TheTurk ShahisorKabul Shahiswere a dynasty ofWestern Turk,or mixedTurko-Hephthalite,or a group of Hephthalites origin,[3]that ruled fromKabulandKapisatoGandharain the 7th to 9th centuries AD.[1][4][5]
They may have been ofKhalajethnicity.[6][7][8]The Gandhara territory may have been bordering theKashmir kingdomand theKannauj kingdomto the east.[9]From the 560s, the Western Turks had gradually expanded southeasterward fromTransoxonia,and occupiedBactriaand theHindu-Kushregion, forming largely independent polities.[10]The Turk Shahis may have been a political extension of the neighbouring Western TurkYabghus of Tokharistan.[4]In the Hindu-Kush region, they replaced theNezak Huns– the last dynasty of Bactrian rulers with origins among theXwn(Xionite) and/orHunapeoples (who are sometimes also referred to as "Huns" who invaded Eastern Europe during a similar period).[4]
The Turks under theWestern TurkrulerTong Yabghu Qaghancrossed theHindu-Kushand occupiedGandharaas far as theIndus Riverfrom circa 625 AD.[13][14]Overall, the territory of the Turk Shahi extended from Kapisi to Gandhara, with a Turkic branch becoming independent in Zabulistan at one point.[9][15][6]The Gandhara territory may have been bordering theKashmir kingdomand theKanauj kingdomto the east.[9]The Turk Shahi capital of Gandhara, which possibly functioned as a winter capital alternating with the summer capital of Kabul, wasUdabhandapura.[16]The Korean pilgrimHui Chao,visiting the area in 723–729 AD, mentioned that these regions were ruled by Turk kings.
Establishment: Arab offensive and displacement of the Nezaks[edit]
The last extantNezakruler Ghar-ilchi was recorded as the king ofJibin(formerKapisi/Kabulistan) by theTang dynastyin 653 AD.[17]He was also likely to be the unnamed ruler who was confirmed as Governor of Jibin under the newly formed ChineseAnxi Protectoratein 661 CE and would broker a peace-treaty with the Arabs, the same year.[18][19]Nonetheless, in 664-665 CE,Abd al-Rahman ibn Samuralaunched an expedition to reconquer the territories lost during the Caliphate Wars.[a]Kabulwas occupied in 665 CE after a siege of a few months but soon revolted, only to be reoccupied after another year-long siege.[b]These events mortally weakened the Nezaks though their ruler — not named in sources — was spared upon converting toIslam.[23]
Sometime soon (666/667?), the Nezaks were replaced by the Turk Shahis, first in Zabulistan and then in Kabulistan and Gandhara.[24]Their ethnic identity remains unclear and the name might be a misnomer.[c]According toHyecho,who visited the region about 50 years after the events, the firstShahiruler of Kapisi — named Barha Tegin byAl-Biruni— was an usurper, who used to be a military commander in the service of the last Nezak King.[26][27][d]Al-Biruni provides a rather legendary account of Barhategin's rise, extrapolating from multiple mythological motifs,[e]and the precise circumstances surrounding the dawning of the Turk Shahis remain unclear.[f]
Tang Protectorate and vassalage to the Tokhara Yabghus[edit]
The Turk Shahis, like the rest of theWestern Turks,were nominally part of a protectorate under the ChineseTang dynastysince circa 658 AD.[33]The territory of the Turk Shahis was nominally partitioned into several Chinese Commanderies under administration of theAnxi Protectorate:the city of Yege (modernMihtarlam) east of Kabul was considered as the seat of a Chinese Commandery for theJibincountry, and named the Xiuxian Commandery ( tu tiên đô đốc phủ,Xiūxiān Dūdùfû),[18]the city of Yan at the border withGandharawas the seat of the Yuepan Commandery ( duyệt đô đốc phủ,Yuèpān Dūdùfû),Ghazniwas the seat of the Tiaozhi Commandery ( điều chi đô đốc phủ,Tiáozhī Dūdùfû).[34][35]
According to Chinese sources, in particular the chronicles of theCefu Yuangui,the Turks in Kabul were vassals of theYabghus of Tokharistan,who in turn swore allegiance to the Tangs.[36]A young brother of theTokhara YabghuPantu Nili — named Puluo ( phó lapúluó) in Chinese sources — visited the court of theTang dynastyinXi'anin 718 AD and gave an account of the military forces in the Tokharistan region, explaining that "two hundred and twelve kingdoms, governors and prefects" had been recognizing the authority of the Yabghus (specifically mentioning among them that "the king of Zabul rules two hundred thousand soldiers and horses, the king of Kabul two hundred thousand" ), since the time of his grandfather, that is, probably since the time of their establishment.[36][37][g][h]
