Tur Abdin

Tur Abdin(Arabic:طور عبدين;Kurdish:Tor;^[1]Latin:Turabdium;Syriac:ܛܽܘܪ ܥܰܒ݂ܕܺܝܢorܛܘܼܪ ܥܲܒ݂ܕܝܼܢ,Ṭūr ʿAḇdīn^[2]) is a hilly region situated in southeastTurkey,including the eastern half of theMardin Province,andŞırnak Provincewest of theTigris,on theborder with Syriaand famed sinceLate Antiquityfor its Christianmonasterieson the border of theRoman Empireand theSasanian Empire.The area is a low plateau in theAnti-Taurus Mountainsstretching fromMardinin the west to the Tigris in the east and delimited by theMesopotamianplains to the south. The Tur Abdin is populated by more than 80 villages and nearly 70 monastery buildings and was mostlySyriac Orthodoxuntil the early 20th century.^[3]The earliest surviving Christian buildings date from the 6th century.^[3]

The name "Tur Abdin" isSyriac:ܛܘܪ ܥܒܕܝܢ,lit. 'Mountain of the Servants [of God]'.^[3]^[4]Tur Abdin is of great importance to theSyriac Orthodox Assyrians,for whom the region used to be a monastic and cultural heartland.^[5]TheAssyrian/Syriaccommunity of Tur Abdin call themselvesSuryoye,and traditionally speak a centralNeo-Aramaicdialect calledTuroyo.^[6]^[7]

Geography

Settlements

The town ofMidyatand the villages of Hah,Bequsyone,Dayro da-Slibo,Saleh(with the old monastery of Mor Yaqub),Iwardo(with Mor Huschabo),Anhel,Kafro,Arkah (Harabale, with Dayro Mor Malke), Beth Sbirino, Miden (Middo),Kerburan,Binkelbe with Mor Samun Zayte andBeth Zabday(Azech) were all important Syriac Orthodox settlements among with countless other villages. Hah, today called Anıtlı, has the ancient 'Idto d'Yoldath-Aloho, the Church of the Mother of God.

History

Antiquity

TheAssyriankingAdad-nirari II,who came to throne in the late 10th century BCE, removed theArameansfrom political power in the Kashiari mountains (Tur Abdin).^[8]In the 9th century BCE the Assyrian KingAshurnasirpal IIdescribed crossing the plateau of Tur Abdin (which he calls "Kashyari" ) on his way to attack the region ofNairi,more than once.^[9]^[10]He erected a monument inMatiate,modern-dayMidyatin Tur Abdin, which remains to be found.^[11]His successor, the Assyrian kingShalmaneser III,also crossed Tur Abdin.^[12]

Most ancient monuments in Tur Abdin areChristian,but as attested by theAssyriankingAshurnasirpal II,the area has a pre-Christian history. Older names of the area indicate that the people living here worshippedAssyrian deities.^[13]Arches on the north side of the churches inZazandSalehsuggest pre-Christian buildings originally stood on the sites.^[14]Ancient Assyro-Babylonian religionis believed to have survived in the region until as late as the 18th century.^[15]

In 586 B.C. the prophetEzekielmentions the famed wine of Izlo, on the southern edge of the plateau of Tur Abdin, in his prophecy against Tyre.^{[citation needed]}

The Mor Gabriel Monastery, the oldestSyriac Orthodoxchurch in the world, was founded in 397 by the ascetic Mor Shmu'el (Samuel) and his student Mor Shem'un (Simon). According to tradition, Shem'un had a dream in which an Angel commanded him to build a House of Prayer in a location marked with three large stone blocks. When Shem'un awoke, he took his teacher to the place and found the stone the angel had placed. At this spotMor Gabriel Monasterywas built.^[16]^{[citation needed]}

InLate Antiquity,the area was part of theRoman Empire'sprovinceofMesopotamiaand an important centre ofRoman Christianity,called inLatin:Mons MasiusorIzla.^[3]The Tur Abdin was fortified by theemperor Constantius II(r. 337–361), who constructed the fortress ofRhabdionto defend it during theRoman–Persian Wars.^[3]After the failure ofJulian's Persian Warin 363, the Tur Abdin became part of theSasanian Empirealong with the remaining territory of the fiveTranstigritine provincesand the nearby strongholds ofNisibisandBezabde.^[3]The numerous monasteries of the Tur Abdin eventually became part of theChurch of the Eastorganized at theCouncil of Seleucia-Ctesiphonin 410. They mainly took theMiaphysiteposition ofnon-Chalcedonian Christianityafter theCouncil of Chalcedonof 451. After a period of persecution by theChalcedonian state church of the Roman Empireand during theByzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628,the monasteries of the Tur Abdin enjoyed a particular prosperity under Arab rule in the latter 7th century.^[17]

