Turaco
| Turacos and relatives | |
|---|---|
| |
| Guinea turaco(Tauraco persa) atBirds of Edenaviary, South Africa | |
Scientific classification
| |
| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Aves |
| Clade: | Otidimorphae |
| Order: | Musophagiformes Seebohm,1890 |
| Family: | Musophagidae Lesson,1828 |
| Genera | |
| Synonyms | |
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Theturacosmake up thebirdfamilyMusophagidae(/ˌmjuːzoʊˈfædʒɪdiː/"banana-eaters" ), which includesplantain-eatersandgo-away-birds.In southern Africa both turacos and go-away-birds are commonly known asloeries.They aresemi-zygodactylous:the fourth (outer) toe can be switched back and forth. The second and third toes, which always point forward, are conjoined in some species. Musophagids often have prominentcrestsand long tails; the turacos are noted for peculiar and uniquepigmentsgiving them their bright green and red feathers.
Traditionally, this group has been allied with thecuckoosin theorderCuculiformes,but theSibley-Ahlquist taxonomyraises this group to a full orderMusophagiformes.They have been proposed tolinkthehoatzinto the other living birds,[1]but this was later disputed.[2]Recent genetic analyses have strongly supported the order ranking of Musophagiformes.[3][4][5]
Musophagidae is one of very few bird families endemic to Africa,[6]one other being themousebirds,Colliidae. All species arefrugivorous,but they also eat leaves, buds, and flowers.Figsare an important part of their diet. They have rounded wings and long tails and strong legs, making them poor fliers, but good runners.[6]
Turacos are medium-sized arboreal birdsendemictosub-Saharan Africa,where they live inforests,woodlandandsavanna.Turacos can occasionally be found outside of their native range as escapes from captivity.[7]
They aregregarious,non-migratory birds which move in family groups of up to 10. Many species are noisy, with the go-away-birds being especially noted for their piercingalarm calls,which alert otherfaunato the presence ofpredators;their common name isonomatopoeiaof this. Musophagids build large stick nests in trees, and lay 2 or 3 eggs. The young are born with thick down and open, or nearly-open, eyes.[8]
Morphology[edit]
Most turacos are medium-sized birds – an exception being the largegreat blue turaco– with long tails and short, rounded wings. They range in length from 40 to 75 cm (16–30 in). Their flight is weak, but they are strong climbers and are able to move nimbly on branches and through vegetation. Juveniles have claws on the wings that help them climb.[9][10][11]They have a unique foot arrangement, where the fourth toe can be brought around to the back of the foot where it almost touches the first toe, or brought around so that it is near the second and third. In spite of this flexibility the toe is actually usually held at right angles to the axis of the foot.[12]
The plumage of go-away-birds and plantain-eaters is mainly grey and white. The turacos on the other hand are brightly coloured birds, usually blue, green or purple. The green colour in turacos comes fromturacoverdin,the only true green pigment in birds known to date. Other "greens" in bird colors result from a yellow pigment such as somecarotenoid,combined with the prismatic physical structure of the feather itself which scatters the light in a particular way and giving a blue colour.
Turaco wings contain the red pigmentturacin,unlike in other birds where red colour is due to carotenoids. Both pigments are derived fromporphyrinsand only known from the Musophagidae into the 21st century, but especially the little-researched turacoverdin might have relatives in other birds. The incidence of turacoverdin in relation to habitat is of interest to scientists, being present in forest species but absent in savanna- and acacia-living species.[12]
Little is known about the longevity of wild turacos, but in captivity they are proving to be exceptionally long-lived, easily living to 30 years in captivity. A bird in theCotswold Wildlife Parkcollection in England approached its 37th year.[13]
Evolution and systematics[edit]
ThefossilgenusVeflintornisis known from theMiddle MioceneofGrive-Saint-Alban(France). It was established asApopempsisbyPierce Brodkorbin 1971, but this is pre-empted by Schenkling's 1903 use of the name for somebeetles."Apopempsis" africanus(Early Miocene of Kenya) might also belong there.[14]
Further fossil material of putative musophagids was found in Egypt as well as inLate Oligocenedeposits atGaimersheimin Germany and Middle Miocene deposits atGrive-Saint-Alban[15]andVieux-Collonges(each in France).[14]While it is not entirely certain that these fossils are indeed of turacos, it nonetheless appears as if the familyevolvedin theOligoceneof central Europe or perhaps northern Africa, and later on shifted its distribution southwards. The climate of those European regions during the latePaleogenewas not too dissimilar to that of (sub)tropical Africa today; the Saharan desert was not yet present and the distance across the Mediterranean was not much more than what it is today. Thus such a move south may well have been a very slow and gradual shifting of a large and continuous range.