UnderBarha Tegin,the Shahis mounted a counter-offensive and repulsed the Arab forces afterAbd al-Rahman ibn Samurawas replaced asGovernor of Sistanc.665 CE, taking back lost territory as far as the region ofArachosiaandKandahar.[39][40][41]The capital was shifted fromKapisatoKabul.[42]The Arabs attempted a counter-offensive whenRabi ibn Ziyad al-Harithiassumed the governorship of Sistan in 671 CE, attacking the Turkic "Rutbil"atBost,and driving him to al-Rukhkhaj (Arachosia).[39]Rabi's successorUbayd Allah ibn Abi Bakracontinued the war upon being appointed in 673 CE, leading Rutbil to negotiate a peace treaty for bothKabulandZabul,in which the governor ofSistanacknowledged control of these territories by Rutbil and the King of Kabul.[39]Little more is known about the rule of Barha Tegin, but many of the early Turk Shahi coins are attributed to him.[43]
He was succeeded by his sonTegin Shahc. 680, whose regal title was "KhorasanTegin Shah "meaning" Tegin, King of the East ", probably referring to his resistance against theUmayyad caliph.[41][44]His territory comprised the area from Kabulistan to Gandhara and initially included Zabulistan, which came to be ruled by Rutbil (Turkic:Iltäbär), his elder brother, who founded the dynasty of theZunbils.[44]Their relationship was at times antagonistic, but they fought together against Arab incursions.[44][45]
The Arabs again failed to capture Kabul and Zabulistan in 683 AD: their general Abu Ubaida ibn Ziyad was imprisoned in Kabul and Governor ofSijistanYazid ibn Ziyadwas killed as he attacked the city.[4][46]In 684–685, Kabul briefly comes under Arab control.[46]In 698Ubayd Allah ibn Abi Bakraof theUmayyad Caliphatelead an 'Army of Destruction' against the Zunbils, was defeated and was forced to offer a large tribute, give hostages including three of his sons and take an oath not to invade Zunbil again.[47]About 700Ibn al-Ash'athtried again to invade with the 'Peacock Army', but after some initial progress eventually formed a peace treaty with the Turks, and turned around to lead a rebellion against theUmayyadviceroy of the east,al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf.[48]
Tegin Shah apparently regained complete suzerainty over Zabulistan around 710 CE.[44]This appears from the accounts in the Chinese chronicles, which relates that the rulers of Zabulistan "subjugated themselves toJibin(Kabul) ", sometime between 710 and 720 CE.[49]During this period, it seems the Zunbils and the Turk Shahis intermittently accepted, or were forced to accept, payment of taxes to the Arabs, thereby acknowledging some form of political dependence, but resisted fiercely when the Arabs attempted to take a more direct military, political or religious control.[50]
In 719/20 CE, the Tegin of Kabulistan (Tegin Shah) and the Iltäbär ofZabulistan(here named "Shiquer" ) sent a combined embassy toXuanzong,the Chinese Emperor of theTang dynastyinXi'an,to obtain confirmation of their thrones.[18]The Chinese emperor signed an investiture decree, which was returned to the Turk rulers. The official Chinese recognition of the enthronement of Tegin Shah appears in the annals of theTangshu:
In the seventh year of the Kaiyuan reign [719 CE], [Jibin (Kabul) dispatched] envoys to the [Tang] court, who offered up a book of an astrological text, secret medical recipes, together with foreign medecines and other things. An imperial edict was issued to bestow on the king [of Jibin] the titleGeluodazhiTele [for "Tegin" ].
The word "Geluodazhi"in this extract (Chinese: Cát la đạt chi, pronounced inEarly Middle Chinese:kat-la-dat-tcǐe), is thought to be a transliteration of the ethnonymKhalaj.[53]Hence Tegin Shah was described as "Tegin of the Khalaj".[53]This title also appears on his coinage inGupta script,where he is named "hitivira kharalāča",probably meaning"Iltäbärof the Khalaj ".[53]
In 720 CE, the ruler ofZabulistan( tạ 䫻,Xiėyù) also received the titleGedaluozhi Xielifa(Chinese: Cát đạt la chi hiệt lợi phát ),Xielifabeing the known Chinese transcription of the Turkish "Iltäbär",hence" Iltäbär of the Khalaj ".[54]This appears in another extract from theTangshudescribing the country of Zabulistan ( tạ 䫻,Xiėyù), mentioning how Zabulistan was a vassal to the Kabul Shah around the same period, and how the Zunbil ruler, named "Shiquer", was also recognized by the Chinese court:[55][56]
The people fromTujue(Turks),Jibin(Kabul), andTuhuoluo(Tokharistan) live together in this country [Zabulistan]. Jibin recruits from among them young men to defend againstDashi(Arabs). They sent an envoy to the Tang in the first year of Jingyun (710) to present gifts. Later, they subjugated themselves to Jibin. In the eighth year of Kaiyuan (720), the Emperor approved the enthronement ofGedalouzhi( "Khalaj")Xielifa( "Iltäbär") Shiquer. Their envoys came to the royal court several times until the Tianbao era (742–756).
