Tower of London

For other uses, seeTower of London (disambiguation).

His Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London
Location	London Borough of Tower Hamlets
Coordinates	51°30′29″N00°04′34″W
Area	Castle: 12 acres (4.9 ha) Tower Liberties:6 acres (2.4 ha)
Height	27 metres (89 ft)
Built	White Tower: 1078 Inner ward: 1190s Rebuilt: 1285 Wharf expansion: 1377–1399
Visitors	2,790,280 (in 2023)
Owner	KingCharles IIIin right ofthe Crown
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Type	Cultural
Criteria	ii, iv
Designated	1988(12thsession)
Reference no.	488
Country	England
Europe and North America
Listed Building– Grade I
Listed Building– Grade II
Location of the castle in central London

TheTower of London,officiallyHis Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London,is a historiccastleon the north bank of theRiver Thamesincentral London,England. It lies within theLondon Borough of Tower Hamlets,which is separated from the eastern edge of the square mile of theCity of Londonby the open space known asTower Hill.It was founded toward the end of 1066 as part of theNorman Conquest.TheWhite Tower,which gives the entire castle its name, was built byWilliam the Conquerorin 1078 and was initially a resented symbol of oppression, inflicted upon London by the newNormanruling class.The castle was also used as a prison from 1100 (Ranulf Flambard) until 1952 (Kray twins),although that was not its primary purpose. A grand palace early in its history, it served as a royal residence. As a whole, the Tower is a complex of several buildings set within two concentric rings of defensive walls and amoat.There were several phases of expansion, mainly under kingsRichard I,Henry III,andEdward Iin the 12th and 13th centuries. The general layout established by the late 13th century remains despite later activity on the site.

The Tower of London has played a prominent role inEnglish history.It was besieged several times, and controlling it has been important to controlling the country. The Tower has served variously as anarmoury,atreasury,amenagerie,the home of theRoyal Mint,apublic record office,and the home of theCrown Jewels of England.From the early 14th century until the reign ofCharles IIin the 17th century, the monarch would traditionally prepare for several nights at the Tower, and lead a procession from there toWestminster Abbeyfor their coronation. In the absence of the monarch, theConstable of the Towerwas in charge of the castle. This was a powerful and trusted position in the medieval period. In the late 15th century, thePrinces in the Towerwere housed at the castle when they mysteriously disappeared, presumed murdered. Under theTudors,the Tower became used less as a royal residence, and despite attempts to refortify and repair the castle, its defences lagged behind developments to deal with artillery.

The zenith of the castle's use as a prison was the 16th and 17th centuries, when many figures who had fallen into disgrace, such asElizabeth Ibefore she became queen, SirWalter Raleigh,andElizabeth Throckmorton,were held within its walls. This use has led to the phrase "sent to the Tower".Despite its enduring reputation as a place of torture and death, popularised by 16th-century religious propagandists and 19th-century writers, only seven people were executed within the Tower before theworld warsof the 20th century. Executions were more commonly held on the notorious Tower Hill to the north of the castle, with 112 occurring there over a 400-year period. In the latter half of the 19th century, institutions such as the Royal Mint moved out of the castle to other locations, leaving many buildings empty.Anthony SalvinandJohn Taylortook the opportunity to restore the Tower to what was felt to be its medieval appearance, clearing out many of the vacant post-medieval structures.

In theFirstandSecond World Wars,the Tower was again used as a prison and witnessed the executions of 12 men for espionage. After the Second World War, damage caused duringthe Blitzwas repaired, and the castle reopened to the public. Today, the Tower of London is one of the country's most popular tourist attractions. Under the ceremonial charge of the Constable of the Tower, operated by theResident Governor of the Tower of London and Keeper of the Jewel House,and guarded by theYeomen Warders,the property is cared for by the charityHistoric Royal Palacesand is protected as aWorld Heritage Site.

Architecture

Audio description of the Tower of London byMike Gatting

Layout

Plan of the Tower of London

The Tower was oriented with its strongest and most impressive defences overlookingSaxonLondon, which archaeologistAlan Vincesuggests was deliberate.It would have visually dominated the surrounding area and stood out to traffic on the River Thames.The castle is made up of three "wards",or enclosures. The innermost ward contains the White Tower and is the earliest phase of the castle. Encircling it to the north, east, and west is the inner ward, built during the reign ofRichard I(1189–1199). Finally, there is the outer ward which encompasses the castle and was built underEdward I.Although there were several phases of expansion after William the Conqueror founded the Tower of London, the general layout has remained the same since Edward I completed his rebuild in 1285.

The castle encloses an area of almost 12 acres (4.9 hectares) with a further 6 acres (2.4 ha) around the Tower of London constituting theTower Liberties– land under the direct influence of the castle and cleared for military reasons.The precursor of the Liberties was laid out in the 13th century whenHenry IIIordered that a strip of land adjacent to the castle be kept clear.Despite popular fiction, the Tower of London never had a permanent torture chamber, although the basement of the White Tower housed arackin later periods.TowerWharfwas built on the bank of the Thames under Edward I and was expanded to its current size during the reign ofRichard II(1377–1399).

White Tower

Main article:White Tower (Tower of London)

The White Tower is akeep(also known as a donjon), which was often the strongest structure in a medieval castle, and contained lodgings suitable for the lord – in this case, the king or his representative.According to military historian Allen Brown, "The great tower [White Tower] was also, by virtue of its strength, majesty and lordly accommodation, the donjonpar excellence".As one of the largest keeps in theChristian world,the White Tower has been described as "the most complete eleventh-century palace in Europe".

The original entrance to the White Tower was at first-floor level.

The White Tower, not including its projecting corner towers, measures 36 by 32 metres (118 by 105 ft) at the base, and is 27 m (90 ft) high at the southern battlements. The structure was originally three storeys high, comprising a basement floor, an entrance level, and an upper floor. The entrance, as is usual inNormankeeps, was above ground, in this case on the south face, and accessed via a wooden staircase which could be removed in the event of an attack. It was probably duringHenry II's reign (1154–1189) that a forebuilding was added to the south side of the tower to provide extra defences to the entrance, but it has not survived. Each floor was divided into three chambers, the largest in the west, a smaller room in the north-east, and the chapel taking up the entrance and upper floors of the south-east.At the western corners of the building are square towers, while to the north-east a round tower houses a spiral staircase. At the south-east corner there is a larger semi-circular projection which accommodates theapseof the chapel. As the building was intended to be a comfortable residence as well as a stronghold, latrines were built into the walls, and four fireplaces provided warmth.

The main building material isKentishragstone,although some localmudstonewas also used.Caen stonewas imported from northern France to provide details in the Tower's facing, although little of the original material survives as it was replaced withPortland stonein the 17th and 18th centuries.Reigate stonewas also used asashlarand for carved details. Its location, in the lower courses of the building and at higher levels corresponding to a building break, suggest it was readily available and may have been used when access to Caen stone was restricted.As most of the Tower's windows were enlarged in the 18th century, only two original – albeit restored – examples remain, in the south wall at the gallery level.