Corythaeola cristata
TheEarly EocenePromusophagawas initially believed to be the oldest record of the turacos; it was eventually reconsidered a distant relative of the ostrich and is now in theratitefamilyLithornithidae.Filholornisfrom the Late Eocene or Early Oligocene of France is occasionally considered a musophagid, but its relationships have always been disputed. It is not often considered a turaco in more recent times and has beensynonymisedwith the presumedgruiformTalantatos,though it is not certain whether this will become widely accepted.[14]
The phylogenetic analysis conducted by Field & Hsiang (2018) indicated thatEocene(Wasatchian) speciesForo panariumknown from the Fossil Butte Member of theGreen River Formation(Wyoming,United States) was astem-turaco.[16]
Phylogeny[edit]
The IOC World Bird List (version 10.1) recognises 23 species of turaco in six genera.[17]However, a phylogenetic analysis by Perktaş et al (2020) found genusTauracopolyphyletic and a revised classification has been proposed based on molecular, morphological and biogeographic analysis.[18]This study recognised 33 species-level taxa in seven genera corresponding to the major clades. The following phylogenetic tree is based on this proposal and uses their proposed genus and species names.[18]
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Notes:[18]
- ^Broader definition ofCriniferproposed, becauseCorythaixoides leucogasteris recovered with theCriniferspecies rather than the otherCorythaixoidesspecies
- ^abcdeProposed species split based on phylogenetic species principle.
- ^Elevation of former subspecies to new species proposed becauseTauraco schuettiiwas found to be polyphyletic.
- ^Elevation of former subspecies to new species proposed becauseTauraco livingstoniiwas found to be polyphyletic.
- ^abcProposed species split ofTauraco schalowicomplex into four species based on phylogenetic species principle.
- ^Proposed recognition of genusProturacusfor a clade ofTauraco bannermani,Tauraco erythrolophusandTauraco leucolophus.
- ^Proposed genus for clade of formerTauricospecies
- ^Proposed genus for clade of formerTauricoandRuwenzorornisspecies
Species[edit]
The species of Musophagidae, arranged in taxonomic sequence and Paleofile websites are:[19][20]
Order MusophagiformesSeebohm 1890
- Genus †ForoOlson, 1992?
