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Tibetan Plateau

Coordinates:33°N88°E/ 33°N 88°E/33; 88
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Tibetan Plateau
Cao nguyên Thanh Tạng(Qīng–Zàng Gāoyuán,Qinghai–Tibet Plateau)
The Tibetan Plateau lies between theHimalayanrange to the south and theTaklamakan Desertto the north. (Composite image)
Dimensions
Length2,500 km (1,600 mi)
Width1,000 km (620 mi)
Area2,500,000 km2(970,000 sq mi)
Geography
Tibetan Plateau and surrounding areas above 1600 m
LocationPeople's Republic of China(Tibet,Qinghai,WesternSichuan,NorthernYunnan,SouthernXin gian g,WesternGansu)
India(Ladakh,Jammu and Kashmir (union territory),North and EastHimachal Pradesh,NortherUttarakhand,NorthernArunachal Pradesh,NorthernSikkim,Darjeeling)
Pakistan (Baltistan)
Afghanistan(Wakhan Corridor)
Nepal(Northern Nepal)
Bhutan
Tajikistan(Eastern Tajikistan)
Kyrgyzstan(Southern Kyrgyzstan)
Range coordinates33°N88°E/ 33°N 88°E/33; 88
Map

TheTibetan Plateau,[a]also known asQinghai–Tibet Plateau[b]andQing–Zang Plateau,[c]is a vast elevatedplateaulocated at the intersection ofCentral,South,andEast Asia[d]covering most of theTibet Autonomous Region,most ofQinghai,western half ofSichuan,SouthernGansuprovinces inWestern China,southernXin gian g,Bhutan,theIndian regionsofLadakhandLahaul and Spiti(Himachal Pradesh) as well asGilgit-BaltistaninPakistan,northwesternNepal,easternTajikistanand southernKyrgyzstan.It stretches approximately 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) north to south and 2,500 kilometres (1,600 mi) east to west. It is the world's highest and largestplateauabove sea level, with an area of 2,500,000 square kilometres (970,000 sq mi) (about five times the size ofMetropolitan France).[13]With an average elevation exceeding 4,500 metres (14,800 ft)[citation needed]and being surrounded by imposingmountain rangesthat harbor the world's two highest summits,Mount EverestandK2,the Tibetan Plateau is often referred to as "theRoof of the World".

The Tibetan Plateau contains theheadwatersof thedrainage basinsof most of thestreamsandriversin surroundingregions.This includes the three longest rivers inAsia(the Yellow,Yangtze,andMekong). Its tens of thousands ofglaciersand other geographical and ecological features serve as a "water tower"storing water and maintainingflow.It is sometimes termed theThird Polebecause itsice fieldscontain the largest reserve of fresh water outside the polar regions. The impact ofclimate changeon the Tibetan Plateau is of ongoing scientific interest.[14][15][16][17]

Description

[edit]

The Tibetan Plateau is surrounded by the massive mountain ranges[18]ofhigh-mountain Asia.The plateau is bordered to the south by theinner Himalayan range,to the north by theKunlun Mountains,which separate it from theTarim Basin,and to the northeast by theQilian Mountains,which separate the plateau from theHexi CorridorandGobi Desert.To the east and southeast the plateau gives way to the forested gorge and ridge geography of the mountainous headwaters of theSalween,Mekong,andYangtzerivers in northwestYunnanand westernSichuan(theHengduan Mountains). In the west, the curve of the ruggedKarakoramrange of northernKashmirembraces the plateau. TheIndus Riveroriginates in the western Tibetan Plateau in the vicinity ofLake Manasarovar.

The Tibetan Plateau is bounded in the north by a broad escarpment where the altitude drops from around 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) to 1,500 metres (4,900 ft) over a horizontal distance of less than 150 kilometres (93 mi). Along the escarpment is a range of mountains. In the west, theKunlun Mountainsseparate the plateau from the Tarim Basin. About halfway across the Tarim the bounding range becomes theAltyn-Taghand the Kunluns, by convention, continue somewhat to the south. In the 'V' formed by this split is the western part of theQaidam Basin.The Altyn-Tagh ends near the Dangjin pass on theDunhuang–Golmudroad. To the west are short ranges called the Danghe, Yema, Shule, and Tulai Nanshans. The easternmost range is the Qilian Mountains. The line of mountains continues east of the plateau as theQinling,which separates theOrdos Plateaufrom Sichuan. North of the mountains runs the Gansu orHexi Corridorwhich was the main silk-road route fromChina properto the West.

