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Tokhara Yabghus

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Tokhara Yabghus
625 CE–758 CE
Maximum extent of the territory controlled by the Yabghus of Tokharistan circa 625–652 CE
Kunduz,the capital, and other important cities of the Yabghus of Tokharistan as of 718 CE, after the secession of theTurk ShahisandZunbils.[1][2][3]Herat,KhuspandShuburganhad mints for Yabghu coinage.
CapitalKunduz
Religion
Buddhism[4]
GovernmentMonarchy
•c. 625 CE
Tardush Shad
Historical eraEarly Medieval
• Established
625 CE
• Disestablished
758 CE
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Sasanian Empire
Hephthalite principalities
Tang dynasty
Turk Shahis
Today part ofAfghanistan
Pakistan
Uzbekistan
Tajikistan

TheTokhara YabghusorYabghus of Tokharistan(simplified Chinese:Phun lửa la diệp hộ;traditional Chinese:Phun lửa la diệp hộ;pinyin:Tǔhuǒluó Yèhù) were a dynasty ofWestern Turk–Hephtalitesub-kings with the title "Yabghus",who ruled from 625 CE in the area ofTokharistannorth and south of theOxus River,with some smaller remnants surviving in the area ofBadakhshanuntil 758 CE. Their legacy extended to the southeast where it came into contact with theTurk Shahisand theZunbilsuntil the 9th century CE.

Territorial expansion[edit]

The Turks initially occupied the area of north of theOxus(Transoxonia,Sogdiana) following their destruction of theHephthalitesin 557–565 CE through an alliance with theSasanian Empire.The Sasanians, on the other hand, took control of the area south of the Oxus, withChaganiyan,Sind,Bust,Rukhkhaj,Zabulistan,Tokharistan,TuristanandBalistanbeing transformed into vassal kingdoms and principalities.[5]After this time, a tense Turco-Persian border existed along theOxus,which lasted several decades. The area south of the Oxus contained numerousHephthalitesprincipalities, remnants of the greatHephthalite Empiredestroyed by the alliance of the Turks and the Sasanians.[6]

First offensive into Tokharistan (569–570 CE)[edit]

Bahram Chobinfighting the Turk YabghuBagha Qaghanin 588–589 CE.c. 1560manuscript, Shiraz, Iran.

In 569–570, the Turks launched an offensive against the Sasanian Empire, and conquered the Hephthalite principalities south of the Oxus belonging to the Sasanian Empire. At that time the Sasanian Empire was embroiled in a war in the west, with theByzantine Empire.It seems the Turks reached theKabul–Gandharaarea in 570.[6]The principalities of the Hephthalites, formerly vassals of the Sasanian Empire, accepted Turk supremacy and became vassals of the Western Turk qaghan, and theAlchon Hunscontinued to rule inKabulandGandhara,but the Turks apparently did not permanently occupy the territory south of the Oxus.[6]The Hephthalites aspired to independence from the Turks, and in 581 or 582 CE, they revolted in alliance with the Sasanians against the Turk KaghanTardu.[6]

Second offensive into Tokharistan (588–589 CE)[edit]

In 588–589, the Turks underBagha Qaghanentered into a direct conflict with the Sasanians, in theFirst Perso-Turkic War.The Turks invaded the Sasanian territories south of the Oxus, where they attacked and routed the Sasanian soldiers stationed inBalkh,and then proceeded to conquer the city along withTalaqan,Badghis,andHerat.[7]But the Turks were defeated by the Sasanians underBahram Chobin,who entered the area north of the Oxus and killed the Turkish Khagan.[8]

War against the Sassanian Empire (616–617 CE)[edit]

A war broke out between the Sassanians and the Hephthalites in 606–607 or 616–617 CE, theSecond Perso-Turkic War.At that time, the Turkic Khagan sent an army to help the Hephthalites, and was able to bring a great defeat upon the Sasanians, advancing his troops as far asRayandIsfahan,butSheguyKaghan recalled his armies without pressing his advantage.[9]

Occupation of Tokharistan under Tong Yabghu Qaghan (625 CE)[edit]

Western Turkofficers during an audience with kingVarkhumanofSamarkand.648–651 CE,Afrasiyab murals.[10][11]They are recognizable by their longplaits.[12][13]

The Turks definitely intended to take control of the territories south of the Oxus, but were only ready sometime later, and took the opportunity when the Sasanian Empire again entered into conflict with the Byzantine Empire.[14]

In 625, Tong Yabgu invadedTokharistanand forced theHephtaliteprincipalities to submit.[15][16]He went as far as theIndus riverand took control of all the intervening principalities, replacing Hepthalite rulers by Turk ones.[14]The Turks were victorious, partly because the Sasanian Empire was into a difficult war with theByzantine Empire,theByzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628.[14]