These two Chinese accounts tend to confirm that the Turk Shahi and Zunbil rulers were Khalaj Turks.[58]The Korean pilgrimHyechoaccompanied the return embassy in 726 AD, and wrote an account of his travel and visit at the court of Kabul, relating that Turk ("T’u-chüeh") kings ruled the territories of Gandhara, Kapisa andZabulistanat the time, that they wereBuddhists,and that the King of Kabul was the uncle of the ruler of Zabul.[59][44]
Royal figure with triple-crescent crown and halo, wearing a double-lapel caftan and boots, accompanied by a figure in armour. This is a possible depiction of Sun and Moon deities, showing Central Asian influence. Mural from theFondukistan monastery,circa 700 AD.[60][61]Similarities can be seen with theKizil Cavesknights, indicating the continuity of Central Asian art under the patronage of the Western Turks.[62]
In the 27th year [of Kaiyuan, ie 739 CE], the king Wusan Tela Sa [for Khorasan Tegin Shah] submitted a memorial requesting that due to his old age, his sonFulin Jisuomay succeed him on the throne. The emperor agreed and dispatched an envoy in order to confer the king's title on him through an imperial edict.
Fromo Kesaro appears to have successfully fought against the Arabs.[4][68]His coinage suggests that the Arabs were defeated and forced to pay tribute to Fromo Kesaro, since Sasanian coins and coins of Arab governors were overstruck by him on the rim with the following text in theBactrian script:[69]
Sasanian drachm with Fromo Kesaro obverse and reverse rim overstrike inBactrian.[70][71]
Fromo Kesaro, the Majestic Sovereign, [is] who defeated the Arabs and laid a tax [on them]. Thus they sent it.
— Rim legend of Sasanian and Arab coins overstruck by Fromo Kesaro[69][72][71][k]
Since these coins did not come out from Fromo Kesaro's foundries, but were simply pre-existing Arab/Sasanian coins which he overstruck on the rim with his victorious legends in Bactrian, it would seem that in all likelihood the coins underwent this rather simple overstriking procedure in the field, probably during one of his victorious campaigns against the Muslims.[68]
Fromo Kesaro's victories may have forged parts of the epic legend of the Tibetan King whose name appears to be phonetically similar:Phrom Ge-sar.[4][69]
The Turk Shahis and Zunbils in South Asia, with neighbouring polities, circa 750 CE.[73]
In 745 AD, Fromo Kesaro's sonBo Fuzhun( bột bặc chuẩnBo Fuzhunin Chinese sources) became the king, as recorded in the Old Book of Tang;[m]he was simultaneously conferred with the Tang title "General of the Left", which probably alludes to a strategic relationship between the Chinese and the Turk Shahis, in the context of expanding Islamic frontiers.[51]
The Chinese departed from the region c. 760 AD, following their strategic defeat at theBattle of Talas(751 AD) and the events of theAn Lushan Rebellion,thus weakening the geopolitical position of the Turk Shahis.[75]Al-Yakubhirecords that c. 775–785, a Turk Shahi ruler of Kabul—variously reconstructed asḤanḥal/Khinkhil/Khingil/Khingal—was sent a proposal byAl-Mahdi(775-785), the thirdAbbasidCaliph,asking for his submission, to which he conceded.[n][78]He was either a unique ruler of the Turk Shahis or identical with Bo Fuzhun.[78][79][80][81][82]
Funerary stele of a royal couple in the BuddhistFondukistan monastery,dedicated around the end of the 7th century CE under the Turk Shahis. King wearing a Central Asiancaftanwith doublelapel,a belt and pointed boots, and Queen of Indian type, holding hands over cushions. Circa 700 AD.[60][83][84][85]
The struggle between the Arabs and the Turk Shahis continued into the 9th century AD.[4]Hoping to take advantage of theGreat Abbasid Civil War(811-819 AD), the Turk Shahi, named "Pati Dumi" in Arab sources, invaded parts ofKhorasan.[65]Once theAbbasidcaliphAl-Ma'munprevailed in the Civil War, he sent troops to confront the Turk invaders: in 814/815 AD, the Turk Shahis were soundly defeated by these Arab troops, which pushed as far asGandhara.[86][2]The Turk Shah now had to convert to Islam, and had to pay an annual tribute of 1,500,000 dirhams and 2,000 slaves to the Abbasid governor ofKhorasan.[86][2]He also ceded a large and precious idol made of gold, silver and jewels, which was sent toMecca.[65]FollowingAl-Azraqi's initial account of 834 AD, Quṭb ed-Dîn wrote:
Now, when this King converted to Islam, he decided that the throne with the idol should be given as an offering for theKa'ba.
He therefore sent the throne toAl-Ma'muninMerv,who then sent it toAl-Hasan ibn SahlinWasit,who in turn charged one of his lieutenants fromBalkh,Naçîr ben Ibrahim, with accompanying it toMecca.This lieutenant arrived there in the yearAH201 (816 AD) during the time of pilgrimage when Isḥâḳ ben Mûsá ben ´Isá was leading the pilgrims to the holy sites. When they returned fromMina,Naçîr ben Ibrahim placed the throne with the carpet and the idol in the center of the square dedicated toOmar Ibn Al-Khattab,betweenSafa and Marwa,where it remained for three days.