The tower was terraced into the side of a mound, so the northern side of the basement is partially below ground level.As was typical of most keeps,the bottom floor was anundercroftused for storage. One of the rooms contained a well. Although the layout has remained the same since the tower's construction, the interior of the basement dates mostly from the 18th century when the floor was lowered and the pre-existing timbervaultswere replaced with brick counterparts.The basement is lit through small slits.

St John's Chapel, inside the White Tower

The entrance floor was probably intended for the use of theConstable of the Tower,Lieutenant of the Tower of Londonand other important officials. The south entrance was blocked during the 17th century, and not reopened until 1973. Those heading to the upper floor had to pass through a smaller chamber to the east, also connected to the entrance floor. ThecryptofSt John's Chapeloccupied the south-east corner and was accessible only from the eastern chamber. There is a recess in the north wall of the crypt; according to Geoffrey Parnell, Keeper of the Tower History at the Royal Armouries, "the windowless form and restricted access, suggest that it was designed as a strong-room for safekeeping of royal treasures and important documents".

The upper floor contained a grand hall in the west and residential chamber in the east – both originally open to the roof and surrounded by a gallery built into the wall – and St John's Chapel in the south-east. The top floor was added in the 15th century, along with the present roof.St John's Chapel was not part of the White Tower's original design, as the apsidal projection was built after the basement walls.Due to changes in function and design since the tower's construction, except for the chapel little is left of the original interior.The chapel's current bare and unadorned appearance is reminiscent of how it would have been in the Norman period. In the 13th century, during Henry III's reign, the chapel was decorated with such ornamentation as a gold-painted cross, andstained glasswindows that depicted theVirgin Maryand theHoly Trinity.

Innermost ward

The innermost ward encloses an area immediately south of the White Tower, stretching to what was once the edge of the River Thames. As was the case at other castles, such as the 11th-centuryHen Domen,the innermost ward was probably filled with timber buildings from the Tower's foundation. Exactly when the royal lodgings began to encroach from the White Tower into the innermost ward is uncertain, although it had happened by the 1170s.The lodgings were renovated and elaborated during the 1220s and 1230s, becoming comparable with other palatial residences such asWindsor Castle.Construction of Wakefield and Lanthorn Towers – located at the corners of the innermost ward's wall along the river – began around 1220.They probably served as private residences for the queen and king respectively.

The earliest evidence for how the royal chambers were decorated comes from Henry III's reign: the queen's chamber was whitewashed, and painted with flowers and imitation stonework. Agreat hallexisted in the south of the ward, between the two towers.It was similar to, although slightly smaller than, that also built by Henry III atWinchester Castle.Near Wakefield Tower was apostern gatewhich allowed private access to the king's apartments. The innermost ward was originally surrounded by a protective ditch, which had been filled in by the 1220s. Around this time, a kitchen was built in the ward.Between 1666 and 1676, the innermost ward was transformed and the palace buildings removed.The area around the White Tower was cleared so that anyone approaching would have to cross open ground. The Jewel House was demolished, and theCrown Jewelsmoved to Martin Tower.

Interior of the innermost ward. Right of centre is the 11th-century White Tower; the structure at the end of the walkway to the left is Wakefield Tower. Beyond that can be seen Traitors' Gate.

Inner ward

See also:Church of St Peter ad Vincula

The inner ward was created during Richard the Lionheart's reign, when a moat was dug to the west of the innermost ward, effectively doubling the castle's size.Henry III created the ward's east and north walls, and the ward's dimensions remain to this day.Most of Henry's work survives, and only two of the nine towers he constructed have been completely rebuilt.Between the Wakefield and Lanthorn Towers, the innermost ward's wall also serves as acurtain wallfor the inner ward.The main entrance to the inner ward would have been through agatehouse,most likely in the west wall on the site of what is now Beauchamp Tower. The inner ward's western curtain wall was rebuilt by Edward I.The 13th-century Beauchamp Tower marks the first large-scale use of brick as a building material in Britain, since the 5th-century departure of the Romans.The Beauchamp Tower is one of 13 towers that stud the curtain wall. Clockwise from the south-west corner they are: Bell, Beauchamp, Devereux, Flint, Bowyer, Brick, Martin, Constable, Broad Arrow, Salt, Lanthorn, Wakefield, and the Bloody Tower.While these towers provided positions from whichflanking firecould be deployed against a potential enemy, they also contained accommodation. As its name suggests, Bell Tower housed a belfry, its purpose to raise the alarm in the event of an attack. The royal bow-maker, responsible for makinglongbows,crossbows,catapults,and other siege and hand weapons, had a workshop in the Bowyer Tower. A turret at the top of Lanthorn Tower was used as a beacon by traffic approaching the Tower at night.

The south face of the Waterloo Block

As a result of Henry's expansion,St Peter ad Vincula,a Norman chapel which had previously stood outside the Tower, was incorporated into the castle. Henry decorated the chapel by adding glazed windows, and stalls for himself and his queen.It was rebuilt by Edward I at a cost of over £300and again byHenry VIIIin 1519; the current building dates from this period, although the chapel was refurbished in the 19th century.Immediately west of Wakefield Tower, the Bloody Tower was built at the same time as the inner ward's curtain wall, and as a water-gate provided access to the castle from the River Thames. It was a simple structure, protected by aportcullisand gate.The Bloody Tower acquired its name in the 16th century, as it was believed to be the site of the murder of thePrinces in the Tower.Between 1339 and 1341, a gatehouse was built into the curtain wall between Bell and Salt Towers.During the Tudor period, a range of buildings for the storage of munitions was built along the inside of the north inner ward.The castle buildings were remodelled during theStuart period,mostly under the auspices of the Office of Ordnance. In 1663, just over £4,000 was spent building a new storehouse (now known as the New Armouries) in the inner ward.Construction of the Grand Storehouse north of the White Tower began in 1688, on the same site as the dilapidated Tudor range of storehouses;it was destroyed by fire in 1841. The Waterloo Block, a former barracks in the castellated Gothic Revival style with Domestic Tudor details,was built on the site and remains to this day, housing the Crown Jewels on the ground floor.

Outer ward

A third ward was created during Edward I's extension to the Tower, as the narrow enclosure completely surrounded the castle. At the same time abastionknown as Legge's Mount was built at the castle's northwest corner. Brass Mount, the bastion in the northeast corner, was a later addition. The three rectangular towers along the east wall 15 metres (49 ft) apart were dismantled in 1843. Although the bastions have often been ascribed to the Tudor period, there is no evidence to support this; archaeological investigations suggest that Legge's Mount dates from the reign of Edward I.Blockedbattlements(also known as crenellations) in the south side of Legge's Mount are the only surviving medieval battlements at the Tower of London (the rest are Victorian replacements).A new 50-metre (160 ft) moat was dug beyond the castle's new limits;it was originally 4.5 metres (15 ft) deeper in the middle than it is today.With the addition of a new curtain wall, the old main entrance to the Tower of London was obscured and made redundant; a new entrance was created in the southwest corner of the external wall circuit. The complex consisted of an inner and an outer gatehouse and abarbican,which became known as the Lion Tower as it was associated with the animals as part of the Royal Menagerie since at least the 1330s.The Lion Tower itself no longer survives.