According toCefu Yuangui,these principalities wereZabulistan,Kapisa-Gandhara,Khuttal,Chaghaniyan,Shignan,Shuman,Badhgis,Wakhan,Guzgan,Bamiyan,KobadiyanandBadakhshan.[14][17]The areas ofKhuttalandKapisa-Gandharahad remained independent kingdoms under the easternmost "Hephthalites" (actuallyAlchon Hun) under kings such asNarendra,before being taken over as vassals by the Western Turks.[14]The appearance of the "crown with a bull's head" on the coin portraits of the last rulers of Kapisa-Gandhara Narendra II, can be considered as a sign of recognition of Turk sovereignty, since the titlebuqa(bull) had been in use from 599, when KhaganTarduunited the Turk Empire.[14]

Tong Yabghu Qaghan then installed his sonTardush Shad(Chinese:Đạt đầu thiết;pinyin:Dátóu Shè), as the firstyabgu(sub-king) ofTokharistan,controlling all the new Turk realm south of the Oxus, from his capital atKunduz.[14]

Reign of Tardush Shad (625–630)[edit]

Tardush Shad(Chinese:Đạt đầu thiết;pinyin:Dátóu Shè) was installed in Tokharistan, and ruled inKunduzwith title of Tokharistan Yabgu (Chinese:Phun lửa la diệp hộ;pinyin:Tǔhuǒluó Yèhù). He was married two times – both a daughter ofQu Boya( khúc bá nhã ) – ruler ofQocho.WhenXuanzangvisitedKunduz,he also brought a letter from his brother-in-law and ruler ofQochoQu Wentai( khúc văn thái ) to Tardu. Yabgu received him despite being in ill condition. It was Tardu to advise him to make a trip westward toBalkh(modernAfghanistan), to see the Buddhist sites and relics. Xuanzang also witnessed a palace scandal when Tardu's firstborn sonIshbara Teginfallen in love with his new step-mother (also aunt) and poisoned Tardu in 630.[18]

Reign of Ishbara Yabgu (630–650)[edit]

Coinage of a Yabghu of Tokharistan
Tamgha
Crown
Obverse:Sasanian-style bust, wearing crown with two crescents, andNezak-style head of a bull within wings. Tokhara Yabghustamghas() in crescents along the outer margins.
Reverse:Sasanian-style fire altar with ribbons and attendants; star and crescent flanking flames. DatedRY,"Year 15". Probably 645 CE

Ishbara Yabgu (Chinese:A sử kia sa bát la;pinyin:Ashina Shaboluo) was the son of Tardu Shad, and took over as Tokharistan Yabgu.[14]He was the first Tokharistan Yabghu to mint coins.[14]In these coins, in Sasanian style, his effigy represents him bearing a crown decorated with the bull's head and two wings. In one of the issues, the legend is: šb’lk’ yyp MLK’ (Išbara Jeb ˇ [= yabghu] šah,on the obverse) and pnˇcdh. h. wsp’ ( "[minted in his] 15th [regnal year at] Khusp", on the reverse). This would date the coin to 645 CE, with a location for the mint atKhusp,Kuhistan.[19]Other known mints areHeratandShuburgan.[19]

After 650 however, the power of the Yabghus of Tokharistan fragmented, as they came, as least partially, under Tang suzerainty.[19]A Türk yabghu of Tokharistan recorded under the name of "Wu-shih-po of the A-shih-na dynasty" was the first yabghu to be confirmed by the Chinese Emperor.[20]

In 652–653 CE, the Arabs underAbdallah ibn Amirconquered the whole of Tokharistan and captured the city ofBalkh,as part of theMuslim conquests of Afghanistan.[19]

TheWestern Turkic Khaganateitself was destroyed by theTang dynastyin 657 CE, and most of his territories became protectorates of the Tang Empire, and organized into regional commanderies.[19]Kunduz became the site of the Yuezhi Commandery ( Nguyệt Thị đô đốc phủ,Yuèzhī Dūdùfû) under administration of theAnxi Protectorate.[21]

During the rule of the Umayyad caliphAli(656–661), the Arabs were expulsed from eastern Iran, as far asNishapurand the SasanianPeroz IIIwas able to establish some level of control with the help of the yabghu of Tokharistan inSeistan.[14]

Reign of Pantu Nili (c.705 CE)[edit]

In 705, P’an-tu-ni-li, the yabghu of Tokharistan, is recorded as having sent a mission to the Chinese court.[22]He ruled fromBadakshan,as the area ofBalkhand the central areas of his territory were occupied by the Arabs, including Shuburgan, Khusp and Herat.[22]

Suzerainty over the territories north and south of the Hindu-Kush[edit]

Zhulād of Gōzgānwas an Iranian ruler of the region ofGuzgan,and a vassal of the Yabghus of Tokharistan. Coinage date 688 CE.