Al-Azraqialso made a very detailed description of the statue, which points to a crowned and bejewelled Buddha seated on a throne, a design otherwise well known and quite specific to this historical period for the region ofAfghanistanandKashmir.[88]In the south, theZunbilTurk Shahis escaped unaffected and continued to rule for about two more decades, before falling in 870/871 AD to theSaffaridsunder an upstart adventurerYa'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar.[89]
According to the Arab chronicleral-Biruni,the last Turk Shahi ruler of Kabul, Lagaturman—probable son of Pati Dumi—was deposed by aBrahminminister, named Kallar around 822 AD.[65][90]A new dynasty, theHindu Shahitook over, with its capital in Kabul.[2]To the south, theZunbilsheld fort against Muslim forces until the Saffarid offensive of 870 CE.
Remains of a Buddhist monastery atMes Aynak,near Kabul, which remained in use until the 9th century AD.[91]Hui Chaoreported that the Turk King, Queen and dignitaries practiced Buddhism. 726 AD.[92]
TheAlchon Huns,predecessors of the Turk Shahis in Afghanistan and Gandhara, had brought destruction upon Buddhism.[93]When Chinese pilgrimXuanzangvisited northwestern India inc. 630AD, he reported that Buddhism had drastically declined, and that most of the monasteries were deserted and left in ruins.[94]The Turk Shahis are reported as having been supporters of Buddhism, and are generally believed to be Buddhists, though they also worshipped Hindu gods.[92][95]There was a renewed patronage of Buddhism in the area of Afghanistan during the 7-8th century AD as a function of the expansion of theTang dynastypower inCentral Asiaat that time, just as the Arabs were pressuringKhorasanandSistan.[96]The Korean pilgrimHui Chaoin 726 AD recorded in the Chinese language that the Turkic ( Đột Quyết, Tū-chuèh) rulers ofKapisa( "Jibin") followed theTriratnaand dedicated many Buddhist temples:[92]
(...) đến Kế Tân Quốc. (...) này quốc thổ người là hồ. Vương cập binh mã Đột Quyết. (...) người trong nước đại kính tin tam bảo. Đủ chùa đủ tăng. Bá tánh gia các ti tạo chùa. Cung cấp nuôi dưỡng tam bảo. Đại thành trung có một chùa. Danh sa mịch chùa. Trong chùa bối Phật ốc búi tóc cốt xá lợi thấy ở quan lại bá tánh mỗi ngày cung cấp nuôi dưỡng. Này quốc hành tiểu thừa.
(...) I arrived inJibin.(...) The natives of the country are Hu (Barbarian) people; the king and the cavalry areTurks( Đột Quyết,Tūjué). (...) The people of this country greatly revere theThree Jewels.There are many monasteries and monks. The common people compete in constructing monasteries and supporting the Three Jewels. In the big city there is a monastery called Sha-hsi-ssu. At present, the curly hair (ushnisha,Ốc búi tóc ) and the relic bones of the Buddha are to be seen in the monastery. The king, the officials, and the common people daily worship these relics.Hinayana( tiểu thừa ) Buddhism is practised in this country.
The Kingdoms of Central Asia, often Buddhist or with an important Buddhist community, were generally under the formal control of the Tang dynasty, had regular exchanges with China, and expected Tang protection.[96]Chinese monks were probably directly in charge of some of the Buddhist sanctuaries of Central Asia, such as the temple ofSuiye(nearTokmakin present-dayKirghizistan).[96]During this period too, the ChineseTang Empireextended its influence and promotion of Buddhism to the kingdoms ofCentral Asia,including Afghanistan, with a corresponding influx of Chinese monks, while there was conversely a migration of Indian monks and artistic styles from India to Central Asia, as "Brahmanicalrevivalism "was pushing Indian Buddhist monks out of their country.[100][96]
According to the Chinese pilgrimWukong,who arrived in Gandhara in 753 AD,[92]the country ofKapisihad its eastern capital inGandharaduring the winter, and its capital in Kapisi during the summer.[92]InKashmir,which he visited from 756 to 760 AD, he explained that Buddhist temples were dedicated by theTü-kiu( "Turk" ) kings.[92]Brahmanismtoo seems to have flourished, but to a lesser extent, under the Turk Shahis, with various works of art also attributed to their period.[92][101]
At the end of the 10th century, theSamanid Empireled by the TurkghulamsAlp Tiginestablished itself in Eastern Afghanistan, later followed by theGhaznavid dynasty.[102][103]At that time, local Buddhist Turk communities seem to have mingled with the newly arrived Muslim Turks of the Samanid Empire, forming an ethnic continuity among the ruling class of Ghazni. The local Buddhist Turks progressively islamized, but there was a continuation in artistic development and Buddhist religious activities, not a break.[103]The Buddhist site of Qol-i Tut in Kabul remained in use until the end of the 11th century.[103]
An early Turk Shahi ruler, possiblyBarha Tegin,[104]with inscription "Lord Ranasrikari" (Brahmi script:Sri Ranasrikari,"The Lord who brings excellence through war" ), withtamghaof the Turk Shahis:.In this realistic portrait, he wears the double-lapel Turkiccaftan,and a crown with threecrescents(one hidden from view) surmounted by the head of a wolf, aTurkic symbol.[105]Late 7th to early 8th century AD.[106][91][107]
From the middle of the 7th century AD, the Turk Shahis emulated the coinage of their predecessors, theHunnishNezak-Alchons.[1][84]The first coins of the Turk Shahikept the winged bull's head of the Nezak as well as their legend "King of Nezak" (nycky MLKA) but in corruptedPahlavi script.But the style of the rulers in the coins was now quite different, and the coins were of markedly higher silver quality.[42]Soon, these coins introduced a new legend in replacement of the "King of Nezaks" legend, using the Indian honorific"Shri"( "Perfection" ) with the royal title "Shahi" in theBactrian language(σριο Þανιο,Srio šauoi) and in Sanskrit (Śri Sāhi).[108][84]This new coinage corresponds to the formal establishment of the Turk Shahis, sometime after 661 AD.[1][84]