The fortress of Rhabdion was mentioned by the 6th-century Greek historianProcopius,while the 6th-centuryNotitia Antiochenaand the work of the 7th-century Greek geographerGeorge of Cyprusboth attest thatTurabdiumwas anepiscopal see.^[3]The bishop of Turabdium's seat was probably the village of Hah, in which were, besides the functioning 6th-century monastery, several ruined churches including thecathedral.^[3]The Tur Abdin became part of theRashidun Caliphatein 640, during theMuslim conquest of the Levant.^[3]The Syriac Orthodox communities flourished under early Islamic rule; nearly 30 structures are known to have been wholly built or rebuilt in the following 150 years, during which most of the villages' churches were built.^[3]

After the Council of Chalcedon in 451 AD, the Syriac Orthodox Church split from the Greek-speaking Byzantine mainstream. They were then "severely persecuted as hereticalMonophysitesby the Byzantine Emperors ", according toWilliam Dalrymple,which led the Syrian Orthodox Church hierarchy to retreat to the "inaccessible shelter of the barren hills of the Tur Abdin."^[18]

Modern

Gaunt has estimated the Assyrian population at between 500,000 and 600,000 just before the outbreak of World War I, significantly higher than reported on Ottoman census figures.Midyat,inDiyarbekir vilayet,was the only town in the Ottoman Empire with anAssyrianmajority, although divided betweenSyriac Orthodox,Chaldeans,andProtestants.^[19]Syriac Orthodox Christians were concentrated in the hilly rural areas around Midyat, known as Tur Abdin, where they populated almost 100 villages and worked in agriculture or crafts.^[19]^[20]Syriac Orthodox culturewas centered in two monasteries near Mardin (west of Tur Abdin),Mor GabrielandDeyrulzafaran.^[21]Outside of the area of core Syriac settlement, there were also sizable populations in the towns ofDiyarbakır,Urfa,Harput,andAdiyaman^[22]as well as villages. Unlike the Syriac population of Tur Abdin, many of these Syriacs spoke other languages.^[23]

DuringWorld War I,300,000Assyrian/SyriacChristians were killed in the Ottoman Empire'sGenocidein Syriac calledSayfo,or 'the sword'). In the last few decades, caught between Turkish assimilation policies againstKurds,and Kurdish resistance, many Assyrians/Syriacs have fled the region or been killed. Today there are only 5,000, a quarter of the Christian population thirty years ago. Most have fled toSyria(where the city ofQamishliwas built by them),Europe(particularly Sweden, Germany, theUnited Kingdomand theNetherlands), Australia and the United States. In the past few years, a few families have returned to Tur Abdin.^[24]

Due to migration, the Syriacs' main residential area in Turkey today isIstanbul,where between 12,000 to 18,000 lives there.^[25]As of 2019, an estimated between 2,000 to 3,000 of the country's 25,000Assyrianslive in Tur Abdin,^[25]and they are spread among 30 villages,hamlets,and towns.^[25]Some of these locations are dominated by Syriacs while others are dominated by the Kurds.^[25]As part of a return movement, some Syriac Orthodox Christians returned to Tur Abdin villages fromGermany,SwedenandSwitzerland.^[26]^[27]^[25]

Christian resistance in Tur Abdin during WW1

The Syriacs ofDiyarbekir Vilayetmade significant resistance. Their strongest stand was at the villages ofAzakh,Iwardo,and Basibrin. For months, Kurdish tribes and Turkish soldiers commanded byÖmer Naci Beywere unable to subdue the mostly Syriac Orthodox andSyriac Catholicvillagers who were joined byArmenianand other refugees from surrounding villages. The leaders of the Azakh fedayeen swore

We all have to die sometime, do not die in shame and humiliation

and lived up to their fighting words.^[28]^[29]

Recent conflicts

On 10 February 2006 and the following day, large demonstrations took place in the city ofMidyatin Tur Abdin.Muslimsangry about theJyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoonsgathered in Estel, the new part of the city, and started to march towards the old part of Midyat (6 kilometers away), where the Assyrians/Syriacs live. The mob was stopped by the police before reaching oldMidyat.