According to the chronicles of the ChineseCefu Yuangui,a young brother of Pantu Nili named Puluo ( phó lapúluóin Chinese sources) again visited the Tang court in 718 and gave an account of the military forces in the Tokharistan region.[23]Puluo described the power of "the Kings of Tokharistan", explaining that "Two hundred and twelve kingdoms, governors and prefects" recognize the authority of the Yabghus, and that it has been so since the time of his grandfather, that is, probably since the time of the establishment of the Yabghus of Tokharistan.[24]This account also shows that the Yabghu of Tokharistan ruled a vast area circa 718 CE, formed of the territories north and south of theHindu Kush,including the areas of Kabul and Zabul.[1]The territory ofGuzganwas also mentioned among the territories controlled by the Yabghus.[24]

Part of the Chinese entry for this account by Puluo is:

6 năm tháng 11 Đinh Mùi a sử đặc lặc phó la thượng thư tố rằng: Phó la khắc phun lửa la diệp hộ bộ hạ quản chư quốc vương đô đốc thứ sử tổng 212 người tạ hoàn vương thống lĩnh binh mã hai mươi vạn chúng tầm ngữ vương thống lĩnh binh mã hai mươi vạn chúng cốt phun quốc vương thạch hãn kia quốc vương giải tô quốc vương thạch nặc quốc vương ấp đạt quốc vương hộ mật quốc vương hộ khi kiện quốc vương phạm duyên quốc vương lâu càng đức kiến quốc vương bột đặc sơn vương các lãnh năm vạn chúng. Phó la tổ phụ đã tới cũng là thượng kiện chư quốc chi vương phiên vọng tôn trọng.
On the Dingwei day of the eleventh month in the sixth year [of theKaiyuan era(713–741 CE)], Ashi Tegin Puluo writes to the emperor: the Kings of States, Commander-in-chiefs ( đô đốcDudu) and Regional Inspectors ( thứ sửCishi) under the Yabghu of Tokharistan,[a]the elder brother of Puluo, number two hundred and twelve, in all. The king ofZabul[b]is in charge of infantry and cavalry numbering two hundred thousand, and the king ofKabul[c]is also in charge of two hundred thousand infantry and cavalry. The Kings of the States ofKhuttal,[d]Chaghanian,[e]Jiesu,[f]Shughnan,[g]Yeda,[h]Humi,[i]Guzganan,[j]Bamiyan,[k]Quwādhiyān,[l]andBadakhshan[m]each lead fifty thousand troops. Since the grandfather of Puluo, theYehu Tuhuolo[Yabghu of Tokharistan] has become king of the above-mentioned states: he is greatly respected. "

— Cefu Yuangui3.5. Fanyan in Vol. 999 (Claims, Foreign Subjects), 718 CE.[25][3][27][28]
Major protectorates of theTang dynastyc. 660,including the territory of the Tokhara Yabghus as the "Tokharistan Protectorate", following the campaigns against theEastern Turks (629),theWestern city-states (640–648)and theWestern Turks (657).[29][30]

Puluo, writing in 718 CE, finally reaffirmed the loyalty of the Tokhara Yabghus towards the Tang dynasty, probably since the time of the fall of theWestern Turksto China (657), confirming at least nominal control of the Chinese administration over the region for the last sixty years:[24]

Nhiên hỏa la diệp hộ tích đại đã tới, với Đại Đường trung xích, triều cống không dứt.
The Yabghus of Tokharistan, for several generations until now, have been sincerely devoted to the greatTang dynasty,they have without interruption paid their respects and brought tribute.