In later stages, the crown adorned with a bull's head is replaced by a crown consisting in three crescent moons in the middle of which a flower or trident is set.[84][o]Often the bull's head in the crown is also replaced by the symbol of a lion's or a wolf's head.[112][105]In other coins the triple-crescent moons were kept, and the king was shown wearing a Central Asiancaftan.[91]
Many of these coins are attributed toShahi Tegin,the second Turk Shahi ruler, and dated to circa 700 AD.[113]After this transitory period, Turk Shahi coinage adopted theSasanian coinagestyle, and added a trilingual legend inGreco-Bactrian,Pahlavi,andBrahmi.Based on finds, Turk Shahi coins apparently circulated in Zabulistan, Kabulistan,GandharaandUddiyana.[1]
Early coin of the Turk Shahis, in the style of theNezak Huns.The Turk Shahis replaced thePahlavilegend of the Nezaks by aBactrian scriptlegendσριο Þανιο"Srio Shaho" i.e. "Lord King", withtamgha.The crown is now made of crescents. Late 7th century AD.[108]
Crowns with the head of a lion or a wolf[105]as central symbol, on the obverses of two Turk Shahi coins. This new symbol replaced the earlier bull's head ofNezak Hunscoinage.[112]
Sasanian-style trilingual coin ofTegin Shahtowards the end of his reign. Iranian godAduron the reverse. Obverse legend: "His Excellence, theIltäbärofKhalaj,Worshipper of the highest God, His Excellence, the King, the divine Tegin […] ".[114]Date inPahlavi:728 AD
A Turk Shahis ruler named Sandan, otherwise unknown. Copy of a late issue ofKhusrau II,combiningBrahmi scriptaround the ruler,Bactrian scriptalong the two rims, where "ςανδανοβαγοχοαδηο""Lord King Sandan "is mentioned, andPahlaviaround the altar on the reverse.[115][116]
There was a relatively high level of artistic activity in the areas controlled by the Turk Shahis during 7-8th centuries CE, either as a result of the Sasanian cultural heritage, or as a result of the continued development ofBuddhist art,with possible Hephthalite influence.[110]The destruction upon Buddhism wrought by their predecessors had deeply weakened theHellenistic-Buddhist art of Gandhara.[93]Yet, consequent to Tang patronage of Buddhism, aSinicized-Indianphase re-developed during the 7th to 9th century CE.[100]TheWestern TurksinAfghanistanare generally associated with a major revival ofGandharan Buddhist artbetween the 7th and 9th century CE, especially in the areas ofBamiyan,KabulandGhazni,with major new Buddhist sites such asTapa SardarinGhazni,orTepe NarenjandMes AynaknearKabul,which remained active at least until the 9th century CE.[103]This process and chronology are visible in the archaeological site ofTapa SardarnearGhazniinAfghanistan,while this new form of art appears in its mature state inFondukistan.[117]
The works of art of this period in eastern Afghanistan, with a sophistication and iconography comparable to other works of art of theSilk Roadsuch as those ofKizil,are attributable to the sponsorship of the "cosmopolitan" Turks, rather than their "Ephthalite" predecessors in this area (theNezak-Alchon Huns), who, in the words ofEdmund Bosworth,"were not capable of such work".[62]And, soon after, the expansion of Islam made the creation of such works of art impossible.[62]
The style as well as the techniques used in making these works of art (modelling of clay mixed with straw, wool or horsehair), are characteristic of the paintings and sculptures ofCentral Asia.[118]The production ofFondukistanmust correspond to the southernmost expansion of this particular type of Buddhist art.[118]The new region occupied by the Turk Shahis had numerous Buddhist monasteries, such asMes Aynak,which appear to have remained in use until the 9th century CE.[91]Dedications including Turk Shahis coins have been found under a statue in the Buddhistmonastery of Fondukistan.[1][119]
Dedications including coins of the Buddhist Turk Shahis and one Sasanian coin ofKhusro IIhave been found under the statue of the royal couple with a king in Turk attire in the monastery ofFondukistan,providing important insights regarding the datation of the statue as well as Buddhist art in general: as a result of the analysis the statue can be dated to after 689 CE, and as a consequence a date of circa 700 CE is generally given for it and the other works of art of Fondukistan.[60][1][119]The royal couple consists in a princess in "Indian" dress, and a prince "wearing a richcaftanwith double lapel and boots ", characteristic of Central Asian clothing.[121][122]
Hinduism too seems to have flourished to some extent under the Turk Shahis, with various works of art also attributed to their period.[129][130]In particular the famous statue of aSun deitythat is eitherMitraorSuryain tunic and boots discovered inKhair Khanehnear Kabul,[126]as well as a statue ofGaneshafromGardezare now attributed to the Turk Shahis in the 7-8th century CE, and not to their successors the Hindu Shahis as formerly suggested.[129]In particular, great iconographical and stylistic similarities with the works of the Buddhist monastery ofFondukistanhave been identified.[129]Archaeologically, the construction of theKhair Khanehtemple itself is now dated to 608-630 CE, at the beginning of the Turk Shahis period.[131]
^Ibn A'tham al-Kufinotes that the ruler of Kabul mounted periodic resistance against Samura before retreating into the city.[21]This ruler is unfavorably compared to Samura, who had persisted in the siege despite difficulties.[22]
^'Turk "was used rather liberally in sources to describe a wide spectrum of alien people. Xuanzang, returning via Kapisa in 643 C.E., had already noted Turk ascendancy in the region — Turks held power over Vṛjisṭhānā, a minor state between Kapisi and Gandhara.[25]
Account of Gandhara by Hyecho (first three lines given here).
