuals who have a nexus to Canada, and near 60 who have returned.

The following are some extremists around the world with Canadian connections.

• Xristos Katsiroubas and Ali Medlej (Algeria) — two high school friends fromLondon, Ontariowho went toMoroccoin 2011, and then onwards toMauritania,Niger,andLibya,where they are said to have trained under Algerian terroristMokhtar Belmokhtar.Both were killed after taking part in a terrorist attack in theIn Amenas hostage crisisin January 2013, which killed 38 hostages at an Algerian gas plant.
• Andre Poulin (Syria) — a man fromTimmins, Ontariowho subscribed to violent extremist views in 2008. Arriving in Syria in 2012, he is considered to have been killed fighting at the al-Minakh airfield in August 2013.
• Ali Mohamed Dirie(Syria) — a former member of the "Toronto 18"previously imprisoned for plotting terrorist attacks in Ontario. Within a year of his release, Dirie travelled to Syria and joined a terrorist group.
• Damian Clairmont or Mustafa al-Gharib (Syria) — a manCalgary, Albertawho subscribed to violent extremist views. He is presumed to have been killed in infighting between terrorist groups in Syria.
• Mahad Ali Dhore (Somalia) — a man who crossed into Somalia while visitingKenyato join anal-Shabaabtraining camp. He is considered to have been killed while helping conduct an April 2013 terrorist attack inMogadishu.

See also

• Integrated Terrorism Assessment Centre
• National Terrorism Threat Level
• Charkaoui v Canada (Minister of Citizenship and Immigration)
• Anti-Canadian sentiment
• Anti-abortion violence in Canada
• Crime in Canada
• Law enforcement in Canada
• List of unsolved murders
• Terrorism in the United States
• List of attacks on legislatures
• Islamic terrorism in Europe
• List of terrorist incidents
• Terrorism in the United States
• Hindu terrorism
  • Violence against Christians in India
  • Violence against Muslims in independent India
• Left-wing terrorism
• Right-wing terrorism

Further reading

• Bell, Stewart. 2007.Cold Terror: How Canada Nurtures and Exports Terrorism around the World.
• Hamilton, Dwight. 2006.Inside Canadian Intelligence: Exposing the New Realities of Espionage and International Terrorism.Dundurn Press.ISBN1-55002-608-9.Previewat Google Books.
• Jiwa, Salim, and Donald J. Hauka. 2006.Margin of Terror: A Reporter's Twenty-Year Odyssey Covering the Tragedies of the Air India Bombing.
• Kellett, Anthony. 2004. "Terrorism in Canada, 1960-1992" Ch. 10 inViolence in Canada: Sociopolitical Perspectives.
• Roach, Kent. 2003.September 11: Consequences for Canada.McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 0-7735-2584-X.Previewat Google Books.
• Ross, J. I. 1988. "An Events Data Base on Political Terrorism in Canada: Some Conceptual and Methodological Problems."Conflict Quarterly8(2):47–65.
• —— 1988. "Attributes of Domestic Political Terrorism in Canada, 1960-1985."Terrorism: An International Journal11(3):213–33.
• —— 1992. "Attacking Terrorist Attacks: Initial Tests of the Contagion Between Domestic and International Terrorism in Canada."Low Intensity Violence and Law Enforcement1(2):163–83.
• —— 1994. "Low-Intensity Conflict in the Peaceable Kingdom: The Attributes of International Terrorism in Canada, 1960-1990."Conflict Quarterly14(3):36–62.
• —— 1995. "The Rise and Fall of Quebecois Separatist Terrorism: A Qualitative Application of Factors from two Models."Studies in Conflict & Terrorism18(4):285–97.

External links

• The Anti-terrorism Act- Department of Justice
• Terrorism and CanadaatThe Canadian Encyclopedia,accessed September 6, 2019
• Canadian Incident Database— a publicly-accessible database describing terrorism and violent extremism incidents with a Canadian connection, between 1960 and early 2015.