— Cefu Yuangui3.5. Fanyan in Vol. 999 (Claims, Foreign Subjects), 718 CE.[24][31]

Temporary conquest of Khorasan over the Arabs (689–710 CE)[edit]

c. 689 CE,theHephthaliteruler ofBadghisand the Arab rebel Musa ibn Abd Allah ibn Khazim, son of theZubayridgovernor of KhurasanAbd Allah ibn Khazim al-Sulami,allied against the forces of theUmayyad Caliphate.[32]The Hepthalites and their allies capturedTermezin 689, repelled the Arabs, and occupied the whole region ofKhorasanfor a brief period, with Termez as they capital, described by the Arabs as "the headquarters of the Hephthalites" (dār mamlakat al-Hayāṭela).[33][34]

The Arabs of theUmayyad CaliphateunderYazid ibn al-Muhallabre-capturedTermezin 704.[32][35]Nezak Tarkan,the ruler of the Hephthalites of Badghis, led a new revolt in 709 with the support of other principalities as well as his nominal ruler, the Yabghu of Tokharistan.[33]In 710,Qutaiba ibn Muslimwas able to re-establish Muslim control over Tokharistan and captured Nizak Tarkan who was executed onal-Hajjaj's orders, despite promises of pardon, while the Yabghu was exiled toDamascusand kept there as a hostage.[36][37][38]

Contacts with the Byzantine Empire[edit]

Account of Tokharistan byKoreanBuddhist pilgrimHui Chaoin 726 CE.[39][40]

TheByzantineEmperorLeo III the Isaurianwho haddefeated their common enemy the Arabsin 717 CE, sentan embassy to China through Central Asiain 719 CE which probably met with the Tokhara Yabghus and theTurk Shahis,who in honour of the Byzantine Emperor even named one of their own rulers "Caesar of Rome" (which they rendered phonetically as King "Fromo Kesaro").[41][n]The Chinese annals record that "In the first month of the seventh year of the periodKaiyuan[719 CE] their Lord [ phất lâm vương, "the King ofFulin"] sent the Ta-shou-ling [an officer of high rank] of T'u-huo-lo [ phun lửa la, Tokhara] (...) to offer lions and ling-yang [antelopes], two of each. A few months after, he further sent Ta-te-seng [" priests of great virtue "] to our court with tribute."[42]

Chinese sources[edit]

Turk ("T’u-chüeh") kingdoms were in the territories of Gandhara, Kapisa andZabulistanaround 723–729 CE, according to the testimony the Korean pilgrimHui Chao.[14]Huei-chao also mentioned that in 726 CE, the Arabs occupiedBalkh,and the Turks were forced to flee toBadakshan:

I arrived in Tokharistan ( phun lửa la quốcTuhuoluo-guo). The home city of the king is calledBalkh( trói đế kia ). At this time the troops of the Arabs ( đại thật quốc )[o]are there and they occupy it. Its King, Wives and Court was forced to flee one month's journey to the east and lives inBadakhshan.Now Balkh belongs to the Arabs' domain. (...) The King, the nobles and the people revere theThree Jewels(Buddhism). There are many monasteries and monks; they practice theHinayanateachings.

— Hui Chao,Memoir of the pilgrimage to the five kingdoms of India,726 CE.[4][39]

Chinese sources mention a few years later yabghus who sent missions to the Tang court: Ku-tu-lu Tun Ta-tu (Qutluγ Ton Tardu) asked for help against the Arabs in 729 CE, Shih-li-mang-kia-lo (Sri Mangala) asked for help against the Tibetans in 749 CE, and received this help from the Chinese, and in 758 CE Wu-na-to (Udita?) visited in person the Chinese court and participated in the fight against the rebelAn Lu-shan.[22]

In theNestorian Stele of Xi'an,erected in 781 CE, theNestorianmonkJingjingmentioned inSyriacthat his grandfather was a missionary-priest fromBalkhin Tokharistan.[43][44]

Kapisa-Gandhara[edit]

Main article:Turk Shahis
An earlyTurk Shahiruler named Sri Ranasrikari "The Lord who brings excellence through war" (Brahmi script:). In this realistic portrait, he wears a triple-crescent crown and the Turkic double-lapelcaftan.Late 7th to early 8th century CE.[45][46][47]

In the area ofKapisa-Gandhara,theTurk Shahi(665–850 CE), a probable political extension and vassals of the neighbouring Yabghus of Tokharistan, remained an obstacle to the eastward expansion of theAbbasid Caliphate.[41][1]

c. 650 CE,the Arabs attacked Shahi territory from the west, and capturedKabul.[41]But the Turk Shahi were able to mount a counter-offensive and repulsed the Arabs, taking back the areas of Kabul andZabulistan(aroundGhazni), as well as the region ofArachosiaas far asKandahar.[41]The Arabs again failed to capture Kabul and Zabulistan in 697–698 CE, and their generalYazid ibn Ziyadwas killed in the action.[41]A few years later however the Arabs defeated and killed the Kabul Shah and conquered Kabul under Umayyad generalQutayba ibn Muslim.[48][49][50]

