True toad
| True toads | |
|---|---|
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| Cane toad(R. marina) | |
Scientific classification
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| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Amphibia |
| Order: | Anura |
| Superfamily: | Hyloidea |
| Family: | Bufonidae Gray,1825 |
| Genera | |
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Over 35see text
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| Native distribution of Bufonidae (in black) | |
Atrue toadis any member of thefamilyBufonidae,in the orderAnura(frogs and toads). This is the only family of anurans in which all members are known astoads,although some may be called frogs (such asharlequin frogs). The bufonids now comprise more than 35 genera,Bufobeing the best known.
History
[edit]
Bufonidae is thought to have originated inSouth America.Some studies date the origin of the group to after the breakup ofGondwana,about 78–98 million years ago in theLate Cretaceous.[2]In contrast, other studies have dated the origin of the group to the early Paleocene.[3]The bufonids likely radiated out of South America during theEocene,with the entire radiation occurring during the Eocene to Oligocene, marking an extremely rapid divergence likely facilitated by the Paleogene's changing climatic conditions.[3]
Taxonomy
[edit]The following phylogeny of most genera in the family is based on Portik and Papenfuss, 2015:,[4]Chanet al.,2016,[5]Chandramouliet al.,2016,[6]and Koket al.,2017[3]
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IngerophrynusalongsideLeptophrynewas grouped asbasalto the clade containing all otherSoutheast Asiantoad genera andGhatophryneby Portik and Papenfuss, but was found to group withPhrynoidisandRentapiaby Chanet al.Ghatophrynewas grouped withPhrynoidisandRentapiaby Portik and Papenfuss but was found to group withPelophryneandAnsoniaby Chanet al.In addition,Sabahphrynuswas grouped withStrauchbufoandBufoby Portik and Papenfuss but was found to group withPelophryne,Ansonia,andGhatophryneby Chanet al.
Characteristics
[edit]True toads are widespread and are native to every continent exceptAustraliaandAntarctica,inhabiting a variety of environments, from arid areas to rainforest. Most layeggsin paired strings that hatch intotadpoles,although, in the genusNectophrynoides,the eggs hatch directly into miniature toads.[1]
All true toads are toothless and generally warty in appearance. They have a pair ofparotoid glandson the back of their heads. These glands contain analkaloidpoison which the toads excrete when stressed. The poison in the glands contains a number of toxins causing different effects.Bufotoxinis a general term. Different animals contain significantly different substances and proportions of substances. Some, like thecane toadRhinella marina,are more toxic than others. Some "psychoactive toads",such as theColorado River toadIncilius alvarius,[7]have been usedrecreationallyfor the effects of their bufotoxin.
Depending on the species, male or female toads may possess aBidder's organ,a trait unique to all bufonids except generaMelanophryniscusandTruebella.[8]Under the right conditions, the organ becomes an active ovary.[9]
The loss of teeth has arisen in frogs independently over 20 times. Notably, all members of Bufonidae are toothless. Another Anuran family with a comparable degree of edentulism is the family Microhylidae.[10]
Reproduction
[edit]Internal fertilizationoccurs in four bufonid genera.[11]
- Mertensophryne(some species)
- Nectophrynoides(presumably all species)
- Altiphrynoides malcolmi(one out of two species in the genusAltiphrynoides)
- Nimbaphrynoides occidentalis(the sole species in the monotypic genusNimbaphrynoides)
Ascaphus(all species) andEleutherodactylus(two species,E. coquiandE. jasperi) are the only other frog genera that have internal fertilization.[11]Limnonectes larvaepartusalso has internal fertilization.[12]
Taxonomy and genera
[edit]The family Bufonidae contains over 570 species among 52 genera.