FromKashmirI travelled further northwest. After one month's journey across the mountains I arrived at the country ofGandhara.The king and military personnel are all Turks. The natives areHupeople; there areBrahmins.The country was formerly under the influence of the king ofKapisa.A-yeh [alternativelyread as "The father", than a personal name, referring to Barha Tegin, father of then-KingTegin Shah[28]] of the Turkish King took a defeated cavalry [alternatively"led an army and a tribe"or"led troops of his entire tribe"[28]] and allied himself to the king of Kapisa. Later, when the Turkish force was strong, the prince assassinated the king of Kapisa [possiblyGhar-ilchi] and declared himself king. Thereafter, the territory from this country to the north was all ruled by the Turkish king, who also resided in the country.
The Hindus had kings residing in Kabul, Turks who were said to be of Tibetan origin. The first of them, Barhatakin, came into the country and entered a cave inKabul,which none could enter except by creeping on hands and knees. [...] Some days after he had entered the cave, he began to creep out of it in the presence of the people, who looked on him as a newborn baby. He wore Turkish dress, a short tunic open in front, a high hat, boots and arms. Now people honoured him as a being of miraculous origin, who had been destined to be king, and in fact he brought those countries under his sway and ruled them under the title of a Shahiya of Kabul. The rule remained among his descendants for generations, the number of which is said to be about sixty. [...] The last king of this race was Lagatarman, and his Vizir was Kallar, a Brahman.
^Baladhuri notes of the "Kabul Shah" that he purged all Muslims out of Kabul (city -?) and "Rutbil" (ex-ruler of Zabul) and regained control of Bost and Rukhdwaj the same year, drawing Arab forces into renewed offensive.[31]Whether the "Kabul Shah" refers to the first Turk Shahi or the last Nezak cannot be confirmed; in case of the latter, the resulting conflict would have provided a ground for the rise of Turk Shahis.[32]
^This account also shows that the Yabghu of Tokharistan ruled a vast area circa 718 AD, formed of the territories north and south of theHindu Kush,including the areas ofKabulandZabul.[38]
^"On the Dingwei day of the eleventh month in the sixth year of theKaiyuan era,AshiTeginPuluo ( a sử đặc lặc phó la ) writes to the emperor:TokharaYabghu( phun lửa la diệp 䕶), his elder brother, is controlling as his subordinates two hundred and twelve persons, such as the local kings of various states, Dudu (Governors-General), and Cishi (heads of regional governments). The king ofZabulrules two hundred thousand soldiers and horses, the king ofKabultwo hundred thousand, each king ofKhuttal,Chaghanian,Jiesu ( giải 蘓 quốc ),Shughnan,Evdal( ấp đạt quốc ), Kumedha Wa'khan (䕶宻 quốc ),Guzganan,Bamiyan,Lieyuede gian ( lâu càng đức kiến quốc ), andBadakhshanfifty thousand. "Cefu Yuangui3.5. Fanyan in Vol. 999 (Claims, Foreign Subjects), 718 AD. inKuwayama, Shoshin (2005)."Chinese Records on Bamiyan: Translation and Commentary".East and West.55(1/4): 143–144.ISSN0012-8376.JSTOR29757642.This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.Original text ofCefu Yuangui3.5. Fanyan in Vol. 999: 6 năm tháng 11 Đinh Mùi a sử đặc lặc phó la thượng thư tố rằng phó la khắc phun lửa la diệp 䕶 bộ hạ quản chư quốc vương đô đốc thứ sử tổng 212 người tạ dương quốc vương thống lĩnh binh mã hai mươi vạn chúng kế khách quốc vương thống lĩnh binh mã hai mươi vạn chúng cốt phun quốc vương thạch hãn kia quốc vương giải 蘓 quốc vương thạch nặc quốc vương ấp đạt quốc vương 䕶宻 quốc vương 䕶 khi kiện quốc vương phạm duyên quốc vương lâu càng đức kiến quốc vương bột đặc sơn vương các lãnh năm vạn chúng phó la tổ phụ đã tới cũng là thượng kiện chư quốc chi vương phiên vọng tôn trọng phó la huynh đều bùn lợi thừa đích kế tập trước 𫎇 ân lai phái đi cầm tiết liền bổn quốc sắc lập vì vương nhiên hỏa la diệp 䕶 tích đại tới nay ư Đại Đường trung xích triều cống không tuyệt bổn quốc duyên tiếp cận đại thực Thổ Phiên đông giới lại là tây trấn phó la huynh mỗi trưng phát bộ lạc hạ binh mã thảo luận đánh chư tặc cùng hán quân hiểu nhau lên tiếng ủng hộ ứng tiếp ở ư biên cảnh cho nên miễn có xâm đoạt phó la huynh trước sau nhiều lần 𫎇 thánh trạch quý hà quốc ân toại phát khiển phó la vào triều thị vệ thềm ngọc đến nguyện hiến trung tuẫn mệnh cho rằng thần thiếp phó la đến tận đây vì khó hiểu hán pháp Hồng Lư Tự không ủy phiên vọng lớn nhỏ có không thể so loại lưu lệ cao hạ tương huyền tức tấu