Nezak Tarkhan, the ruler of the Hephthalites of Badghis, led a revolt against the Arabs in 709 with the support of other principalities as well as his nominal ruler, theYabghu of Tokharistan.[33]In 710, the Umayyad generalQutayba ibn Muslimwas able to re-establish Muslim control over Tokharistan and captured Nizak Tarkhan, who was executed on the orders ofal-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf,while the Yabghus, who had ruled parts of Tokharistan as well as Badakhshan, was exiled toDamascusand kept there as a hostage.[36][37][51]

From 719 CE,Tegin Shahwas the king of the Turk Shahis. He then abdicated in 739 CE in favour of his sonFromo Kesaro,probable phonetic transcription of "Caesar of Rome" in honor of "Caesar", the title of the thenEast RomanEmperorLeo III the Isaurianwho had defeated their common enemy the Arabs in 717 CE, and sent an embassy through Central Asia in 719 CE.[41][p]Fromo Kesaroappears to have fought vigorously against the Arabs, and his victories may have forged the Tibetan epic legend ofKing Phrom Ge-sar.[41]

The Turk Shahis eventually weakened against the Arabs in the late 9th century CE.[41]Kandahar,KabulandZabulwere lost to the Arabs, while inGandharatheHindu Shahitook over. The last Shahi ruler of Kabul, Lagaturman, was deposed by aBrahminminister, possibly named Vakkadeva,[52][53][54]in c. 850, signaling the end of the Buddhist Turk Shahi dynasty, and the beginning of theHindu Shahidynasty of Kabul.[55]

Local art at the time of the Yabghus of Tokharistan (7th–8th century CE)[edit]

These was a relatively high level of artistic activity in the areas controlled by the Yabghus of Tokharistan during 7th–8th centuries CE, either as a result of the Sasanian cultural heritage, or as a result of the continued development ofBuddhist art.[56]The works of art of this period in Afghanistan, with a sophistication and cosmopolitanism comparable to other works of art of theSilk Roadsuch as those ofKizil,are attributable to the sponsorship of the Turks.[57]

  • Buddha wearing a crown and cape. Painting in niche "I" at Bamiyan, 7th century CE.[58][59]
    Buddha wearing a crown and cape. Painting in niche "I" atBamiyan,7th century CE.[58][59]
  • Male mythological figure, Tokharistan, 7th–8th century CE
    Male mythological figure, Tokharistan, 7th–8th century CE
  • Shallow bowl, probably from Afghanistan (said to have been discovered in northwestern India), Sasanian period, 5th-7th century CE.
    Shallow bowl, probably fromAfghanistan(said to have been discovered in northwestern India), Sasanian period, 5th–7th century CE.[60]
  • Goddess, possibly Nana, seated on a lion, 5th-6th century, Afghanistan, Hephthalite or Turkic period.
    Goddess, possibly Nana, seated on a lion, 5th–6th century, Afghanistan,Hephthaliteor Turkic period.[61]

Buddhism[edit]

Buddhism inTokharistanis said to have enjoyed a revival under the Turks. Several monasteries of Tokharistan dated to the 7th–8th centuries display beautiful Buddhist works of art, such asKalai Kafirnigan,Ajina Tepe,Khisht Tepe orKafyr Kala,around which Turkic nobility and populations followedHinayanaBuddhism.[62]The Turks were apparently quite tolerant of other religions.[62]

  • Buddhist mural from Kalai Kafirnigan, Museum of National Antiquities, Dushanbe, Tajikistan. 7th-early 8th century.
    Buddhist mural from Kalai Kafirnigan, Museum of National Antiquities, Dushanbe, Tajikistan. 7th–early 8th century.[62][63]
  • Female devotee in Kalai Kafirnigan. 7th-early 8th century.
    Female devotee in Kalai Kafirnigan. 7th–early 8th century.[62]
  • Ajina-Tepe Buddhist mural, Tajikistan, 7th–8th century CE
    Ajina-Tepe Buddhist mural, Tajikistan, 7th–8th century CE
  • Buddhist mural from the monastery at Ajina Tepe. Dushanbe - National Museum of Antiquities.
    Buddhist mural from the monastery atAjina Tepe.Dushanbe – National Museum of Antiquities.[62]

Bamiyan murals and their devotees[edit]

The mural paintings ofBamiyandisplay male devotees in double-lapel caftans, also attributable to the local sponsorship of the Western Turks.[57]

  • Devotee in double-lapel caftan, left wall of the niche of the 53 meter Buddha. Bamiyan
    Devotee in double-lapelcaftan,left wall of the niche of the 53 meter Buddha. Bamiyan
  • The Buddha and devotee in caftan. Bamiyan
    The Buddha and devotee in caftan. Bamiyan
  • Devotee in caftan, next to the Buddha. Bamiyan (detail)
    Devotee in caftan, next to the Buddha. Bamiyan (detail)