Edward extended the south side of the Tower of London onto land that had previously been submerged by the River Thames. In this wall, he built St Thomas's Tower between 1275 and 1279; later known asTraitors' Gate,it replaced the Bloody Tower as the castle's water-gate. The building is unique in England, and the closest parallel is the now demolished water-gate at theLouvrein Paris. The dock was covered witharrowslitsin case of an attack on the castle from the River; there was also aportcullisat the entrance to control who entered. There were luxurious lodgings on the first floor.Edward also moved theRoyal Mintinto the Tower; its exact location early on is unknown, although it was probably in either the outer ward or the Lion Tower.By 1560, the Mint was located in a building in the outer ward near Salt Tower.Between 1348 and 1355, a second water-gate, Cradle Tower, was added east of St Thomas's Tower for the king's private use.

The Tower of London's outer curtain wall, with the curtain wall of the inner ward just visible behind. In the centre is Legge's Mount.

History

Foundation and early history

Victorious at theBattle of Hastingson 14 October 1066, the invadingDuke of Normandy,William the Conqueror,spent the rest of the year securing his holdings by fortifying key positions. He founded several castles along the way, but took a circuitous route toward London;only when he reachedCanterburydid he turn towards England's largest city. As the fortified bridge into London was held bySaxontroops, he decided instead to ravageSouthwarkbefore continuing his journey around southern England.A series of Norman victories along the route cut the city's supply lines and in December 1066, isolated and intimidated, its leaders yielded London without a fight.Between 1066 and 1087, William established 36 castles,although references in theDomesday Bookindicate that many more were founded by his subordinates.The Normans undertook what has been described as "the most extensive and concentrated programme of castle-building in the whole history of feudal Europe".They were multi-purpose buildings, serving as fortifications (used as a base of operations in enemy territory), centres of administration, and residences.

William sent an advance party to prepare the city for his entrance, to celebrate his victory and found a castle; in the words of William's biographer,William of Poitiers,"certain fortifications were completed in the city against the restlessness of the huge and brutal populace. For he [William] realised that it was of the first importance to overawe the Londoners".At the time, London was the largest town in England; the foundation ofWestminster Abbeyand the oldPalace of WestminsterunderEdward the Confessorhad marked it as a centre of governance, and with a prosperous port it was important for the Normans to establish control over the settlement.The other two castles in London –Baynard's CastleandMontfichet's Castle– were established at the same time.The fortification that would later become known as the Tower of London was built onto the south-east corner of the Roman town walls, using them as prefabricated defences, with theRiver Thamesproviding additional protection from the south.This earliest phase of the castle would have been enclosed by a ditch and defended by a timberpalisade,and probably had accommodation suitable for William.

The White Tower dates from the late 11th century.

Most of the early Norman castles were built from timber, but by the end of the 11th century a few, including the Tower of London, had been renovated or replaced with stone.Work on the White Tower – which gives the whole castle its name –is usually considered to have begun in 1078, however the exact date is uncertain. William madeGundulf,Bishop of Rochester,responsible for its construction, although it may not have been completed until after William's death in 1087.The White Tower is the earliest stonekeepin England, and was the strongest point of the early castle. It also contained grand accommodation for the king.At the latest, it was probably finished by 1100 when BishopRanulf Flambardwas imprisoned there.Flambard was loathed by the English for exacting harsh taxes. Although he is the first recorded prisoner held in the Tower, he was also the first person to escape from it, using a smuggled rope secreted in a butt of wine. He was held in luxury and permitted servants, but on 2 February 1101 he hosted a banquet for his captors. After plying them with drink, when no one was looking he lowered himself from a secluded chamber, and out of the Tower. The escape came as such a surprise that one contemporary chronicler accused the bishop of witchcraft.

TheAnglo-Saxon Chroniclerecords that in 1097 KingWilliam IIordered a wall to be built around the Tower of London; it was probably built from stone and likely replaced the timber palisade that arced around the north and west sides of the castle, between theRoman wall(to the east) and the Thames (to the south).The Norman Conquest of London manifested itself not only with a new ruling class, but in the way the city was structured. Land was confiscated and redistributed amongst the Normans, who also brought over hundreds of Jews, for financial reasons.The Jews arrived under the direct protection of the Crown, as a result of which Jewish communities were often found close to castles.The Jews used the Tower as a retreat, when threatened by anti-Jewish violence.

The death in 1135 ofHenry Ileft England with a disputed succession; although the king had persuaded his most powerful barons to swear support for theEmpress Matilda,just a few days after Henry's deathStephen of Bloisarrived from France to lay claim to the throne. The importance of the city and its Tower is marked by the speed at which he secured London. The castle, which had not been used as a royal residence for some time, was usually left in the charge of aConstable,a post held at this time byGeoffrey de Mandeville.As the Tower was considered an impregnable fortress in a strategically important position, possession was highly valued. Mandeville exploited this, selling his allegiance to Matilda after Stephen was captured in 1141 at theBattle of Lincoln.Once her support waned, the following year he resold his loyalty to Stephen. Through his role as Constable of the Tower, Mandeville became "the richest and most powerful man in England".When he tried the same ploy again, this time holding secret talks with Matilda, Stephen had him arrested, forced him to cede control of his castles, and replaced him with one of his most loyal supporters. Until then the position had been hereditary, originally held byGeoffrey de Mandeville,but the position's authority was such that from then on it remained in the hands of an appointee of the monarch. The position was usually given to someone of great importance, who might not always be at the castle due to other duties. Although the Constable was still responsible for maintaining the castle and its garrison, from an early stage he had a subordinate to help with this duty: the Lieutenant of the Tower.Constables also had civic duties relating to the city. Usually they were given control of the city and were responsible for levying taxes, enforcing the law and maintaining order. The creation in 1191 of the position ofLord Mayor of Londonremoved many of the Constable's civic powers, and at times led to friction between the two.

Expansion

The castle probably retained its form as established by 1100 until the reign ofRichard I(1189–1199).The castle was extended underWilliam Longchamp,King Richard'sLord Chancellorand the man in charge of England while he was on crusade. ThePipe Rollsrecord £2,881 1s 10d spent at the Tower of London between 3 December 1189 and 11 November 1190,from an estimated £7,000 spent by Richard on castle building in England.According to the contemporary chroniclerRoger of Howden,Longchamp dug amoataround the castle and tried in vain to fill it from the Thames.Longchamp was also Constable of the Tower, and undertook its expansion while preparing for war with King Richard's younger brother,Prince John,who in Richard's absence arrived in England to try to seize power. As Longchamp's main fortress, he made the Tower as strong as possible. The new fortifications were first tested in October 1191, when the Tower was besieged for the first time in its history. Longchamp capitulated to John after just three days, deciding he had more to gain from surrender than prolonging the siege.