In 2008 a series of legal challenges were made against themonastery of Mor Gabriel.Some local Kurdish villages sought to claim land on which the monastery had paid taxes since the 1930s as belonging to the villages, and made other accusations against the monastery. This led to considerable diplomatic and human rights action throughout Europe and within Turkey.^[30]

Monasteries

The most important Syriac Orthodox centre in Tur Abdin is the monastery ofDayro d-Mor Hananyo,6 km south east of Mardin, in the west of the region. Built from yellow rock, the monastery is affectionately known as Dayro d Kurkmo inSyriac,Dayr al-Zafaran inArabic,or Deyrülzafarân inTurkish:theSafron Monastery.Founded in AD 493, the monastery was the residence of theSyriac Orthodox Patriarchfrom 1160 to 1932. Although the patriarch now lives inDamascusthe monastery still contains the patriarchal throne and tombs of seven patriarchs and metropolitans. Today the monastery is led by a bishop and a monk and some lay assistants, and is a school for orphans. The bishop of Mor Hananyo is also the patriarchal vicar of Mardin. His goal is to rebuild the monastery and to preserve the history of the Syriac Orthodox church. The Dayro d-Mor Hananyo is part of the UNESCO world cultural heritage and was visited by numerous celebrities including the UK's King Charles III, when Prince of Wales.

In the centre of the Tur Abdin region, a few miles south ofMidyat,isDayro d-Mor Gabriel.Built in AD 397,Mor Gabriel monastery,is the oldest functioningSyriac Orthodoxmonastery on earth. It is the residence of the Metropolitan Bishop of Tur Abdin, seven nuns, four monks and a host of guests, assistants and students. The monastery is charged with keeping the flame of Syriac Orthodox faith alive in Tur Abdin, for which it is as much a fortress as a church.^[31]

The Saffron and Mor Gabriel monasteries are the most important of the region, existing along with six or seven other active monasteries:

TheMor Augin Monastery,located on the southern slope ofMt. Izla,has only been recently revived. It has a historical significance to the region. As evidence of that,a Syriac Orthodox Bishopin theNetherlandstook the nameAuginin respect for the founder of the monastery.
The Mor Abroham Monastery is located less than a mile east of Midyat, and it is known for having a large amount of farmland, some of which they donated to house Syrian refugees. Directly adjacent to the monastery lies the Turabdin Hotel and winery, which uses the monasteries vineyards to produce unique Syriac wines endemic to the region.
The St. Meryemana (Mary) Monastery, located next to the village ofAnıtlı,functions as the religious center for the remaining Christians of the village, and has a school for Syriac children.
The Mor Yakup (Jacob) Monastery is located next to the village ofBaristepe,and, like the St Mary Monastery, functions as the religious center for the remaining Christians of the village.
A second Mor Yakup Monastery is located in the village ofDibek(Syriac Badibe), having been rebuilt and occupied in 2013.^[32]
The Mor Malke Monastery is located on the northern slope ofMount Izlaand is a few miles south of the village ofÜçköy;it is connected by road to the village. Mor Malke is one of the newer monasteries of the region in terms of architecture, as it was rebuilt in the 30s. The monastery has a school, a church, and some farmlands.^[33]
One Monastery known asMor Aho Monasterywas abandoned during the 1900s, but was later turned into a small walled village, when two dozen or so Syriac villagers built houses in the courtyard of the Monastery because its high walls allowed for better security and defense than what their nearby village provided. The Monastery has one Nun, but as it has no monks or consistent liturgy held in its church it is technically not a monastery.^[34]

Notable people

Ibrahim Baylan(b. 1972), Swedish politician ofAssyrian/Syriac descent
Shamoun Hanna Haydo(1870–1964), Assyrian/Syriac leader in the early 20th century
Nuri Kino,Swedish-Assyrian/Syriac descentjournalist