References[edit]

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  20. ^"The first Türk yabghu (king) of Tokharistan, confirmed by the Chinese emperor, was Wu-shih-po of the A-shih-na dynasty." inDani, Ahmad Hasan; Litvinsky, B. A. (January 1996).History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750.UNESCO. p. 372.ISBN978-92-3-103211-0.
  21. ^Theobald, Ulrich."The Western Territories Tây Vực ( chinaknowledge.de)".chinaknowledge.de.
  22. ^abcDani, Ahmad Hasan; Litvinsky, B. A. (January 1996).History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The crossroads of civilizations, A.D. 250 to 750.UNESCO. p. 372.ISBN978-92-3-103211-0.
  23. ^Kuwayama, S. (2002).Across the Hindukush of the First Millennium: a collection of the papers(PDF).Kyoto University. p. 139.
  24. ^abcdSims-Williams, Nicholas (2002)."Nouveaux document bactriens du Guzgan (note d'information)".Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres.146(3): 1057.doi:10.3406/crai.2002.22500.
  25. ^abcdefghijTaishan, Y. U. (2012).Âu Á học khan tân 3 tập (Eurasian Studies III): Records Relevant to the Hephthalites in Ancient Chinese Historical Works.Trung Hoa thư cục. p. 250.
  26. ^Theobald, Ulrich."The Western Territories Tây Vực".chinaknowledge.de.
  27. ^Paragraph 69 in:"Sách phủ nguyên quy: Cuốn 999 – Chinese Text Project".ctext.org.
  28. ^Morgan, Llewelyn (18 June 2012).The Buddhas of Bamiyan.Harvard University Press. pp. 46–47.ISBN978-0-674-06538-3.
  29. ^Ven, Hans van de (26 July 2021).Warfare in Chinese History.BRILL. p.119, map 2,p.131, map 3.ISBN978-90-04-48294-4.
  30. ^Millward, James A. (2007).Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xin gian g.Columbia University Press. p. 33.ISBN978-0-231-13924-3.
  31. ^Paragraph 69 nhiên hỏa la diệp hộ tích đại tới nay với Đại Đường trung xích triều cống không dứt. in:"Sách phủ nguyên quy: Cuốn 999 – Chinese Text Project".ctext.org.
  32. ^abBeckwith 2009,p. 132.
  33. ^abcBosworth, C.E."BĀḎḠĪS".Encyclopaedia Iranica.
  34. ^Kennedy 2007,pp. 243–254.
  35. ^Grenet, F."NĒZAK".Encyclopaedia Iranica.Citing Tangshu XLIII, B, pp. 6–9 and Chavannes, Documents, p. 69, n. 2
  36. ^abGibb 1923,pp. 36–38.
  37. ^abShaban 1970,pp. 66–67.
  38. ^Esin, E. (1977). "Tarkhan Nīzak or Tarkhan Tirek? An Enquiry concerning the Prince of Badhghīs Who in A. H. 91/A. D. 709–710 Opposed the 'Omayyad Conquest of Central Asia".Journal of the American Oriental Society.97(3): 330.doi:10.2307/600737.ISSN0003-0279.JSTOR600737.
  39. ^abJan, Yun-Hua; Iida, Shotaro; Yang, Han-Sung (1984).The Hye Ch'O Diary: Memoir of the Pilgrimage to the Five Regions of India (Religions of Asia Series)(English and Korean ed.). Asian Humanities Pr. p. 52.ISBN978-0895810243.
  40. ^Original text:
    Lại từ đây phạm dẫn quốc. Bắc hành hai mươi ngày. Đến phun lửa la quốc. Vương trụ thành tên là trói đế kia. Thấy nay đại thật binh mã. Ở bỉ trấn áp. Này vương bị này vương bị bức. Đi hướng đông một tháng trình. Ở bồ cầm sơn. Trụ thấy thuộc đại thật sở quản. Ngôn âm cùng chư quốc đừng. Cộng Kế Tân Quốc ít có tương tự. Đa phần bất đồng. Quần áo bóng cao su 㲲 bố chờ. Từ quốc vương. Hạ cập lê dân. Toàn lấy bóng cao su. Vì thượng phục. Thổ địa đủ đà loa dương mã 㲲 bố quả nho. Thực duy ái bánh. Thổ địa rét lạnh. Mùa đông sương tuyết cũng. Quốc vương thủ lĩnh cập bá tánh chờ. Cực kính tam bảo. Đủ chùa đủ tăng. Hành tiểu thừa pháp. Thực nội cập hành 蕜 chờ. Không sự ngoại đạo. Nam nhân cũng cắt râu tóc. Nữ nhân ở phát thổ địa đủ sơn
    in"Vãng năm ngày Trúc quốc truyền CBETA hán văn đại tàng kinh".tripitaka.cbeta.org..
    Translation from the original:
    "FromBamiyan( phạm dẫn quốc ) I travelled further north and after twenty days arrived at the country ofTokharistan( phun lửa la quốcTuhuoluo-guo). The capital city is called Pactra (BalkhTrói đế kia ). At present, the place is guarded and oppressed by Arab forces ( đại thật binh mã ). The original king was compelled to leave the capital, and he resided atBadakshan( bồ cầm sơn ), which is one month's journey from the capital towards the east. It is also under the authority of the Arabs. The language [of this country] is different from that of other countries. Though it is similar to the language ofKapisa(Jibin,Kế Tân Quốc ), for the most part it is different. The dress is mostly made of fur, cotton, and similar things. From the king and chiefs down to the common people, all use fur as the outer garment. The land has many camels, mules, sheep and grapes. As far as food is concerned, the people are only fond of pastry. The land is cold. There is fog and snow during the winter. The king, the chiefs, and the common people respect theThree Jewels(TriratnaTam bảo ). There are many monasteries and monks.HinayanaBuddhism( tiểu thừa pháp ) is practised. They eat meat, onions, and leeks. They do not profess any other religions. All men cut their beards and hair, but women keep their hair. The land is mountainous "