| Genus name and author | Common name | Species |
|---|---|---|
| AdenomusCope, 1861 | Dwarf toads | 2
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| AltiphrynoidesDubois, 1987 | Ethiopian toads | 2
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| AmazophrynellaFouquet et al., 2012 | 12
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| AnaxyrusTschudi, 1845 | 23
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| AnsoniaStoliczka, 1870 | Stream toads | 34
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| AtelopusDuméril & Bibron, 1841 | Stubfoot toads | 96
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| BarbarophryneBeukema, de Pous, Donaire-Barroso, Bogaerts, Garcia-Porta, Escoriza, Arribas, El Mouden, and Carranza, 2013 (1 sp.) | Tiznit toad; Brongersma's toad | 1
|
| BlythophryneChandramouli et al., 2016[13] | Andaman bush toads | 1
|
| BufoGarsault, 1764 | Toads | 18
|
| BufoidesPillai & Yazdani, 1973 | Mawblang toads; Rock toads | 2
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| BufotesRafinesque, 1815 | Palearctic green toads | 15
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| CapensibufoGrandison, 1980 | Cape toads | 5
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| ChuramitiChanning & Stanley, 2002 | 1
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| DendrophryniscusJiménez de la Espada, 1871 | Tree toads | 16
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| DidynamipusAndersson, 1903 | Four-digit toad | 1
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| DuttaphrynusFrost et al., 2006 | Dutta's toads | 23
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| EpidaleaCope, 1864 | Natterjack toad | 1
|
| FirouzophrynusSafaei-Mahroo and Ghaffari, 2020 | Firouz's toads | 5
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| FrostiusCannatella, 1986 | Frost's toads | 2
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| GhatophryneBiju, Van Bocxlaer, Giri, Loader, and Bossuyt, 2009 | 2
| |
| InciliusCope, 1863 | Central American toads; Middle American toads; Cerro Utyum toads | 39
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| IngerophrynusFrost, Grant, Faivovich, Bain, Haas, Haddad, de Sá, Channing, Wilkinson, Donnellan, Raxworthy, Campbell, Blotto, Moler, Drewes, Nussbaum, Lynch, Green, and Wheeler, 2006 | Hainan toads | 12
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| KenyaphrynoidesLiedtke, Malonza, Wasonga, Müller & Loader, 2023 | Mount Kenya forest toads | 1
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| LaurentophryneTihen, 1960 | Parker's tree toad | 1
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| LeptophryneFitzinger, 1843 | Indonesia tree toads | 3
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| MelanophryniscusGallardo, 1961 | South American redbelly toads | 29
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| MertensophryneTihen, 1960 | Snouted frogs | 14
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| MetaphryniscusSeñaris, Ayarzagüena & Gorzula, 1994 | 1
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| NannophryneGünther, 1870 | 4
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| NectophryneBuchholz & Peters, 1875 | African tree toads | 2
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| NectophrynoidesBuchholz & Peters, 1875 | African live-bearing toads | 13
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| NimbaphrynoidesDubois, 1987 | Nimba toads | 1
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| OreophrynellaBoulenger, 1895 | Bush toads | 8
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| OsornophryneRuiz-Carranza & Hernández-Camacho, 1976 | Plump toads | 11
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| ParapelophryneFei, Ye & Jiang, 2003 | 1
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| PedostibesGünther, 1876 | Asian tree toads | 1
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| PelophryneBarbour, 1938 | Flathead toads | 13
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| PeltophryneFitzinger, 1843 | Caribbean toads | 14
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| PhrynoidisFitzinger in Treitschke, 1842 | Rough toads | 2
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| PoyntonophrynusFrost, Grant, Faivovich, Bain, Haas, Haddad, de Sá, Channing, Wilkinson, Donnellan, Raxworthy, Campbell, Blotto, Moler, Drewes, Nussbaum, Lynch, Green, and Wheeler, 2006 | Pygmy toads | 11
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| PseudobufoTschudi, 1838 | False toad | 1
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| RentapiaChan, Grismer, Zachariah, Brown, and Abraham, 2016 | 2
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| RhaeboCope, 1862 | Cope toads | 13
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| RhinellaFitzinger, 1826 | Beaked toads | 94
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| SabahphrynusMatsui, Yambun, and Sudin, 2007 | Sabah earless toad | 1
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| SchismadermaSmith, 1849 | African split-skin toad | 1
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| SclerophrysTschudi, 1838 | 44
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| SigalegalephrynusSmart, Sarker, Arifin, Harvey, Sidik, Hamidy, Kurniawan, and Smith, 2017 | Puppet toads | 5
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| StrauchbufoFei, Ye, and Jiang, 2012 | Siberian toad; Mongolian toad | 1
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| TruebellaGraybeal & Cannatella, 1995 | 2
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| VandijkophrynusFrost, Grant, Faivovich, Bain, Haas, Haddad, de Sá, Channing, Wilkinson, Donnellan, Raxworthy, Campbell, Blotto, Moler, Drewes, Nussbaum, Lynch, Green, and Wheeler, 2006 | Van Dijk's toads | 6
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| WerneriaPoche, 1903 | Smalltongue toads | 6
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| WolterstorffinaMertens, 1939 | Wolterstorff toads | 3
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| XanthophryneBiju, Van Bocxlaer, Giri, Loader & Bossuyt, 2009 | 2
|
The family also contains anincertae sedisspecies,"Bufo"scortecciiBalletto & Cherchi, 1970.
References
[edit]- ^abZweifel, Richard G. (1998). Cogger, H.G.; Zweifel, R.G. (eds.).Encyclopedia of Reptiles and Amphibians.San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 91–92.ISBN978-0-12-178560-4.
- ^Pramuk, Jennifer B.; Robertson, Tasia; Sites, Jack W.; Noonan, Brice P. (2008)."Around the world in 10 million years: biogeography of the nearly cosmopolitan true toads (Anura: Bufonidae)".Global Ecology and Biogeography.17(1): 72–83.doi:10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00348.x.ISSN1466-8238.