References

^Aras, Ramazan (2020).The Wall: The Making and Unmaking of the Turkish-Syrian Border.Springer Nature. p. 16.
^Thomas A. Carlson et al., “Ṭur ʿAbdin — ܛܘܪܥܒܕܝܢ” in The Syriac Gazetteer last modified December 9, 2016,http://syriaca.org/place/221.
^^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^jKeser-Kayaalp, Elif (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.),"Tur 'Abdin",The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity(online ed.), Oxford University Press,doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001,ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8,retrieved2020-11-28
^James, Liz (29 January 2010).A Companion to Byzantium.John Wiley & Sons.ISBN 9781444320022.
^Aphram I. Barsoum; Ighnāṭyūs Afrām I (Patriarch of Antioch) (2008).The History of Tur Abdin.Gorgias Press.ISBN 978-1-59333-715-5.
^The Middle East, abstracts and index, Part 1. Library Information and Research Service. Northumberland Press, 2002. Page 491.
^Central Asia and the Caucasus: transnationalism and diaspora. Touraj Atabaki, Sanjyot Mehendale. Routledge, 2005. Page 228.
^Roux, Georges (1992).Ancient Iraq(3rd ed.). Penguin. p. 283,”…and dislodged from the Kashiari mountains (Tur ‘Abin)… “.ISBN 9780140125238.
^From Kibaki I set out and approached Matiate (Midyat). Matiate and its villages I overcame... For six days in the midst of the mighty mountain of Kashyari (Tur Abdin) - a difficult country... I worked that mountain with iron axes... Then I caused my chariots... to pass over it... I passed mount Kashyari and came a second time to the lands of Nairi.
^Radner (2006),pp. 287–299.
^Radner (2006),pp. 299.
^Radner (2006),pp. 288.
^Palmer (1990),pp. 28–29.
^Palmer (1990),pp. 29–30.
^Parpola 2004,p. 21.
^"turabdin.info".ww38.turabdin.info.Archived fromthe originalon Apr 19, 2015.RetrievedJan 30,2023.
^Mango, Marlia M.(2005) [1991],Kazhdan, Alexander P.(ed.),"Tur ʿabdin",The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium(online ed.), Oxford University Press,doi:10.1093/acref/9780195046526.001.0001,ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6,retrieved2020-12-15
^Dalrymple, William. (1998).From the holy mountain: a journey in the shadow of Byzantium.London. p. 91.ISBN 0-00-654774-5.OCLC 43137270.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
^^a ^bGaunt 2015,p. 87.
^Üngör 2011,p. 13.
^Üngör 2011,p. 15.
^Gauntet al.2017,p. 19.
^Gaunt 2020,p. 57.
^"Assyrians who fled to Europe return to homes in Turkey's Mardin".Daily Sabah.13 July 2017.
^^a ^b ^c ^d ^eGiesel, Christoph (2017).Religious Minorities in Turkey: Alevi, Armenians, and Syriacs and the Struggle to Desecuritize Religious Freedom.Springer. p. 169.ISBN 9781137270269.
^Çaglar (2013), p. 122
^Güsten (2016), p. 11
^Morris, Benny; Ze’evi, Dror (24 April 2019).The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924.Harvard University Press.ISBN 9780674916456.
^Gaunt, David; Bet̲-Şawoce, Jan (1 January 2006).Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: Muslim-Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia During World War I.Gorgias Press LLC. p. 348.ISBN 978-1-59333-301-0.
^"The Case of the St. Gabriel Assyrian Monastery in Midyat, Turkey".aina.org.RetrievedJan 30,2023.
^Delcogliano, Mark."Syriac Monasticism in Tur Abdin: A Present-Day Account".Academia.edu.
^"Kirche unterwegs – Reiseblogs aus der Evangelischen Kirche von Westfalen".
^"Tur Abdin".Archived fromthe originalon 2016-08-05.Retrieved2016-06-12.
^"Aina website".Archived fromthe originalon 2016-04-22.Retrieved2016-08-24.