The plateau is a high-altitude aridsteppeinterspersed with mountain ranges and largebrackishlakes. Annual precipitation ranges from 100 to 300 millimetres (3.9 to 11.8 in) and falls mainly ashail.The southern and eastern edges of the steppe have grasslands that can sustainably support populations of nomadic herdsmen, although frost occurs for six months of the year.Permafrostoccurs over extensive parts of the plateau. Proceeding to the north and northwest, the plateau becomes progressively higher, colder, and drier, until reaching the remoteChangtangregion in the northwestern part of the plateau. Here the average altitude exceeds 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) and winter temperatures can drop to −40 °C (−40 °F). As a result of this extremely inhospitable environment, the Changtang region (together with the adjoining Kekexili region) is the least populous region in Asia and the third least populous area in the world after Antarctica and northern Greenland.

Geology and geological history

[edit]
Yamdrok Lakeis one of the four largest lakes in Tibet. All four lakes are considered sacredpilgrimagesites in the local tradition.[19]
Main article:Geology of the Himalayas

The geological history of the Tibetan Plateau is closely related to that of the Himalayas. The Himalayas belong to theAlpine Orogenyand are therefore among the younger mountain ranges on the planet, consisting mostly of upliftedsedimentaryandmetamorphic rock.Their formation is a result of acontinental collisionororogenyalong theconvergent boundarybetween theIndo-Australian Plateand theEurasian Plate.

The collision began in theUpper Cretaceousperiod about 70 million years ago, when the north-movingIndo-Australian Plate,moving at about 15 cm (6 in) per year, collided with theEurasian Plate.About 50 million years ago, this fast-moving Indo-Australian plate had completely closed theTethys Ocean,the existence of which has been determined bysedimentary rockssettled on the ocean floor, and thevolcanoesthat fringed its edges. Since these sediments were light, they crumpled into mountain ranges rather than sinking to the floor. During this early stage of its formation in the Late Palaeogene, Tibet consisted of a deep palaeovalley bounded by multiple mountain ranges rather than the more topographically uniform elevated flatland that it is today.[20]The Tibetan Plateau's mean elevation continued to vary since its initial uplift in the Eocene; isotopic records show the plateau's altitude was around 3,000 metres above sea level around the Oligocene-Miocene boundary and that it fell by 900 metres between 25.5 and 21.6 million years ago, attributable to tectonic unroofing from east–west extension or to erosion from climatic weathering. The plateau subsequently rose by 500 to 1,000 metres between 21.6 and 20.4 million years ago.[21]

Natural-colour satellite image of the Tibetan Plateau.

Palaeobotanicalevidence indicates that the Nu gian g Suture Zone and the Yarlung-Zangpo Suture Zone remained tropical or subtropicallowlandsuntil the latestOligoceneorEarly Miocene,enabling biotic interchange across Tibet.[22]The age of east–west grabens in the Lhasa and Himalaya terranes suggests that the plateau's elevation was close to its modern altitude by around 14 to 8 million years ago.[23]Erosion rates in Tibet decreased significantly around 10 million years ago.[24]The Indo-Australian plate continues to be driven horizontally below the Tibetan Plateau, which forces the plateau to move upwards; the plateau is stillrisingat a rate of approximately 5 mm (0.2 in) per year (although erosion reduces the actual increase in height).[25]

Much of the Tibetan Plateau is of relatively low relief. The cause of this is debated among geologists. Some argue that the Tibetan Plateau is an upliftedpeneplainformed at low altitude, while others argue that the low relief stems fromerosionandinfillof topographic depressions that occurred at already high elevations.[26]The current tectonics of the plateau are also debated. The best-regarded explanations are provided by the block model and the alternative continuum model. According to the former, the crust of the plateau is formed of several blocks with little internal deformation separated by majorstrike-slip faults.In the latter, the plateau is affected by distributed deformation resulting from flow within the crust.[27]

Environment

[edit]
Yangbajainvalley to the north ofLhasa

The Tibetan Plateau supports a variety of ecosystems, most of them classified asmontanegrasslands. While parts of the plateau feature analpine tundra-like environment, other areas feature monsoon-influenced shrublands and forests.Species diversityis generally reduced on the plateau due to the elevation and low precipitation. The Tibetan Plateau hosts theTibetan wolf,[28]and species ofsnow leopard,wild yak,wild ass,cranes, vultures, hawks, geese, snakes, andwater buffalo.One notable animal is thehigh-altitude jumping spider,that can live at elevations of over 6,500 metres (21,300 ft).[29]

Ecoregionsfound on the Tibetan Plateau, as defined by theWorld Wide Fund for Nature,are as follows:

Pastoral nomads camping nearNamtso.