nghĩ thụ quan trộm thấy thạch quốc Quy Từ cũng dư tiểu quốc vương tử thủ lĩnh chờ vào triều nguyên vô công hiệu cũng duyên phiên vọng thụ tam phẩm tướng quân huống phó la thân cậy cần bổn phiên vị vọng cùng thân vương một loại bắc 䫫 lớn nhỏ cùng chư quốc vương tử cách xa lại thụ phó la tứ phẩm trung lang nhưng ở phiên vương tử đệ sa la môn cù đàm kim cương Quy Tư Vương tử bạch hiếu thuận chờ toàn số sửa chuyển vị đến chư vệ tướng quân duy phó la nhất đại phiên đi thần long nguyên niên 𫎇 ân lai thụ tả lĩnh quân vệ dực trong phủ lang buông xuống nay kinh một mười bốn năm lâu bị luân khuất không 𫎇 chuẩn lệ thụ chức không thắng khổ khuất chi cực lai hồng lư khanh chuẩn lệ định phẩm trật chớ lệnh xưng khuất in"Sách phủ nguyên quy ( bốn kho toàn sách vở )/ cuốn 0999 - duy cơ kho sách, tự do thư viện".zh.m.wikisource.org.
^Martin 2011,p. 127: "He received this laudatory epithet because he, like the Byzantines, was successful at holding back the Muslim conquerors."
^Martin 2011,p. 127: "He received this laudatory epithet because he, like the Byzantines, was successful at holding back the Muslim conquerors."
^The study of these new coins originally appeared in "New Coins of Fromo Kēsaro" by Helmut Humbach in: G. Pollet (ed.), "India and the Ancient World. History, trade and culture before A.D. 650". Professor P.H.L. Eggermont jubilee volume. Leuven 1987, 81-85,plates. XI-XIII
^Tianbao ( Thiên Bảo, 742–756), era name used by Emperor Xuanzong of Tang
Thiên Bảo bốn năm, lại sách này tử bột bặc chuẩn vì tập kế tân cập ô trường quốc vương, vẫn thụ tả kiêu vệ tướng quân In the 4th year of the Tianbao reign [745 CE][l]another imperial edict was issued to make his [i.e.Fromo Kesaro's] son Bo Fuzun succeed him on the throne as the King ofJibinandUddiyana.He was conferred the title of "General of Left Stalwart Guard".
^In nearbyKakrak,a valley next toBamiyan,a famous Buddhist mural named "The Hunter King" (7-8th centuries AD) shows a typically local royal figure seated on a throne, his bow and arrows on the side. He wears a triple-crescent crown which is said to have a close similarity to the triple-crescent crowns on the coinage found in northeastern Afghanistan in the area ofZabulistan,for examplethis coinfromGhazni.[109][44]Other authors have attributed the triple-crescent crown toHephthaliteinfluence.[110]The painting may be an allegory of a King abandoning violence, particularly the hunting of animals, and converting to Buddhism.[111]
^abcdefgh"Contained within a clay urn were a gold bracteate with the portrait of a ruler, three early drachms of the Turk-Shahis (Type 236, one of which is countermarked), and a countermarked drachm of the Sasanian kingKhusro IIdating from year 37 of his reign (= 626/7). The two countermarks on Khusro 's drachm prove that the urn could only have been deposited after 689 "Alram 2014,pp. 282–285
^"The advance of Islamic forces both into Tokharistan in the north and into Zabulistan farther south was opposed by local rulers of probably Western Turkish identity" inVondrovec, Klaus."Coinage of the Nezak":181.{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help)
^ab"The new rulers of Kabul, who according to me were Khalaj Turks, extended their rule over the
former territory of the Kapisi kingdom [Kapisa to Gandhara], while a branch of them became independent in Zabulistan. A Korean
monk Huichao ( tuệ siêu ) who visited these regions in the third decade of the 8th century, reported that both regions were ruled by the Turkish kings."Inaba, Minoru."From Kesar the Kābulšāh and Central Asia":443–444.{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help)
^Rezakhani, Khodadad (2017-03-15).ReOrienting the Sasanians: East Iran in Late Antiquity.Edinburgh University Press. p. 165.ISBN978-1-4744-0030-5.A Bactrian Document (BD T) from this period brings interesting information about the area to our attention. In it, dated to BE 476 (701 AD), a princess identified as `Bag-aziyas, the Great Turkish Princess, the Queen of Qutlugh Tapaghligh Bilga Sävüg, the Princess of the Khalach, the Lady of Kadagestan offers alms to the local god of the region of Rob, known as Kamird, for the health of (her) child. Inaba, arguing for the Khalaj identity of the kings of Kabul, takes this document as a proof that the Khalaj princess is from Kabul and has been offered to the (Hephthalite) king of Kadagestan, thus becoming the lady of that region. The identification of Kadagestan as a Hephthalite stronghold is based on Grenet's suggestion of the survival of Hephthalite minor stares in this region...