Sources

Barsoum, Ignatius Aphram(2008).The History of Tur Abdin.Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press.ISBN 9781593337155.
Bilgic, Zeki (2018)."Aramäisch des Tur Abdin schreiben und lesen: Überlegungen, warum die Sprechergemeinschaft des Tur Abdin das Neu-Aramäische nicht als Schriftsprache anerkennt".Neue Aramäische Studien: Geschichte und Gegenwart.Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. pp. 215–250.ISBN 9783631731314.
Birol, Simon (2018)."Forgotten Witnesses: Remembering and Interpreting the Sayfo in the Manuscripts of Tur 'Abdin".Sayfo 1915: An Anthology of Essays on the Genocide of Assyrians/Arameans during the First World War.Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. pp. 327–346.ISBN 9781463207304.
Borbone, Pier Giorgio (2017)."From Tur 'Abdin to Rome: The Syro-Orthodox Presence in Sixteenth-Century Rome".Syriac in its Multi-Cultural Context.Leuven: Peeters Publishers. pp. 277–287.ISBN 9789042931640.
Comfort, Anthony (2017)."Fortresses of the Tur Abdin and the Confrontation between Rome and Persia".Anatolian Studies.67:181–229.doi:10.1017/S0066154617000047.JSTOR 26571543.S2CID 164455185.
Jastrow, Otto (1993) [1967].Laut- und Formenlehre des neuaramäischen Dialekts von Mīdin im Ṭūr ʻAbdīn.Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.ISBN 9783447027441.
Gaunt, David (2015)."The Complexity of the Assyrian Genocide".Genocide Studies International.9(1): 83–103.doi:10.3138/gsi.9.1.05.ISSN 2291-1847.
Üngör, Uğur Ümit(2011).The Making of Modern Turkey: Nation and State in Eastern Anatolia, 1913–1950.Oxford University Press.ISBN 978-0-19-965522-9.
Gaunt, David; Atto, Naures; Barthoma, Soner O. (2017). "Introduction: Contextualizing the Sayfo in the First World War".Let Them Not Return: Sayfo - The Genocide Against the Assyrian, Syriac, and Chaldean Christians in the Ottoman Empire.Berghahn Books. pp. 1–32.ISBN 978-1-78533-499-3.
Gaunt, David (2020). "The Long Assyrian Genocide".Collective and State Violence in Turkey: The Construction of a National Identity from Empire to Nation-State.Berghahn Books. pp. 56–96.ISBN 978-1-78920-451-3.
Keser-Kayaalp, Elif (2019)."Church Building in the Ṭur 'Abdin in the First Centuries of the Islamic Rule".Authority and Control in the Countryside: From Antiquity to Islam in the Mediterranean and Near East (Sixt-Tenth Century).Leiden-Boston: Brill. pp. 176–209.ISBN 9789004386549.
Palmer, Andrew (1990).Monk and Mason on the Tigris Frontier: The Early History of Ṭur 'Abdin.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN 9780521360265.
Parpola, Simo (2004)."National and Ethnic Identity in the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Assyrian Identity in Post-Empire Times".Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies.18(2): 5–22.
Prym, Eugen;Socin, Albert(1881).Der neu-aramaeische Dialekt des Ṭûr 'Abdîn.Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht's Verlag.
Radner, Karen (2006). "How to reach the Upper Tigris: The route through the Tur Abdin".State Archives of Assyria Bulletin.15:273–305.
Saadi, Abdul-Massih (2018)."Interdependence of Classical Syriac and Suryoyo of Tur Abdin (STA): Orthography for the STA".Neue Aramäische Studien: Geschichte und Gegenwart.Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. pp. 169–192.ISBN 9783631731314.
Sommer, Renate(2012)."The Role of Religious Freedom in the Context of the Accession Negotiations between the European Union and Turkey - The Example of the Arameans".The Slow Disappearance of the Syriacs from Turkey and of the Grounds of the Mor Gabriel Monastery.Münster: LIT Verlag. pp. 157–170.ISBN 9783643902689.
Saouk, Joseph (2015)."Quo vadis Turoyo? A Description of the Situation and the Needs of the Neo-Aramaic of Tur-Abdin (Turkey)".Parole de l'Orient.40:361–377.

External links

Media related toTur Abdinat Wikimedia Commons

37°24′N41°29′E/ 37.400°N 41.483°E/37.400; 41.483

[1] Aras, Ramazan (2020).The Wall: The Making and Unmaking of the Turkish-Syrian Border.Springer Nature. p. 16.

[2] Thomas A. Carlson et al., “Ṭur ʿAbdin — ܛܘܪܥܒܕܝܢ” in The Syriac Gazetteer last modified December 9, 2016,http://syriaca.org/place/221.