Human history

[edit]
Tibetan Buddhiststupaand houses outside the town ofNgawa,on the Tibetan Plateau.
Main article:History of Tibet

Extinct humans (Denisovans) lived on the Tibetan plateau from around 200,000 to 40,000 years ago. this is according to a study published inNature.[30]

Nomadson the Tibetan Plateau and in theHimalayasare the remainders of nomadic practices historically once widespread in Asia and Africa.[31]Pastoral nomads constitute about 40% of the ethnicTibetanpopulation.[32]The presence of nomadic peoples on the plateau is predicated on their adaptation to survival on the world'sgrasslandby raising livestock rather than crops, which are unsuitable to the terrain. Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest human occupation of the plateau occurred between 30,000 and 40,000 years ago.[33]Since colonization of the Tibetan Plateau, Tibetan culture has adapted and flourished in the western, southern, and eastern regions of the plateau. The northern portion, theChangtang,is generally too high and cold to support permanent population.[34]One of the most notable civilizations to have developed on the Tibetan Plateau is theTibetan Empirefrom the 7th century to the 9th century AD.

Impact on other regions

[edit]
NASA satellite image of the south-eastern area of Tibetan Plateau.Brahmaputra Riveris in the lower right.

Role in monsoons

[edit]
Main article:Monsoon

Monsoons are caused by the different amplitudes of surface temperature seasonal cycles between land and oceans. This differential warming occurs because heating rates differ between land and water. Ocean heating is distributed vertically through a "mixed layer" that may be 50 meters deep through the action of wind and buoyancy-generatedturbulence,whereas the land surface conducts heat slowly, with the seasonal signal penetrating only a meter or so. Additionally, thespecific heat capacityof liquid water is significantly greater than that of most materials that make up land. Together, these factors mean that the heat capacity of the layer participating in the seasonal cycle is much larger over the oceans than over land, with the consequence that the land warms and cools faster than the ocean. In turn, air over the land warms faster and reaches a higher temperature than does air over the ocean.[35]The warmer air over land tends to rise, creating an area oflow pressure.The pressure anomaly then causes a steady wind to blow toward the land, which brings the moist air over the ocean surface with it. Rainfall is then increased by the presence of the moist ocean air. The rainfall is stimulated by a variety of mechanisms, such as low-level air being lifted upwards by mountains, surface heating, convergence at the surface, divergence aloft, or from storm-produced outflows near the surface. When such lifting occurs, the air cools due to expansion in lower pressure, which in turn producescondensationand precipitation.

The Himalayas as seen from space looking south from over the Tibetan Plateau.

In winter, the land cools off quickly, but the ocean maintains the heat longer. The hot air over the ocean rises, creating a low-pressure area and a breeze from land to ocean while a large area of drying high pressure is formed over the land, increased by wintertime cooling.[35]Monsoons are similar tosea and land breezes,a term usually referring to the localized,diurnal cycleof circulation near coastlines everywhere, but they are much larger in scale, stronger and seasonal.[36]The seasonal monsoon wind shift and weather associated with the heating and cooling of the Tibetan plateau is the strongest such monsoon on Earth.

Glaciology: the Ice Age and at present

[edit]

Midui Glacier inNyingchi

Today, Tibet is an important heating surface of the atmosphere. However, during theLast Glacial Maximum,an approximately 2,400,000 square kilometres (930,000 sq mi) ice sheet covered the plateau.[37][38][39]Due to its great extent, this glaciation in the subtropics was an important element ofradiative forcing.With a much lower latitude, the ice in Tibet reflected at least four times more radiation energy per unit area into space than ice at higherlatitudes.Thus, while the modern plateau heats the overlying atmosphere, during the Last Ice Age it helped to cool it.[40]

This cooling had multiple effects on regional climate. Without thethermal lowpressure caused by the heating, there was nomonsoonover theIndian subcontinent.This lack of monsoon causedextensive rainfallover theSahara,expansion of theThar Desert,more dust deposited into theArabian Sea,and a lowering of thebiotic life zoneson the Indian subcontinent. Animals responded to this shift in climate, with theJavan rusamigrating into India.[41]