    Adapted fromJan, Yun-Hua; Iida, Shotaro; Yang, Han-Sung (1984).The Hye Ch'O Diary: Memoir of the Pilgrimage to the Five Regions of India (Religions of Asia Series)(English and Korean ed.). Asian Humanities Pr. p. 52.ISBN978-0895810243.
  41. ^abcdefghKim, Hyun Jin (19 November 2015).The Huns.Routledge. pp. 58–59.ISBN978-1-317-34090-4.
  42. ^Old Book of Tang( cũ đường thưJiu Tangshu), ch. 198 (written mid-10th century C.E.), for 618–906 C.E: "Khai nguyên bảy năm tháng giêng, này chủ khiển phun lửa la đại thủ lĩnh hiến sư tử, linh dương các nhị. Không mấy tháng, lại khiển đại đức tăng tới triều cống"quoted in English translation inHirth, F. (1885).China and the Roman Orient: Researches into their Ancient and Mediaeval Relations as Represented in Old Chinese Records.Shanghai & Hong Kong: Kelly and Walsh.
  43. ^Kurian, George Thomas; III, James D. Smith (2010).The Encyclopedia of Christian Literature.Scarecrow Press. p. 251.ISBN978-0-8108-7283-7.
  44. ^Godwin, R. Todd (2018).Persian Christians at the Chinese Court: The Xi'an Stele and the Early Medieval Church of the East.Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 10.ISBN978-1-78673-316-0.
  45. ^Göbl 1967, 254; Vondrovec tyre 254
  46. ^"The Countenance of the other (The Coins of the Huns and Western Turks in Central Asia and India) 2012–2013 exhibit".Pro.geo.univie.ac.at.Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna.RetrievedJuly 16,2017.
  47. ^Alram, Michael; Filigenzi, Anna; Kinberger, Michaela; Nell, Daniel; Pfisterer, Matthias; Vondrovec, Klaus."The Countenance of the other (The Coins of the Huns and Western Turks in Central Asia and India) 2012–2013 exhibit: 13. THE TURK SHAHIS IN KABULISTAN".Pro.geo.univie.ac.at.Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna.RetrievedJuly 16,2017.
  48. ^Marozzi, Justin (13 May 2021).The Arab Conquests.Head of Zeus.ISBN9781838933418.
  49. ^Mujahid, Abdul Malik (1908)."Golden Words".
  50. ^Spuler, Bertold (6 November 2014).Iran in the Early Islamic Period: Politics, Culture, Administration and Public Life between the Arab and the Seljuk Conquests, 633–1055.BRILL.ISBN9789004282094.
  51. ^Esin, E. (1977)."Tarkhan Nīzak or Tarkhan Tirek? An Enquiry concerning the Prince of Badhghīs Who in A. H. 91/A. D. 709–710 Opposed the 'Omayyad Conquest of Central Asia".Journal of the American Oriental Society.97(3): 330.doi:10.2307/600737.ISSN0003-0279.JSTOR600737.
  52. ^D. W. Macdowall, "The Shahis of Kabul and Gandhara"Numismatic Chronicle,Seventh Series, Vol. III, 1968, pp. 189–224, see extracts in R. T. Mohan,AFGHANISTAN REVISITED... Appendix –B, pp. 164–68
  53. ^Raizada Harichand Vaid,Gulshane Mohyali,II, pp. 83 and 183-84.
  54. ^H. G. Raverty,Tr.Tabaqat-i-Nasiriof Maulana Minhaj-ud-din, Vol. I, p. 82
  55. ^"The Countenance of the other (The Coins of the Huns and Western Turks in Central Asia and India) 2012–2013 exhibit: 16. The Hindu Shahis in Kabulistan and Gandhara and the Arab conquest".Pro.geo.univie.ac.at.Archived fromthe originalon March 10, 2021.RetrievedJuly 22,2017.
  56. ^Compareti, Matteo (2008)."The Painting of the" Hunter-King "at Kakrak: Royal Figure or Divine Being?".Studio Editoriale Gordini:133.
  57. ^abBosworth also says that the "Ephthaliteswere incapable of such work "(he conflates the inHephthalitesand theAlchon Huns), inBosworth, C. Edmund (15 May 2017).The Turks in the Early Islamic World.Routledge. p. 145.ISBN978-1-351-88087-9.
  58. ^Huntington, John C."Images of the Crowned Buddha along the Silk Road: Iconography and Ideology".
  59. ^Wong, Dorothy C. (28 April 2018).Buddhist Pilgrim-Monks as Agents of Cultural and Artistic Transmission: The International Buddhist Art Style in East Asia, ca. 645-770.NUS Press. p. 78.ISBN978-981-4722-59-9.
  60. ^Gunter, Ann C.; Jett, Paul (1992).ANCIENT IRANIAN METALWORK IN THE ARTHUR M. SACKLER GALLERY AND THE FREER GALLERY OF ART(PDF).Smithsonian Institution, Washin2;ton, D.C. pp. 148–152.
  61. ^"Metropolitan Museum of Art".metmuseum.org.
  62. ^abcdeBaumer, Christoph (18 April 2018).History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set.Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 203–204.ISBN978-1-83860-868-2.
  63. ^Litvinskij, B. A. (1981)."Kalai-Kafirnigan Problems in the Religion and Art of Early Mediaeval Tokharistan"(PDF).East and West.31(1/4): 35–66.ISSN0012-8376.JSTOR29756581.