John succeeded Richard as king in 1199, but his rule proved unpopular with many of hisbarons,who in response moved against him. In 1214, while the king was at Windsor Castle,Robert Fitzwalterled an army into London and laid siege to the Tower. Although under-garrisoned, the Tower resisted and the siege was lifted once John signedMagna Carta.The king reneged on his promises of reform, leading to the outbreak of theFirst Barons' War.Even after Magna Carta was signed, Fitzwalter maintained his control of London. During the war, the Tower's garrison joined forces with the barons. John was deposed in 1216 and the barons offered the English throne toPrince Louis,the eldest son of the French king. However, after John's death in October 1216, many began to support the claim of his eldest son, Henry III. War continued between the factions supporting Louis and Henry, with Fitzwalter supporting Louis. Fitzwalter was still in control of London and the Tower, both of which held out until it was clear that Henry III's supporters would prevail.

In the 13th century, KingsHenry III(1216–1272) andEdward I(1272–1307) extended the castle, essentially creating it as it stands today.Henry was disconnected from his barons, and a mutual lack of understanding led to unrest and resentment towards his rule. As a result, he was eager to ensure the Tower of London was a formidable fortification; at the same time Henry was anaestheteand wished to make the castle a comfortable place to live.From 1216 to 1227 nearly £10,000 was spent on the Tower of London; in this period, only the work at Windsor Castle cost more (£15,000). Most of the work was focused on the palatial buildings of the innermost ward.The tradition of whitewashing the White Tower (from which it derives its name) began in 1240.

Beginning around 1238, the castle was expanded to the east, north, and north-west. The work lasted through the reign of Henry III and into that of Edward I, interrupted occasionally by civil unrest. New creations included a new defensive perimeter, studded with towers, while on the west, north, and east sides, where the wall was not defended by the river, a defensive ditch was dug. The eastern extension took the castle beyond the bounds of the old Roman settlement, marked by the city wall which had been incorporated into the castle's defences.The Tower had long been a symbol of oppression, despised by Londoners, and Henry's building programme was unpopular. So when the gatehouse collapsed in 1240, the locals celebrated the setback.The expansion caused disruption locally and £166 was paid toSt Katherine's Hospitaland the prior ofHoly Trinityin compensation.

Henry III often held court at the Tower of London, and held parliament there on at least two occasions (1236 and 1261) when he felt that the barons were becoming dangerously unruly. In 1258, the discontented barons, led bySimon de Montfort,forced the King to agree to reforms including the holding of regular parliaments. Relinquishing the Tower of London was among the conditions. Henry III resented losing power and sought permission from the pope to break his oath. With the backing of mercenaries, Henry installed himself in the Tower in 1261. While negotiations continued with the barons, the King ensconced himself in the castle, although no army moved to take it. A truce was agreed with the condition that the King hand over control of the Tower once again. Henry won a significant victory at theBattle of Eveshamin 1265, allowing him to regain control of the country and the Tower of London. CardinalOttobuoncame to England to excommunicate those who were still rebellious; the act was deeply unpopular and the situation was exacerbated when the cardinal was granted custody of the Tower.Gilbert de Clare, 6th Earl of Hertford,marched on London in April 1267 and laid siege to the castle, declaring that custody of the Tower was "not a post to be trusted in the hands of a foreigner, much less of an ecclesiastic".Despite a large army and siege engines, Gilbert de Clare was unable to take the castle. The Earl retreated, allowing the King control of the capital, and the Tower experienced peace for the rest of Henry's reign.

Although he was rarely in London, Edward I undertook an expensive remodelling of the Tower, costing £21,000 between 1275 and 1285, over double that spent on the castle during the whole of Henry III's reign.Edward I was a seasoned castle builder, and used his experience of siege warfare during thecrusadesto bring innovations to castle building.Hisprogramme of castle building in Walesheralded the introduction of the widespread use ofarrowslitsin castle walls across Europe, drawing on Eastern influences.At the Tower of London, Edward filled in the moat dug by Henry III and built a new curtain wall along its line, creating a new enclosure. A new moat was created in front of the new curtain wall. The western part of Henry III's curtain wall was rebuilt, with Beauchamp Tower replacing the castle's old gatehouse. A new entrance was created, with elaborate defences including two gatehouses and abarbican.In an effort to make the castle self-sufficient, Edward I also added twowatermills.Six hundred Jews were imprisoned in the Tower of London in 1278, charged withcoin clipping.Persecution of the country's Jewish population under Edward began in 1276 and culminated in 1290 when he issued theEdict of Expulsion,forcing the Jews out of the country.In 1279, the country's numerous mints were unified under a single system whereby control was centralised to the mint within the Tower of London, while mints outside of London were reduced, with only a few local andepiscopalmints continuing to operate.

During this period, many Jews were imprisoned at the Tower beforeEdward I'sedict of expulsionin 1290.

Later medieval period

A model of the Tower of London as it appeared after the extension of the wharf in the late medieval period and the addition of the brick Bulwark at the west end of the castle under Edward IV

DuringEdward II's reign (1307–1327) there was relatively little activity at the Tower of London.However, it was during this period that thePrivy Wardrobewas founded. The institution was based at the Tower and responsible for organising the state's arms.In 1321,Margaret de Clare, Baroness Badlesmerebecame the first woman imprisoned in the Tower of London after she refusedQueen Isabellaadmittance toLeeds Castleand ordered her archers to target Isabella, killing six of the royal escort.Generally reserved for high-ranking inmates, the Tower was the most important royal prison in the country.However it was not necessarily very secure, and throughout its history people bribed the guards to help them escape. In 1323,Roger Mortimer, Baron Mortimer,was aided in his escape from the Tower by the Sub-Lieutenant of the Tower who let Mortimer's men inside. They hacked a hole in his cell wall and Mortimer escaped to a waiting boat. He fled to France where he encountered Edward's Queen. They began an affair and plotted to overthrow the King.

One of Mortimer's first acts on entering England in 1326 was to capture the Tower and release the prisoners held there. For four years he ruled whileEdward IIIwas too young to do so himself; in 1330, Edward and his supporters captured Mortimer and threw him into the Tower.Under Edward III's rule (1312–1377) England experienced renewed success in warfare after his father's reign had put the realm on the backfoot against the Scots and French. Amongst Edward's successes were the battles ofCrécyandPoitierswhere KingJohn II of Francewas taken prisoner, and the capture of the KingDavid II of ScotlandatNeville's Cross.During this period, the Tower of London held many noble prisoners of war.Edward II had allowed the Tower of London to fall into a state of disrepair,and by the reign of Edward III the castle was an uncomfortable place. The nobility held captive within its walls were unable to engage in activities such as hunting which were permissible at other royal castles used as prisons, for instance Windsor. Edward III ordered that the castle should be renovated.Unusually for the period, in 1346 the forge at the Tower, which supplied munitions to the army, was overseen by a woman namedKatherine Le Fevre.