- ^abcKok, Philippe J. R.; Ratz, Sebastian; MacCulloch, Ross D.; Lathrop, Amy; Dezfoulian, Raheleh; Aubret, Fabien; Means, D. Bruce (2018)."Historical biogeography of the palaeoendemic toad genus Oreophrynella (Amphibia: Bufonidae) sheds a new light on the origin of the Pantepui endemic terrestrial biota".Journal of Biogeography.45(1): 26–36.doi:10.1111/jbi.13093.ISSN1365-2699.S2CID90886846.
- ^Portik, Daniel M.; Papenfuss, Theodore J. (2015-08-06)."Historical biogeography resolves the origins of endemic Arabian toad lineages (Anura: Bufonidae): Evidence for ancient vicariance and dispersal events with the Horn of Africa and South Asia".BMC Evolutionary Biology.15(1): 152.doi:10.1186/s12862-015-0417-y.ISSN1471-2148.PMC4527211.PMID26245197.
- ^Chan, Kin Onn; Grismer, L. Lee; Zachariah, Anil; Brown, Rafe M.; Abraham, Robin Kurian (2016-01-20)."Polyphyly of Asian Tree Toads, Genus Pedostibes Günther, 1876 (Anura: Bufonidae), and the Description of a New Genus from Southeast Asia".PLOS ONE.11(1): e0145903.Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1145903C.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0145903.ISSN1932-6203.PMC4720419.PMID26788854.
- ^Chandramouli, S. R.; Vasudevan, Karthikeyan; Harikrishnan, S.; Dutta, Sushil Kumar; Janani, S. Jegath; Sharma, Richa; Das, Indraneil; Aggarwal, Ramesh (2016-01-20)."A new genus and species of arboreal toad with phytotelmonous larvae, from the Andaman Islands, India (Lissamphibia, Anura, Bufonidae)".ZooKeys(555): 57–90.Bibcode:2016ZooK..555...57C.doi:10.3897/zookeys.555.6522.ISSN1313-2970.PMC4740822.PMID26877687.
- ^"The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species".IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.Retrieved2019-01-19.
- ^Piprek, Rafal P., et al. “Bidder's Organ – Structure, Development and Function.” The International Journal of Developmental Biology, vol. 58, no. 10-11–12, 2014, pp. 819–27. Crossref, doi:10.1387/ijdb.140147rp.
- ^Brown, Federico D.; Del Pino, Eugenia M.; Krohne, Georg (December 2002)."Bidder's organ in the toad Bufo marinus: Effects of orchidectomy on the morphology and expression of lamina-associated polypeptide 2".Development, Growth & Differentiation.44(6): 527–535.doi:10.1046/j.1440-169X.2002.00665.x.ISSN1440-169X.PMID12492511.S2CID44753338.
- ^Paluh, Daniel J., et al. “Rampant Tooth Loss Across 200 Million Years of Frog Evolution.” BioRxiv, 2021. Crossref, doi:10.1101/2021.02.04.429809.
- ^abVitt, Laurie J.; Caldwell, Janalee P. (2014).Herpetology: An Introductory Biology of Amphibians and Reptiles(4th ed.). Academic Press. p. 122.
- ^Iskandar, D. T.; Evans, B. J.; McGuire, J. A. (2014)."A novel reproductive mode in frogs: a new species of fanged frog with internal fertilization and birth of tadpoles".PLOS ONE.9(12): e115884.Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9k5884I.doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0115884.PMC4281041.PMID25551466.
- ^S. R. Chandramouli, Karthikeyan, Vasudevan, S Harikrishnan, Sushil Kumar Dutta, S Jegath Janani, Richa Sharma, Indraneil Das, Ramesh Aggarwal. “A new genus and species of arboreal toad with phytotelmonous larvae, from the Andaman Islands, India (Lissamphibia, Anura, Bufonidae)” ZooKeys (2016) 555: 57-90,https://doi.org/10.3897/zookeys.555.6522
- "Amphibian Species of the World 5.1 - Bufonidae".Archived fromthe originalon 2012-07-15.Retrieved2008-04-10.
- Stebbins, Robert.Western Reptiles & Amphibians(3rd ed.). Houghton Mifflin Co., 2003.
- Halliday, Tim R., and Kraig Adler (editors).The New Encyclopedia of Reptiles & Amphibians.Facts on File, New York, 2002.
External links
[edit]
- Tolweb.org: Bufonidae
- BufonidaeArchived2022-04-11 at theWayback Machine
- Amphibian and Reptiles of Peninsular Malaysia - Family Bufonidae
- FED.us
- Bufonidae recordingsfrom theBritish Library Sound Archive
