Trioecy

Trioecyis asexual systemcharacterized by the coexistence ofmales,females,andhermaphrodites.It has been found in bothplantsandanimals.^[1]^[2]Trioecy,androdioecyandgynodioecymay be described asmixed mating systems.^[3]

Terminology

Trioecy is also called tridioecy, subdioecy,^[4]or triecy.

The term trioecy comes from theNeo-LatinwordTrioecia.^[5]

Evolution of trioecy

Trioecy may be an unstable transient state^[6]associated with evolutionary transitioning fromgynodioecytodioecy.^[7]^[6]Inbrachiopodspecies, trioecy usually breaks into androdioecy or gynodioecy.^[8]Other studies show that trioecious populations originated fromgonochoristicancestors which were invaded by a mutant selfing hermaphrodite, creating a trioecious population.^[1]It has been suggested thatchromosomal duplicationplays an important part in the evolution of trioecy.^[9]

But one study found that trioecy can be stable undernucleocytoplasmic sex determination.^[10]Another theoretical analysis indicates that trioecy could be evolutionary stable in plant species if a large amount ofpollinatorsvary geographically.^[11]

Occurrence

Trioecy is a relatively common sexual system in plants,^[12]estimated to occur in about 3.6% offlowering plantspecies,^[10]although most reports of trioecy could be misinterpretations ofgynodioecy.^[13]It is rare as well as poorly understood in animals.^[12]

Species that exhibit trioecy

The following species have been observed to exhibit a trioecious breeding system.

Plants

Animals

Aiptasia diaphana^[21]
Auanema rhodensis^[1]^[6]
Auanema freiburgensis^[6]
Hydra viridissima^[22]
Thor manningi^[3]
Semimytilus algosusPacific mussel^[12]