Charles, Duke of Orléans,the nephew of the King of France, was held in the Tower during the Hundred Years' War. This late 15th-century image is the earliest surviving non-schematic picture of the Tower of London. It shows the White Tower, the water-gate, andOld London Bridgein the background.

WhenRichard IIwas crowned in 1377, he led a procession from the Tower toWestminster Abbey.This tradition began in at least the early 14th century and lasted until 1660.During thePeasants' Revoltof 1381 the Tower of London was besieged with the King inside. When Richard rode out to meet withWat Tyler,the rebel leader, a crowd broke into the castle without meeting resistance and looted theJewel House.TheArchbishop of Canterbury,Simon Sudbury,took refuge in St John's Chapel, hoping the mob would respect the sanctuary. However, he was taken away and beheaded on Tower Hill.Six years later there was again civil unrest, and Richard spent Christmas in the security of the Tower rather than Windsor as was more usual.WhenHenry Bolingbrokereturned from exile in 1399, Richard was imprisoned in the White Tower. He abdicated and was replaced on the throne by Bolingbroke, who became King Henry IV.In the 15th century, there was little building work at the Tower of London, yet the castle still remained important as a place of refuge. When supporters of the late Richard II attempted acoup,Henry IV found safety in the Tower of London. During this period, the castle also held many distinguished prisoners. The heir to the Scottish throne, later KingJames I of Scotland,was kidnapped while journeying to France in 1406 and held in the Tower. The reign ofHenry V(1413–1422) renewed England's fortune in theHundred Years' Waragainst France. As a result of Henry's victories, such as theBattle of Agincourt,many high-status prisoners were held in the Tower of London until they were ransomed.

Much of the latter half of the 15th century was occupied by theWars of the Rosesbetween the claimants to the throne, the houses ofLancasterandYork.The castle wasonce again besieged in 1460,this time by aYorkistforce. The Tower was damaged by artillery fire but only surrendered whenHenry VIwas captured at theBattle of Northampton.With the help ofRichard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick(nicknamed "the Kingmaker" ) Henry recaptured the throne for a short time in 1470. However,Edward IVsoon regained control and Henry VI was imprisoned in the Tower of London, where he was probably murdered.In 1471, during theSiege of London,the Tower's Yorkist garrison exchanged fire with Lancastrians holdingSouthwark,and sallied from the fortress to take part in a pincer movement to attack Lancastrians who were assaultingAldgateonLondon's defensive wall.During the wars, the Tower was fortified to withstand gunfire, and provided withloopholesfor cannons and handguns: an enclosure called the Bulwark was created for this purpose to the south of Tower Hill, although it no longer survives.

Prince Edward V and Richard in the Tower, 1483by SirJohn Everett Millais,1878

Shortly after the death of Edward IV in 1483, the notorious murder of thePrinces in the Toweris traditionally believed to have taken place. The incident is one of the most infamous events associated with the Tower of London.Edward V's uncleRichard, Duke of Gloucesterwas declaredLord Protectorwhile the prince was too young to rule.Traditional accounts have held that the 12-year-old Edward was confined to the Tower of London along with his younger brotherRichard.The Duke of Gloucester was proclaimed King Richard III in June. The princes were last seen in public in June 1483;it has traditionally been thought that the most likely reason for their disappearance is that they were murdered late in the summer of 1483.Bones thought to belong to them were discovered in 1674 when the 12th-century forebuilding at the entrance to the White Tower was demolished; however, the reputed level at which the bones were found (10 ft or 3 m) would put the bones at a depth similar to that of the Roman graveyard found, in 2011, 12 ft (4 m) underneaththe Minoriesa few hundred yards to the north.Opposition to Richard escalated until he was defeated at theBattle of Bosworth Fieldin 1485 by the LancastrianHenry Tudor,who ascended to the throne as Henry VII.As king, Henry VII built a tower for a library next to the King's Tower.

Changing use

The beginning of theTudor periodmarked the start of the decline of the Tower of London's use as a royal residence. As 16th-century chroniclerRaphael Holinshedsaid the Tower became used more as "an armouries and house of munition, and thereunto a place for the safekeeping of offenders than a palace roiall for a king or queen to sojourne in".Henry VII visited the Tower on fourteen occasions between 1485 and 1500, usually staying for less than a week at a time.TheYeoman Wardershave been the Royal Bodyguard since at least 1509.In 1517 the Tower fired its cannon at City crowds engaged in the xenophobicEvil May Dayriots, in which the properties of foreign residents were looted. It is not thought that any rioters were hurt by the gunfire, which was probably meant merely to intimidate the mob.

The traditional coronation procession from the Tower to Westminster for King Edward VI (1547)

During the reign ofHenry VIII,the Tower was assessed as needing considerable work on its defences. In 1532,Thomas Cromwellspent £3,593 on repairs and imported nearly 3,000 tons of Caen stone for the work.Even so, this was not sufficient to bring the castle up to the standard of contemporary military fortifications which were designed to withstand powerful artillery.Although the defences were repaired, the palace buildings were left in a state of neglect after Henry's death. Their condition was so poor that they were virtually uninhabitable.From 1547 onwards, the Tower of London was only used as a royal residence when its political and historic symbolism was considered useful, for instance each ofEdward VI,Mary I,andElizabeth Ibriefly stayed at the Tower before their coronations.

In the 16th century, the Tower acquired an enduring reputation as a grim, forbidding prison. This had not always been the case. As a royal castle, it was used by the monarch to imprison people for various reasons, however these were usually high-status individuals for short periods rather than common citizenry as there were plenty of prisons elsewhere for such people. Contrary to the popular image of the Tower, prisoners were able to make their life easier by purchasing amenities such as better food or tapestries through the Lieutenant of the Tower.As holding prisoners was originally an incidental role of the Tower – as would have been the case for any castle – there was no purpose-built accommodation for prisoners until 1687 when a brick shed, a "Prison for Soldiers", was built to the north-west of the White Tower. The Tower's reputation for torture and imprisonment derives largely from 16th-century religious propagandists and 19th-century romanticists.Although much of the Tower's reputation is exaggerated, the 16th and 17th centuries marked the castle's zenith as a prison, with many religious and political undesirables locked away.The Privy Council had to sanction the use of torture, so it was not often used; between 1540 and 1640, the peak of imprisonment at the Tower, there were 48 recorded cases of the use of torture. The three most common forms used were the infamousrack,theScavenger's daughter,and manacles.The rack was introduced to England in 1447 by the Duke of Exeter, the Constable of the Tower; consequentially it was also known as theDuke of Exeter's daughter.One of those tortured at the Tower wasGuy Fawkes,who was brought there on 6 November 1605; after torture he signed a full confession to theGunpowder Plot.