- †F. panariumOlson, 1992
- Family MusophagidaeLesson 1828[ApopempsidaeBrodkorb, 1971b;VeflintornithidaeKašin, 1976]
- Genus †VeflintornisKašin 1976[ApopempsisBrodkorb 1971 non Schenkling 1903]
- †V. meini(Ballmann 1969) Kašin 1976[Musophaga meiniBallmann 1969;Apopempsis meini(Ballmann 1969) Brodkorb 1971]
- †V. africanus(Harrison 1980)[Musophaga africanusHarrison 1980;Apopempsis africanus(Harrison 1980)]
- Subfamily Corythaeolinae
- GenusCorythaeolaHeine 1860
- Great blue turaco,Corythaeola cristata(Vieillot 1816) Heine 1860
- GenusCorythaeolaHeine 1860
- Subfamily Criniferinae
- GenusCrinifer
- Western plantain-eater,Crinifer piscator(Boddaert 1783)
- Eastern plantain-eater,Crinifer zonurus(Rüppell 1835)
- White-bellied go-away-bird,Crinifer leucogaster(Rüppell 1842) Roberts 1926
- Grey go-away-bird,Crinifer concolor
- Bare-faced go-away-bird,Crinifer personatus
- GenusCrinifer
- Subfamily Musophaginae
- GenusGallirex
- Purple-crested turaco,Gallirex porphyreolophus
- Rwenzori turaco,Gallirex johnstoni
- GenusMenelikornis
- White-cheeked turaco,Menelikornis leucotis(Rüppell 1835)
- Ruspoli's turaco,Menelikornis ruspoliiSalvadori 1896
- GenusTauraco
- Bannerman's turaco,Tauraco bannermani(Bates 1923)
- White-crested turaco,Tauraco leucolophus(Heuglin 1855)
- Red-crested turaco,Tauraco erythrolophus(Vieillot 1819)
- Guinea turaco,Tauraco persa(Linnaeus 1758)
- Knysna turaco,Tauraco corythaix(Wagler 1827)
- Livingstone's turaco,Tauraco livingstoniiGray 1864
- Fischer's turaco,Tauraco fischeri(Reichenow 1878)
- Black-billed turaco,Tauraco schuettii(Cabanis 1879)
- Schalow's turaco,Tauraco schalowi(Reichenow 1891)
- Hartlaub's turaco,Tauraco hartlaubi(Fischer & Reichenow 1884)
- Yellow-billed turaco,Tauraco macrorhynchus(Fraser 1839)
- Violet turaco,Tauraco violaceusIsert 1788
- Ross's turaco,Tauraco rossaeGould 1852
- GenusGallirex
- Genus †VeflintornisKašin 1976[ApopempsisBrodkorb 1971 non Schenkling 1903]
Interaction with humans[edit]
The crimson flight feathers of turacos have been treasured as status symbols to royalty andparamount chiefsall over Africa. They are recorded as being valued by the Swazi and Zulu royal families.[21]British ornithologistConstantine Walter Benson,who collected heavily in Africa, is alleged to have tasted every species he collected; he claimed that turacos tasted the best.[22]
Citations[edit]
- ^Hughes & Baker (1999)
- ^Sorensonet al.(2003)
- ^Ericson, P.G.P.; et al. (2006)."Diversification of Neoaves: integration of molecular sequence data and fossils"(PDF).Biology Letters.2(4): 543–547.doi:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0523.PMC1834003.PMID17148284.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2008-03-07.
- ^Hackett, S.J.; et al. (2008). "A Phylogenomic Study of Birds Reveals Their Evolutionary History".Science.320(5884): 1763–1768.Bibcode:2008Sci...320.1763H.doi:10.1126/science.1157704.PMID18583609.S2CID6472805.
- ^Jarvis, E.D.; et al. (2014)."Whole-genome analyses resolve early branches in the tree of life of modern birds".Science.346(6215): 1320–1331.Bibcode:2014Sci...346.1320J.doi:10.1126/science.1253451.PMC4405904.PMID25504713.
- ^abHolzman, Barbara A. (2008).Tropical forest biomes.Greenwood Press.ISBN978-0-313-33840-3.OCLC470649845.
- ^"Lost and Found".turacos.org.Retrieved2021-10-15.
- ^Marchant, S. (1991). Forshaw, Joseph (ed.).Encyclopaedia of Animals: Birds.London: Merehurst Press. p. 125.ISBN978-1-85391-186-6.
- ^Fain, Matthew G. & Houde, Peter (2004)."Parallel radiations in the primary clades of birds"(PDF).Evolution.58(11): 2558–2573.doi:10.1554/04-235.PMID15612298.S2CID1296408.Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2017-07-09.Retrieved2016-07-08.
- ^"Violaceous Touraco"(PDF).rosamondgiffordzoo.org. 2010-03-01. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 2011-01-05.Retrieved2016-07-08.
- ^"TURACO TAG HUSBANDRY MANUAL"(PDF).aviansag.org. 1998-08-18.Retrieved2016-07-08.