[:0-3] ^^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^jKeser-Kayaalp, Elif (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.),"Tur 'Abdin",The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity(online ed.), Oxford University Press,doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001,ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8,retrieved2020-11-28

[4] James, Liz (29 January 2010).A Companion to Byzantium.John Wiley & Sons.ISBN 9781444320022.

[5] Aphram I. Barsoum; Ighnāṭyūs Afrām I (Patriarch of Antioch) (2008).The History of Tur Abdin.Gorgias Press.ISBN 978-1-59333-715-5.

[6] The Middle East, abstracts and index, Part 1. Library Information and Research Service. Northumberland Press, 2002. Page 491.

[7] Central Asia and the Caucasus: transnationalism and diaspora. Touraj Atabaki, Sanjyot Mehendale. Routledge, 2005. Page 228.

[8] Roux, Georges (1992).Ancient Iraq(3rd ed.). Penguin. p. 283,”…and dislodged from the Kashiari mountains (Tur ‘Abin)… “.ISBN 9780140125238.

[9] From Kibaki I set out and approached Matiate (Midyat). Matiate and its villages I overcame... For six days in the midst of the mighty mountain of Kashyari (Tur Abdin) - a difficult country... I worked that mountain with iron axes... Then I caused my chariots... to pass over it... I passed mount Kashyari and came a second time to the lands of Nairi.

[FOOTNOTERadner2006287–299-10] Radner (2006),pp. 287–299.

[FOOTNOTERadner2006299-11] Radner (2006),pp. 299.

[FOOTNOTERadner2006288-12] Radner (2006),pp. 288.

[FOOTNOTEPalmer199028–29-13] Palmer (1990),pp. 28–29.

[FOOTNOTEPalmer199029–30-14] Palmer (1990),pp. 29–30.

[FOOTNOTEParpola200421-15] Parpola 2004,p. 21.

[16] "turabdin.info".ww38.turabdin.info.Archived fromthe originalon Apr 19, 2015.RetrievedJan 30,2023.

[17] Mango, Marlia M.(2005) [1991],Kazhdan, Alexander P.(ed.),"Tur ʿabdin",The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium(online ed.), Oxford University Press,doi:10.1093/acref/9780195046526.001.0001,ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6,retrieved2020-12-15

[18] Dalrymple, William. (1998).From the holy mountain: a journey in the shadow of Byzantium.London. p. 91.ISBN 0-00-654774-5.OCLC 43137270.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)

[FOOTNOTEGaunt201587-19] Gaunt 2015,p. 87.

[FOOTNOTEÜngör201113-20] Üngör 2011,p. 13.

[FOOTNOTEÜngör201115-21] Üngör 2011,p. 15.

[FOOTNOTEGaunt_''et_al.''201719-22] Gauntet al.2017,p. 19.

[FOOTNOTEGaunt202057-23] Gaunt 2020,p. 57.

[24] "Assyrians who fled to Europe return to homes in Turkey's Mardin".Daily Sabah.13 July 2017.

[Religious_Minorities_in_Turkey-25] Giesel, Christoph (2017).Religious Minorities in Turkey: Alevi, Armenians, and Syriacs and the Struggle to Desecuritize Religious Freedom.Springer. p. 169.ISBN 9781137270269.

[26] Çaglar (2013), p. 122

[27] Güsten (2016), p. 11

[Benny_Morris_and_Dror_Ze’evi-28] Morris, Benny; Ze’evi, Dror (24 April 2019).The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924.Harvard University Press.ISBN 9780674916456.

[GauntBet̲-Şawoce2006-29] Gaunt, David; Bet̲-Şawoce, Jan (1 January 2006).Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: Muslim-Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia During World War I.Gorgias Press LLC. p. 348.ISBN 978-1-59333-301-0.

[30] "The Case of the St. Gabriel Assyrian Monastery in Midyat, Turkey".aina.org.RetrievedJan 30,2023.

[31] Delcogliano, Mark."Syriac Monasticism in Tur Abdin: A Present-Day Account".Academia.edu.

[32] "Kirche unterwegs – Reiseblogs aus der Evangelischen Kirche von Westfalen".

[33] "Tur Abdin".Archived fromthe originalon 2016-08-05.Retrieved2016-06-12.

[34] "Aina website".Archived fromthe originalon 2016-04-22.Retrieved2016-08-24.

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