Notes[edit]

  1. ^Diệp hộ phun lửa laYehu of Tuhuoluo[25]
  2. ^Tạ hoànXieyang."The state of Xieyang (Zābulistān) was located between Kabuland and Kandahar."[25]
  3. ^Tầm ngữ,Kabul orJibindepending on the source.[25][3]
  4. ^Cốt phun quốcGutuo-guo
  5. ^Thạch hãn kia quốcShihanna-guo"The state of Shihanna (Čaghaniyān) was located inDenauon the upper stream of the Surkhan River "[25]
  6. ^Giải tô quốcJiesu-guo"The state of Jiesu was simply the state of Yuman (Shūmān) near presentdayDushanbe"[25]
  7. ^Thạch nặc quốcShini
  8. ^Ấp đạt quốcYida"Yida is simply Yeda"[25]"Taihan quá hãn đô đốc phủ or Dahan đổ mồ hôi" was the "former territory of the Hephthalites (Yeda 嚈 đát ), the city of Huolu đường sống (modernMazār-e Sherif,Afghanistan) "[26]
  9. ^Hộ mật quốcHumi-guo"The state of Humi (Komedae) was located in present-day Sarik-Čaupan and the surrounding area in theWakhan valley."[25]
  10. ^Hộ khi kiện quốcHushi gian -guo"The state of Hushi gian (Gūzgānān) was located betweenMervandBalkh"[25]
  11. ^Phạm duyên quốcFanyan-guo
  12. ^Lâu càng đức kiến quốcJiuyuede gian -guo"The state of Jiuyuede gian (Quwādhiyān) was on the lower stream of theKafirnihan River,near present-dayQobadian"[25]
  13. ^Bột đặc sơnBoteshan
  14. ^Martin 2011,p. 127: "He received this laudatory epithet because he, like the Byzantines, was successful at holding back the Muslim conquerors."
  15. ^This is the first mention of the Arab as "Dashi" ( đại thật or đại thực ) in a Chinese text. SeeThe Silk Road Encyclopedia.Seoul Selection. 18 July 2016. p. 782.ISBN978-1-62412-076-3.
  16. ^Martin 2011,p. 127: "He received this laudatory epithet because he, like the Byzantines, was successful at holding back the Muslim conquerors."

Sources[edit]

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