- ^abTurner, Donald (1997), "Family Musophagidae (Turacos)", in del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi (eds.),Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 4, Sandgrouse to Cuckoos,Barcelona: Lynx Edicions, pp.480–508,ISBN978-84-87334-22-1
- ^Originally from Nigel Hewston, discussed at the ITS AGM in spring 2012 (at the same venue)
- ^abcMlíkovský (2002)
- ^"TT 149", aproximalleft and adistalrighttibiotarsusof a bird similar in size to livingTauraco:Ballmann (1969)
- ^Daniel J. Field; Allison Y. Hsiang (2018)."A North American stem turaco, and the complex biogeographic history of modern birds".BMC Evolutionary Biology.18(1): 102.Bibcode:2018BMCEE..18..102F.doi:10.1186/s12862-018-1212-3.PMC6016133.PMID29936914.
- ^Gill, F.;Donsker, D.; Rasmussen, P. (eds.)."Family Musophagidae".IOC World Bird List.10.1. International Ornithological Congress.Retrieved19 June2020.
- ^abcPerktaş, Utku; Groth, Jeff G.; Barrowclough, George F. (April 2020)."Phylogeography, Species Limits, Phylogeny, and Classification of the Turacos (Aves: Musophagidae) Based on Mitochondrial and Nuclear DNA Sequences".American Museum Novitates(3949): 1–61.doi:10.1206/3949.1.ISSN0003-0082.S2CID214763342.
- ^"Taxonomic lists- Aves".Paleofile (net, info).Retrieved30 December2015.
- ^Çınar, Ümüt (November 2015)."05 → Oᴛɪᴅᴀᴇ: Mᴜsᴏᴘʜᴀɢɪfᴏʀᴍᴇs, Oᴛɪᴅɪfᴏʀᴍᴇs, Cᴜᴄᴜʟɪfᴏʀᴍᴇs, Cᴀᴘʀɪᴍᴜʟɢɪfᴏʀᴍᴇs, Sᴛᴇᴀᴛᴏʀɴɪᴛʜɪfᴏʀᴍᴇs, Nʏᴄᴛɪʙɪɪfᴏʀᴍᴇs, Pᴏᴅᴀʀɢɪfᴏʀᴍᴇs, Aᴘᴏᴅɪfᴏʀᴍᴇs".kmoksy.Archived fromthe originalon 20 December 2016.Retrieved30 December2015.
- ^ITS Magazine,autumn 2003 (20), turacos.org
- ^Brewer, David (2018).Birds New to Science: Fifty Years of Avian Discoveries.London: Christopher Helm. p. 105.ISBN978-1-4729-0628-1.
General and cited references[edit]
- Ballmann, Peter (1969). "Les Oiseaux miocènes de la Grive-Saint-Alban (I sắc re) [The Miocene birds of Grive-Saint-Alban, I sắc re]".Geobios.2:157–204.doi:10.1016/S0016-6995(69)80005-7.(French with English abstract)
- Hughes, Janice M.; Baker, Allan J. (1999)."Phylogenetic relationships of the Enigma tic hoatzin (Opisthocomus hoazin) resolved using mitochondrial and nuclear gene sequences "(PDF).Molecular Biology and Evolution.16(9): 1300–1307.doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026220.PMID10486983.
- International Turaco Society (Magazines 1993–2012), also website 2001,turacos.org
- Mlíkovský, Jirí (2002):Cenozoic Birds of the World, Part 1: Europe.Ninox Press, Prague.ISBN80-901105-3-8PDF fulltext(Archived2011-05-20 at theWayback Machine)
- Newton, Alfred(1911)..InChisholm, Hugh(ed.).Encyclopædia Britannica.Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 102.This is based on a now outdated classification, but does provide a detailed description of the morphology of some species.
- Sorenson, Michael D.; Oneal, Elen; García-Moreno, Jaime; Mindell, David P. (2003). "More Taxa, More Characters: The Hoatzin Problem Is Still Unresolved".Molecular Biology and Evolution.20(9): 1484–1499.doi:10.1093/molbev/msg157.PMID12777516.S2CID24173060.Supplementary Material.
External links[edit]
- International Touraco Society
- Turaco videoson the Internet Bird Collection