Among those held and executed at the Tower wasAnne Boleyn.Although the Yeoman Warders were once the Royal Bodyguard, by the 16th and 17th centuries their main duty had become to look after the prisoners.The Tower was often a safer place than other prisons in London such as theFleet,where disease was rife. High-status prisoners could live in conditions comparable to those they might expect outside; one such example was that whileWalter Raleighwas held in the Tower his rooms were altered to accommodate his family, including his son who was born there in 1605.Executions were usually carried out on Tower Hill rather than in the Tower of London itself, and 112 people were executed on the hill over 400 years.Before the 20th century, there had been seven executions within the castle onTower Green;as was the case withLady Jane Grey,this was reserved for prisoners for whom public execution was considered dangerous.After Lady Jane Grey's execution on 12 February 1554,Queen Mary I imprisoned her sister Elizabeth, later Queen Elizabeth I, in the Tower under suspicion of causing rebellion as SirThomas Wyatthad led a revolt against Mary in Elizabeth's name.

Memorial To The Executed in the Tower, unveiled in 2006, designed byBrian Catling

The cobbled surface ofTower Hillto the north of the Tower of London. Over a period of 400 years, 112 people were executed on the hill.

The Office of Ordnance and Armoury Office were founded in the 15th century, taking over the Privy Wardrobe's duties of looking after the monarch's arsenal and valuables.As there was no standing army before 1661, the importance of the royal armoury at the Tower of London was that it provided a professional basis for procuring supplies and equipment in times of war. The two bodies were resident at the Tower from at least 1454, and by the 16th century they had moved to a position in the inner ward.TheBoard of Ordnance(successor to these Offices) had its headquarters in the White Tower and used surrounding buildings for storage. In 1855 the Board was abolished; its successor (theMilitary Store Departmentof theWar Office) was also based there until 1869, after which its headquarters staff were relocated to theRoyal ArsenalinWoolwich(where the recently closedWoolwich Dockyardwas converted into a vast ordnance store).

Political tensions betweenCharles Iand Parliament in the second quarter of the 17th century led to an attempt by forces loyal to the King to secure the Tower and its valuable contents, including money and munitions. London'sTrained Bands,a militia force, were moved into the castle in 1640. Plans for defence were drawn up and gun platforms were built, readying the Tower for war. The preparations were never put to the test. In 1642, Charles I attempted to arrest five members of parliament. When this failed he fled the city, and Parliament retaliated by removing SirJohn Byron,the Lieutenant of the Tower. The Trained Bands had switched sides, and now supported Parliament; together with the London citizenry, they blockaded the Tower. With permission from the King, Byron relinquished control of the Tower. Parliament replaced Byron with a man of their own choosing, SirJohn Conyers.By the time theEnglish Civil Warbroke out in November 1642, the Tower of London was already in Parliament's control.

The last monarch to uphold the tradition of taking a procession from the Tower to Westminster to be crowned wasCharles IIin 1661. At the time, the castle's accommodation was in such poor condition that he did not stay there the night before his coronation.Under theStuart kingsthe Tower's buildings were remodelled, mostly under the auspices of the Office of Ordnance. Just over £4,000 was spent in 1663 on building a new storehouse, now known as the New Armouries in the inner ward.In the 17th century there were plans to enhance the Tower's defences in the style of thetrace italienne,however they were never acted on. Although the facilities for the garrison were improved with the addition of the first purpose-built quarters for soldiers (the "Irish Barracks" ) in 1670, the general accommodations were still in poor condition.

An engraving of the Tower of London in 1737 bySamuel and Nathaniel Buck

When theHanoverian dynastyascended the throne, their situation was uncertain and with a possible Scottish rebellion in mind, the Tower of London was repaired. Most of the work in this period (1750 to 1770) was done by the King's Master Mason,John Deval.Gun platforms added under the Stuarts had decayed. The number of guns at the Tower was reduced from 118 to 45, and one contemporary commentator noted that the castle "would not hold out four and twenty hours against an army prepared for a siege".For the most part, the 18th-century work on the defences was spasmodic and piecemeal, although a new gateway in the southern curtain wall permitting access from the wharf to the outer ward was added in 1774. The moat surrounding the castle had become silted over the centuries since it was created despite attempts at clearing it. It was still an integral part of the castle's defences, so in 1830 the Constable of the Tower, theDuke of Wellington,ordered a large-scale clearance of several feet of silt. However this did not prevent an outbreak of disease in the garrison in 1841 caused by poor water supply, resulting in several deaths. To prevent the festering ditch posing further health problems, it was ordered that the moat should be drained and filled with earth. The work began in 1843 and was mostly complete two years later. The construction of the Waterloo Barracks in the inner ward began in 1845, when the Duke of Wellington laid the foundation stone. The building could accommodate 1,000 men; at the same time, separate quarters for the officers were built to the north-east of the White Tower. The building is now the headquarters of theRoyal Regiment of Fusiliers.The popularity of theChartist movementbetween 1828 and 1858 led to a desire to refortify the Tower of London in the event of civil unrest. It was the last major programme of fortification at the castle. Most of the surviving installations for the use of artillery and firearms date from this period.

During theFirst World War,eleven men were tried in private and shot by firing squad at the Tower for espionage.During theSecond World War,the Tower was once again used to hold prisoners of war. One such person wasRudolf Hess,Adolf Hitler's deputy, albeit just for four days in 1941. He was the last state prisoner to be held at the castle.The last person to be executed at the Tower was German spyJosef Jakobswho was shot on 15 August 1941.The executions for espionage during the wars took place in a prefabricatedminiature rifle rangewhich stood in the outer ward and was demolished in 1969.The Second World War also saw the last use of the Tower as a fortification. In the event of aGerman invasion,the Tower, together with the Royal Mint and nearby warehouses, was to have formed one of three "keeps" or complexes of defended buildings which formed the last-ditch defences of the capital.

Restoration and tourism

A recreation ofEdward I's bedchamber in the river-side St Thomas's Tower aboveTraitors' Gate

The Tower of London has become established as one of the most popular tourist attractions in the country. It has been a tourist attraction since at least the Elizabethan period, when it was one of the sights of London that foreign visitors wrote about. Its most popular attractions were the Royal Menagerie and displays of armour. TheCrown Jewelsalso garner much interest, and have been on public display since 1669. The Tower steadily gained popularity with tourists through the 19th century, despite the opposition of the Duke of Wellington to visitors. Numbers became so high that by 1851 a purpose-built ticket office was erected. By the end of the century, over 500,000 were visiting the castle every year.

Over the 18th and 19th centuries, the palatial buildings were slowly adapted for other uses and demolished. Only the Wakefield and St Thomas's Towers survived.The 18th century marked an increasing interest in England's medieval past. One of the effects was the emergence ofGothic Revival architecture.In the Tower's architecture, this was manifest when the New Horse Armoury was built in 1825 against the south face of the White Tower. It featured elements of Gothic Revival architecture such as battlements. Other buildings were remodelled to match the style and the Waterloo Barracks were described as "castellated Gothic of the 15th century".Between 1845 and 1885 institutions such as the Mint which had inhabited the castle for centuries moved to other sites; many of the post-medieval structures left vacant were demolished. In 1855, the War Office took over responsibility for manufacture and storage of weapons from the Ordnance Office, which was gradually phased out of the castle. At the same time, there was greater interest in the history of the Tower of London.