References

^^a ^b ^cChaudhuri, Jyotiska; Bose, Neelanjan; Tandonnet, Sophie; Adams, Sally; Zuco, Giusy; Kache, Vikas; Parihar, Manish; von Reuss, Stephan H.; Schroeder, Frank C.; Pires-daSilva, Andre (December 3, 2015)."Mating dynamics in a nematode with three sexes and its evolutionary implications".Scientific Reports.5(1): 17676.Bibcode:2015NatSR...517676C.doi:10.1038/srep17676.PMC4668576.PMID 26631423.
^Choe, Jae (2019-01-21). "Hermaphrodite Mating Systems". In Leonard, Janet (ed.).Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior.Vol. 4. Academic Press. pp. 584–589.ISBN 978-0-12-813252-4.
^^a ^b ^cFusco, Giuseppe; Minelli, Alessandro (2019-10-10).The Biology of Reproduction.Cambridge University Press. pp. 134–135.ISBN 978-1-108-49985-9.
^^a ^b ^cAvise, John C.(2011-03-18).Hermaphroditism: A Primer on the Biology, Ecology, and Evolution of Dual Sexuality.Columbia University Press. p. 55.ISBN 978-0-231-52715-6.
^"Definition of TRIOECIOUS".merriam-webster.Retrieved2024-06-09.
^^a ^b ^c ^dKanzaki, Natsumi; Kiontke, Karin; Tanaka, Ryusei; Hirooka, Yuuri; Schwarz, Anna; Müller-Reichert, Thomas; Chaudhuri, Jyotiska; Pires-daSilva, Andre (2017-09-11)."Description of two three-gendered nematode species in the new genus Auanema (Rhabditina) that are models for reproductive mode evolution".Scientific Reports.7(1): 11135.Bibcode:2017NatSR...711135K.doi:10.1038/s41598-017-09871-1.PMC5593846.PMID 28894108.
^Kliman, Richard (2016).Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology.Vol. 2. Academic Press. p. 476.ISBN 978-0-12-800426-5.Archived fromthe originalon July 1, 2016.
^Subramoniam, Thanumalaya (2016-09-27).Sexual Biology and Reproduction in Crustaceans.Academic Press. p. 15.ISBN 978-0-12-809606-2.
^Fleming, Theodore H.; Valiente-Banuet, Alfonso (2002).Columnar Cacti and Their Mutualists: Evolution, Ecology, and Conservation.University of Arizona Press. p. 215.ISBN 978-0-8165-2204-0.
^^a ^bAlbert, Béatrice; Morand-Prieur, Marie-Élise; Brachet, Stéphanie; Gouyon, Pierre-Henri; Frascaria-Lacoste, Nathalie; Raquin, Christian (2013-10-01)."Sex expression and reproductive biology in a tree species, Fraxinus excelsior L".Comptes Rendus Biologies.336(10): 479–485.doi:10.1016/j.crvi.2013.08.004.ISSN 1631-0691.PMID 24246889.
^Fleming, Theodore H.; Valiente-Banuet, Alfonso (2002).Columnar Cacti and Their Mutualists: Evolution, Ecology, and Conservation.University of Arizona Press. p. 214.ISBN 978-0-8165-2204-0.
^^a ^b ^cOyarzún P, Nuñez J, Toro JE, Gardner J (2020)."Trioecy in the Marine MusselSemimytilus algosus(Mollusca, Bivalvia): Stable Sex Ratios Across 22 Degrees of a Latitudinal Gradient ".Frontiers in Marine Science.7(348): 1–10.doi:10.3389/fmars.2020.00348.
^Geber, Monica A.; Dawson, Todd E.;Delph, Lynda F.(2012-12-06).Gender and Sexual Dimorphism in Flowering Plants.Springer Science & Business Media. p. 74.ISBN 978-3-662-03908-3.
^Silva, C. A.; Oliva, M.; Vieira, M. F.; Fernandes, G. W. (October 27, 2008)."Trioecy in Coccoloba cereifera Schwacke (Polygonaceae), a narrow endemic and threatened tropical species".Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology.51(5): 1003–1010.doi:10.1590/S1516-89132008000500017.S2CID 85673074.
^Joseph KS, Murthy HN (2015). "Sexual system ofGarcinia indicaChoisy: geographic variation in trioecy and sexual dimorphism in floral traits ".Plant Systematics and Evolution.301(3): 1065–1071.doi:10.1007/s00606-014-1120-y.S2CID 15926083.
^Husaini, Amjad M.; Neri, Davide (2016).Strawberry: growth, development and diseases.Boston, MA: CAB International.
^Godley, E. J. (1955)."Breeding Systems in New Zealand Plants: I.Fuchsia."Annals of botany, 19(4), 549-559.
^Perry, Laura E.; Pannell, John R.; Dorken, Marcel E. (2012-04-19)."Two's Company, Three's a Crowd: Experimental Evaluation of the Evolutionary Maintenance of Trioecy in Mercurialis annua (Euphorbiaceae)".PLOS ONE.7(4): e35597.Bibcode:2012PLoSO...735597P.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0035597.ISSN 1932-6203.PMC3330815.PMID 22532862.
^Fleming, Theodore H. (September 2000)."Pollination of Cacti in the Sonoran Desert: When closely related species vie for scarce resources, necessity is the mother of some pretty unusual evolutionary inventions".American Scientist.88(5): 432–439.doi:10.1511/2000.5.432.JSTOR 27858091.S2CID 122244912.
^Roy, Scott (1 November 2021)."Digest: Three sexes from two loci in one genome: A haploid alga expands the diversity of trioecious species".academic.oup.Retrieved2023-05-12.
^Armoza-Zvuloni, Rachel; Kramarsky-Winter, Esti; Loya, Yossi; Schlesinger, Ami; Rosenfeld, Hanna (2014-06-01)."Trioecy, a Unique Breeding Strategy in the Sea Anemone Aiptasia diaphana and Its Association with Sex Steroids".Biology of Reproduction.90(6): 122.doi:10.1095/biolreprod.113.114116.ISSN 0006-3363.PMID 24790160.
^Leonard, Janet L. (2013-10-01)."Williams' Paradox and the Role of Phenotypic Plasticity in Sexual Systems".Integrative and Comparative Biology.53(4): 671–688.doi:10.1093/icb/ict088.ISSN 1540-7063.PMID 23970358.

[Jyotiska-1] Chaudhuri, Jyotiska; Bose, Neelanjan; Tandonnet, Sophie; Adams, Sally; Zuco, Giusy; Kache, Vikas; Parihar, Manish; von Reuss, Stephan H.; Schroeder, Frank C.; Pires-daSilva, Andre (December 3, 2015)."Mating dynamics in a nematode with three sexes and its evolutionary implications".Scientific Reports.5(1): 17676.Bibcode:2015NatSR...517676C.doi:10.1038/srep17676.PMC4668576.PMID 26631423.

[2] Choe, Jae (2019-01-21). "Hermaphrodite Mating Systems". In Leonard, Janet (ed.).Encyclopedia of Animal Behavior.Vol. 4. Academic Press. pp. 584–589.ISBN 978-0-12-813252-4.

[Fusco-3] Fusco, Giuseppe; Minelli, Alessandro (2019-10-10).The Biology of Reproduction.Cambridge University Press. pp. 134–135.ISBN 978-1-108-49985-9.

[Avise-4] Avise, John C.(2011-03-18).Hermaphroditism: A Primer on the Biology, Ecology, and Evolution of Dual Sexuality.Columbia University Press. p. 55.ISBN 978-0-231-52715-6.

[5] "Definition of TRIOECIOUS".merriam-webster.Retrieved2024-06-09.

[nematode-6] Kanzaki, Natsumi; Kiontke, Karin; Tanaka, Ryusei; Hirooka, Yuuri; Schwarz, Anna; Müller-Reichert, Thomas; Chaudhuri, Jyotiska; Pires-daSilva, Andre (2017-09-11)."Description of two three-gendered nematode species in the new genus Auanema (Rhabditina) that are models for reproductive mode evolution".Scientific Reports.7(1): 11135.Bibcode:2017NatSR...711135K.doi:10.1038/s41598-017-09871-1.PMC5593846.PMID 28894108.