In addition, the glaciers in Tibet createdmeltwater lakesin theQaidam Basin,theTarim Basin,and theGobi Desert,despite the strong evaporation caused by the low latitude.Siltand clay from the glaciers accumulated in these lakes; when the lakes dried at the end of the ice age, the silt and clay wereblownby thedownslope windoff the Plateau. These airborne fine grains produced the enormous amount ofloessin the Chinese lowlands.[41]

Frozen biological samples

[edit]
The location where ice core was taken, and the age of the dead microorganisms found at different depths.

Ice of the plateau provides a valuable window to the past. In 2015, researchers studying the Plateau reached the top of the Guliyaglacier,with ice thickness of 310 m (1,020 ft), and drilled to a depth of 50 m (160 ft) in order to recoverice coresamples. Due to the extremely lowbiomassin those 15,000-year-old samples, it had taken around 5 years of research to extract 33 viruses, of which 28 were new to science. None had survived the extraction process.Phylogeneticanalysis suggests those viruses infectedplantsor other microorganisms.[42][43]

Climate change

[edit]
See also:Effects of climate changeandRetreat of glaciers since 1850

The Tibetan Plateau contains the world's third-largest store of ice. Qin Dahe, the former head of theChina Meteorological Administration,issued the following assessment in 2009:

Temperatures are rising four times faster than elsewhere in China, and the Tibetan glaciers are retreating at a higher speed than in any other part of the world. In the short term, this will cause lakes to expand and bring floods and mudflows. In the long run, the glaciers are vital lifelines for Asian rivers, including theIndusand theGanges.Once they vanish, water supplies in those regions will be in peril.[44]

The Tibetan Plateau contains the largest area of low-latitudeglaciers and is particularly vulnerable to global warming. Over the past five decades, 80% of the glaciers in the Tibetan Plateau have retreated, losing 4.5% of their combined areal coverage.[45]

This region is also liable to suffer damages from permafrost thaw caused by climate change.

Detailed map of Qinghai–Tibet Plateau infrastructure at risk from permafrost thaw under the SSP2-4.5 scenario.
This section is an excerpt fromPermafrost § Infrastructure.[edit]
Outside of the Arctic,Qinghai–Tibet Plateau(sometimes known as "the Third Pole" ), also has an extensive permafrost area. It is warming at twice the global average rate, and 40% of it is already considered "warm" permafrost, making it particularly unstable. Qinghai–Tibet Plateau has a population of over 10 million people – double the population of permafrost regions in the Arctic – and over 1 million m2of buildings are located in its permafrost area, as well as 2,631 km ofpower lines,and 580 km of railways.[46]There are also 9,389 km of roads, and around 30% are already sustaining damage from permafrost thaw.[47]Estimates suggest that under the scenario most similar to today,SSP2-4.5,around 60% of the current infrastructure would be at high risk by 2090 and simply maintaining it would cost $6.31 billion, with adaptation reducing these costs by 20.9% at most. Holding the global warming to 2 °C (3.6 °F) would reduce these costs to $5.65 billion, and fulfilling the optimisticParis Agreementtarget of 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) would save a further $1.32 billion. In particular, fewer than 20% of railways would be at high risk by 2100 under 1.5 °C (2.7 °F), yet this increases to 60% at 2 °C (3.6 °F), while under SSP5-8.5, this level of risk is met by mid-century.[46]

See also

[edit]
The old town ofGyantseand surrounding fields.

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^Tibetan:བོད་ས་མཐོ།,Wylie:bod sa mtho
  2. ^[1]
  3. ^[2]Burmese:တိဘက်ကုန်းပြင်မြင့်;Chinese:Cao nguyên Thanh Tạng;pinyin:Qīng–Zàng Gāoyuán;or as theHimalayan PlateauinIndia[3][4]
  4. ^[5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12]

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
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  2. ^Jones, J.A.; Liu, Changming; Woo, Ming-Ko; Kung, Hsiang-Te (6 December 2012).Regional Hydrological Response to Climate Change.Springer Science & Business Media. p. 360.
  3. ^"हिमालयी क्षेत्र में जीवन यापन पर रिसर्च करेंगे अमेरिका और भारत".
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  8. ^Hopkirk 1983, p. 1
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