Public interest was partly fuelled by contemporary writers, of whom the work ofWilliam Harrison Ainsworthwas particularly influential. InThe Tower of London: A Historical Romancehe created a vivid image of underground torture chambers and devices for extracting confessions that stuck in the public imagination.Ainsworth also played another role in the Tower's history, as he suggested that Beauchamp Tower should be opened to the public so they could see the inscriptions of 16th- and 17th-century prisoners. Working on the suggestion,Anthony Salvinrefurbished the tower and led a further programme for a comprehensive restoration at the behest ofPrince Albert.Salvin was succeeded in the work byJohn Taylor.When a feature did not meet his expectations of medieval architecture Taylor would ruthlessly remove it; as a result, several important buildings within the castle were pulled down and in some cases post-medieval internal decoration removed.

The main entrance to the Tower of London. Today the castle is a popular tourist attraction.

Although only one bomb fell on the Tower of London in the First World War (it landed harmlessly in the moat), the Second World War left a greater mark. On 23 September 1940, duringthe Blitz,high-explosive bombs damaged the castle, destroying several buildings and narrowly missing the White Tower. After the war, the damage was repaired and the Tower of London was reopened to the public.

A1974 bombingin the White TowerMortarRoom left one person dead and 41 injured. No one claimed responsibility for the blast, but the police investigated suspicions that theIRAwas behind it.

In the 21st century, tourism is the Tower's primary role, with the remaining routine military activities, under theRoyal Logistic Corps,having wound down in the latter half of the 20th century and moved out of the castle.However, the Tower is still home to the regimental headquarters of theRoyal Regiment of Fusiliers,and the museum dedicated to it and its predecessor, theRoyal Fusiliers.Also, a detachment of the unit providing theKing's Guardat Buckingham Palace still mounts a guard at the Tower, and with theYeomen Warders,takes part in theCeremony of the Keyseach day.On several occasions through the yeargun salutesare fired from the Tower by theHonourable Artillery Company,these consist of 62 rounds for royal occasions, and 41 on other occasions.

Two of theravens

Since 1990, the Tower of London has been cared for by an independent charity,Historic Royal Palaces,which receives no funding from the Government or the Crown.In 1988, the Tower of London was added to theUNESCOlist ofWorld Heritage Sites,in recognition of its global importance and to help conserve and protect the site.However, recent developments, such as the construction of skyscrapers nearby, have pushed the Tower towards being added to the United Nations' Heritage in Danger List.The remains of the medieval palace have been open to the public since 2006 where visitors can explore the restored chambers.Although the position of Constable of the Tower remains the highest position held at the Tower,the responsibility of day-to-day administration is delegated to theResident Governor.The Constable is appointed for a five-year term; this is primarily a ceremonial post today but the Constable is also a trustee of Historic Royal Palaces and of the Royal Armouries. General SirGordon Messengerwas appointed Constable in 2022.

At leastsix ravens are kept at the Towerat all times, in accordance with the belief that if they are absent, the kingdom will fall.They are under the care of theRavenmaster,one of theYeoman Warders.As well as having ceremonial duties, the Yeoman Warders provide guided tours around the Tower.

Garrison

See also:Tower division

The Yeomen Warders provided the permanent garrison of the Tower, but theConstable of the Towercould call upon the men of theTower Hamletsto supplement them when necessary. TheTower Hamlets, aka Tower DivisionofMiddlesex's Ossulstone Hundredwas an area, significantly larger than themodern London Borough of the same name,which owed military service to the Constable in hisex officiorole asLord Lieutenant of the Tower Hamlets.

The earliest surviving reference to the inhabitants of the Tower Hamlets having a duty to provide a guard for the Tower of London is from 1554, during the reign ofMary I,but the relationship is thought to go back much further. Some believe the connection goes back to the time of the Conqueror.The duty is likely to have had its origin in the rights and obligations of theManor of Stepneywhich covered most or all of the Hamlets area.

Crown Jewels

See also:Crown Jewels of the United KingdomandJewel House

St Edward's Crown

The tradition of housing the Crown Jewels in the Tower of London probably dates from the reign of Henry III (1216–1272). The Jewel House was built specifically to house the royal regalia, including jewels, plate, and symbols of royalty such as the crown, sceptre, and sword. When money needed to be raised, the treasure could be pawned by the monarch. The treasure allowed the monarch independence from the aristocracy and consequently was closely guarded. A new position for "keeper of the jewels, armouries and other things" was created,which was well rewarded; in the reign of Edward III (1327–1377) the holder was paid 12d a day. The position grew to include other duties including purchasing royal jewels, gold, and silver, and appointing royal goldsmiths and jewellers.

In 1649, during theEnglish CommonwealthfollowingCharles I's execution,the contents of the Jewel House were disposed of along with other royal properties, as decreed by Cromwell. Metal items were sent to the Mint to be melted down and re-used, and the crowns were "totallie broken and defaced".

When the monarchy wasrestoredin 1660, the only surviving items of the coronation regalia were a 12th-century spoon and three ceremonial swords. (Some pieces that had been sold were later returned to the Crown.)Detailed records of old regalia survived, and replacements were made for the coronation of Charles II in 1661 based on drawings from the time of Charles I. For the coronation of Charles II, gems were rented because the treasury could not afford to replace them.

In 1669, the Jewel House was demolishedand the Crown Jewels moved into Martin Tower (until 1841).They were displayed here for viewing by the paying public. This was exploited two years later when ColonelThomas Bloodattempted to steal them.Blood and his accomplices bound and gagged the Jewel House keeper. Although they laid their hands on the Imperial State Crown, Sceptre and Orb, they were foiled when the keeper's son turned up unexpectedly and raised the alarm.

Since 1994, the Crown Jewels have been on display in theJewel Housein the Waterloo Block. Some of the pieces were once regularly used by Queen Elizabeth II. The display includes 23,578 gemstones, the 800-year-old Coronation Spoon, St Edward's Crown (traditionally placed on a monarch's head at the moment of crowning) and the Imperial State Crown.

Royal Menagerie

Wire elephant sculpture at the tower byKendra Haste

There is evidence thatKing John(1166–1216) first started keeping wild animals at the Tower.Records of 1210–1212 show payments to lion keepers.

The RoyalMenagerieis frequently referenced during the reign ofHenry III.Holy Roman EmperorFrederick IIpresented Henry with threeleopards,c. 1235,which were kept in the Tower.In 1252, the sheriffs were ordered to pay fourpence a day towards the upkeep of theKing's polar bear,a gift fromHaakon IV of Norwayin the same year; the bear attracted a great deal of attention from Londoners when it went fishing in theThameswhile tied to the land by a chain.In 1254 or 1255, Henry III receivedan African elephantfromLouis IXof France depicted byMatthew Parisin hisChronica Majora.A wooden structure was built to house the elephant, 12.2 m (40 ft) long by 6.1 m (20 ft) wide.The animal died in 1258, possibly because it was given red wine, but also perhaps because of the coldclimate of England.