[Kliman-7] Kliman, Richard (2016).Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Biology.Vol. 2. Academic Press. p. 476.ISBN 978-0-12-800426-5.Archived fromthe originalon July 1, 2016.

[Subramoniam-8] Subramoniam, Thanumalaya (2016-09-27).Sexual Biology and Reproduction in Crustaceans.Academic Press. p. 15.ISBN 978-0-12-809606-2.

[9] Fleming, Theodore H.; Valiente-Banuet, Alfonso (2002).Columnar Cacti and Their Mutualists: Evolution, Ecology, and Conservation.University of Arizona Press. p. 215.ISBN 978-0-8165-2204-0.

[Albert-10] Albert, Béatrice; Morand-Prieur, Marie-Élise; Brachet, Stéphanie; Gouyon, Pierre-Henri; Frascaria-Lacoste, Nathalie; Raquin, Christian (2013-10-01)."Sex expression and reproductive biology in a tree species, Fraxinus excelsior L".Comptes Rendus Biologies.336(10): 479–485.doi:10.1016/j.crvi.2013.08.004.ISSN 1631-0691.PMID 24246889.

[Fleming-11] Fleming, Theodore H.; Valiente-Banuet, Alfonso (2002).Columnar Cacti and Their Mutualists: Evolution, Ecology, and Conservation.University of Arizona Press. p. 214.ISBN 978-0-8165-2204-0.

[Oyarzun2-12] Oyarzún P, Nuñez J, Toro JE, Gardner J (2020)."Trioecy in the Marine MusselSemimytilus algosus(Mollusca, Bivalvia): Stable Sex Ratios Across 22 Degrees of a Latitudinal Gradient ".Frontiers in Marine Science.7(348): 1–10.doi:10.3389/fmars.2020.00348.

[Geber-13] Geber, Monica A.; Dawson, Todd E.;Delph, Lynda F.(2012-12-06).Gender and Sexual Dimorphism in Flowering Plants.Springer Science & Business Media. p. 74.ISBN 978-3-662-03908-3.

[Silva-14] Silva, C. A.; Oliva, M.; Vieira, M. F.; Fernandes, G. W. (October 27, 2008)."Trioecy in Coccoloba cereifera Schwacke (Polygonaceae), a narrow endemic and threatened tropical species".Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology.51(5): 1003–1010.doi:10.1590/S1516-89132008000500017.S2CID 85673074.

[Joseph-15] Joseph KS, Murthy HN (2015). "Sexual system ofGarcinia indicaChoisy: geographic variation in trioecy and sexual dimorphism in floral traits ".Plant Systematics and Evolution.301(3): 1065–1071.doi:10.1007/s00606-014-1120-y.S2CID 15926083.

[16] Husaini, Amjad M.; Neri, Davide (2016).Strawberry: growth, development and diseases.Boston, MA: CAB International.

[Godley-17] Godley, E. J. (1955)."Breeding Systems in New Zealand Plants: I.Fuchsia."Annals of botany, 19(4), 549-559.

[Perry-18] Perry, Laura E.; Pannell, John R.; Dorken, Marcel E. (2012-04-19)."Two's Company, Three's a Crowd: Experimental Evaluation of the Evolutionary Maintenance of Trioecy in Mercurialis annua (Euphorbiaceae)".PLOS ONE.7(4): e35597.Bibcode:2012PLoSO...735597P.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0035597.ISSN 1932-6203.PMC3330815.PMID 22532862.

[19] Fleming, Theodore H. (September 2000)."Pollination of Cacti in the Sonoran Desert: When closely related species vie for scarce resources, necessity is the mother of some pretty unusual evolutionary inventions".American Scientist.88(5): 432–439.doi:10.1511/2000.5.432.JSTOR 27858091.S2CID 122244912.

[20] Roy, Scott (1 November 2021)."Digest: Three sexes from two loci in one genome: A haploid alga expands the diversity of trioecious species".academic.oup.Retrieved2023-05-12.

[ArmozaZvuloni-21] Armoza-Zvuloni, Rachel; Kramarsky-Winter, Esti; Loya, Yossi; Schlesinger, Ami; Rosenfeld, Hanna (2014-06-01)."Trioecy, a Unique Breeding Strategy in the Sea Anemone Aiptasia diaphana and Its Association with Sex Steroids".Biology of Reproduction.90(6): 122.doi:10.1095/biolreprod.113.114116.ISSN 0006-3363.PMID 24790160.

[Leonard-22] Leonard, Janet L. (2013-10-01)."Williams' Paradox and the Role of Phenotypic Plasticity in Sexual Systems".Integrative and Comparative Biology.53(4): 671–688.doi:10.1093/icb/ict088.ISSN 1540-7063.PMID 23970358.

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