In 1288,Edward Iadded alionand alynxand appointed the first official Keeper of the animals. Edward IIIadded other types of animals, two lions, a leopard and twowildcats.Under subsequent kings, the number of animals grew to include additional cats of various types,jackals,hyenas,and an oldbrown bear,Max, gifted toHenry VIIIbyEmperor Maximilian.In 1436, during the time ofHenry VI,all the lions died and the employment of Keeper William Kerby was terminated.

Historical records indicate that a semi-circular structure orbarbicanwas built by Edward I in 1277; this area was later named the Lion Tower, to the immediate west of the Middle Tower. Records from 1335 indicate the purchase of a lock and key for the lions and leopards, also suggesting they were located near the western entrance of the Tower. By the 1500s that area was called the Menagerie.Between 1604 and 1606 the Menagerie was extensively refurbished and an exercise yard was created in the moat area beside the Lion Tower. An overhead platform was added for viewing of the lions by the royals, duringlion baiting,for example in the time ofJames I.Reports from 1657 include mention of six lions, increasing to 11 by 1708, in addition to other types of cats,eagles,owlsand a jackal.

Skull of aBarbary lionthat was kept at Tower of London,Natural History Museum

By the 18th century, the menagerie was open to the public; admission cost three half-pence or a cat or dog to be fed to the lions. By the end of the century, that had increased to 9 pence.A particularly famous inhabitant wasOld Martin,a largegrizzly beargiven toGeorge IIIby theHudson's Bay Companyin 1811.An 1800 inventory also listed atiger,leopards, a hyena, a largebaboon,various types ofmonkeys,wolves,and "other animals".By 1822, however, the collection included only a grizzly bear, an elephant, and some birds. Additional animals were then introduced.In 1828, there were over 280 representing at least 60 species as the new keeper Alfred Copps was actively acquiring animals.

After the death ofGeorge IVin 1830, a decision was made to close down the Menagerie on the orders of theDuke of Wellington.In 1831, most of the stock was moved to theLondon Zoowhich had opened in 1828.This decision was made after an incident, although sources vary as to the specifics: either a lion was accused of biting a soldier,or Ensign Seymour had been bitten by a monkey.The last of the animals left in 1835, relocated toRegent's Park.The Menagerie buildings were removed in 1852 but the Keeper of the Royal Menagerie was entitled to use the Lion Tower as a house for life. Consequently, even though the animals had long since left the building, the tower was not demolished until the death of Copps, the last keeper, in 1853.

In 1999, physical evidence of lion cages was found, one being 2x3 metres (6.5x10 feet) in size, very small for a lion that can grow to be 2.5 meters (approximately 8 feet) long.In 2008, the skulls of two maleBarbary lions(now extinct in the wild) from northwest Africa were found in the moat area of the Tower. Radiocarbon tests dated them from 1280 to 1385 and 1420–1480.In 2011, an exhibition was hosted at the Tower with fine wire sculptures byKendra Haste.

In folklore

The Tower of London has been represented in popular culture in many ways. As a result of 16th and 19th century writers, the Tower has a reputation as a grim fortress, a place of torture and execution.

One of the earliest traditions associated with the Tower was that it was built byJulius Caesar;the story was popular amongst writers and antiquaries. The earliest recorded attribution of the Tower to the Roman ruler dates to the mid-14th century in a poem bySir Thomas Gray.The origin of the myth is uncertain, although it may be related to the fact that the Tower was built in the corner of London's Roman walls. Another possibility is that someone misread a passage fromGervase of Tilburyin which he says Caesar built a tower at Odnea in France. Gervase wrote Odnea as Dodres, which is close to the French for London, Londres.Today, the story survives inWilliam Shakespeare'sRichard IIandRichard III,and as late as the 18th century some still regarded the Tower as built by Caesar.

Anne Boleynwas beheaded in 1536 for treason againstHenry VIII;her ghost supposedly haunts theChurch of St Peter ad Vinculain the Tower, where she is buried, and has been said to walk around theWhite Towercarrying her head under her arm.This haunting is commemorated in the 1934 comic song "With Her Head Tucked Underneath Her Arm".Other reported ghosts includeHenry VI,Lady Jane Grey,Margaret Pole,and thePrinces in the Tower.In January 1816, a sentry on guard outside the Jewel House claimed to have witnessed an apparition of a bear advancing towards him, and reportedly died of fright a few days later.In October 1817, a tubular, glowing apparition was claimed to have been seen in theJewel Houseby theKeeper of the Crown Jewels,Edmund Lenthal Swifte.He said that the apparition hovered over the shoulder of his wife, leading her to exclaim: "Oh, Christ! It has seized me!" Other nameless and formless terrors have been reported, more recently, by night staff at the Tower.

See also

• Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
• Constable of the Tower
• List of buildings that survived the Great Fire of London
• List of castles in England
• List of prisoners of the Tower of London
• Zammitello Palace,built in imitation of the Tower of London

References

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• Sax, Boria (2007)."How Ravens Came to the Tower of London"(PDF).Society and Animals.15(3): 269–283.doi:10.1163/156853007X217203.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 27 July 2011.
• Sellers, Leonard (1997).Shot in the Tower:The Story of the Spies executed in the Tower of London during the First World War.Leo Cooper.ISBN978-1-84884-026-3.
• Strickland, Agnes (1840).Lives of the Queens of England from the Norman Conquest. Volume II.Vol. II. Henry Colburn.
• Thurley, Simon(2017).Houses of Power: The Places that Shaped the Tudor World.Bantam Press.ISBN9781473510807.
• Vince, Alan (1990).Saxon London: An Archaeological Investigation.Seaby.ISBN978-1-85264-019-4.
• Weir, Alison (2008).Henry VIII: The King and His Court.New York: Ballantine Books.ISBN978-0-345-43708-2.
• Wilson, Derek (1998) [1978].The Tower of London: A Thousand Years(2nd ed.). Allison & Busby.ISBN978-0-7490-0332-6.

Further reading

• Bennett, Edward Turner (1829).The Tower Menagerie: Comprising the Natural History of the Animals Contained in that Establishment; with Anecdotes of their Characters and History.Robert Jennings.
• Harman, A. (1864).Sketches of the Tower of London as a Fortress, a Prison, and a Palace.J. Wheeler.
• Parnell, Geoffrey (2009).The Tower of London: Past & Present.History Press.ISBN978-0-7524-5036-0.

External links

• Official website
• Further reading recommended by Historic Royal Palaces(archived 11 May 2010)
• Bibliography of sources relating to the Tower of London
• "Tower of London, The".Encyclopædia Britannica(11th ed.). 1911.