^"The period from 560 CE onwards would be that of the Western Turks, although it is not clear how and foremost when they gained power over Bactria and the Hindukush-region. Minoru Inaba states that" gradually having extended their power, they came to be independent... "" inVondrovec, Klaus."Coinage of the Nezak":173.{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help)
^"China, at the other end of Central Asia, managed to bring the Western branch of the Qaγanate under Tang supremacy in 658 CE and consequently established a protectorate in Bactria which also extended south of the Hindukush." inVondrovec, Klaus."Coinage of the Nezak":681.{{cite journal}}:Cite journal requires|journal=(help)
^"The account herewith quoted as 3.5. shows that this king of Tokhara had political power to control the principalities belonging to the Governors-General to the north and the south of the Hindukush, not to mention the Yuezhi Governor General." inKuwayama, Shoshin (2005)."Chinese Records on Bamiyan: Translation and Commentary".East and West.55(1/4): 153, 3–5.ISSN0012-8376.JSTOR29757642.
^abcdRahman, Abdur; Bopearachchi (Ed.), Osmund; Boussac (Ed.), Marie-Françoise (2002).Afghanistan. Ancien Carrefour entre l'Est et l'Ouest (New Light on Khingal, Turk and Hindu Shahis).Vol. XV. Turnhout, Belgium: Brepols. pp. 37–41.ISBN2-503-51681-5.
^"New Coins of Fromo Kēsaro" by Helmut Humbach in: G. Pollet (ed.), "India and the Ancient World. History, trade and culture before A.D. 650". Professor P.H.L. Eggermont jubilee volume. Leuven 1987, 81-85,plates. XI-XIII
^Thiên Bảo bốn năm, lại sách này tử bột bặc chuẩn vì tập kế tân cập ô trường quốc vương, vẫn thụ tả kiêu vệ tướng quân. "Kesar's son Bo Fuzhun succeed him on the throne as the king of Jibin and Wuchang. He was conferred the title General of the Left Stalwart Guard" inBalogh 2020,p. 104
^D. W. Macdowall, "The Shahis of Kabul and Gandhara"Numismatic Chronicle,Seventh Series, Vol. III, 1968, pp. 189–224, see extracts in R. T. Mohan,AFGHANISTAN REVISITED... Appendix –B, pp. 164-68
^Jan, Yun-Hua; Iida, Shotaro; Yang, Han-Sung (1984).The Hye Ch'O Diary: Memoir of the Pilgrimage to the Five Regions of India (Religions of Asia Series)(English and Korean ed.). Asian Humanities Pr. pp. 50–51.ISBN978-0895810243.
^This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.Text of the visit to Jibin by Huei-ch'ao: "Lại từ đây lãm sóng quốc mà đi vào núi. Kinh với tám nhật trình. Đến Kế Tân Quốc. Này quốc cũng là kiến chở la vương sở quản. Này vương hạ ở kế tân. Trục lạnh mà ngồi. Đông hướng kiến chở la. Sấn ấm mà trụ. Bỉ tức vô tuyết. Ấm mà không hàn. Này Kế Tân Quốc mùa đông tuyết đọng. Vì thế lãnh cũng. Này quốc thổ người là hồ. Vương cập binh mã Đột Quyết. Quần áo ngôn âm thực uống. Cùng phun lửa la quốc. Đại đồng thiếu dị. Vô hỏi nam chi cùng nữ. Cũng toàn 㲲 bố sam khố cập ủng. Nam nữ quần áo vô có khác biệt. Nam nhân cũng cắt râu tóc. Nữ nhân phát ở. Thổ địa ra đà loa dương mã lừa ngưu 㲲 bố quả nho lớn nhỏ nhị mạch uất kim hương chờ. Người trong nước đại kính tin tam bảo. Đủ chùa đủ tăng. Bá tánh gia các ti tạo chùa. Cung cấp nuôi dưỡng tam bảo. Đại thành trung có một chùa. Danh sa mịch chùa. Trong chùa bối Phật ốc búi tóc cốt xá lợi thấy ở quan lại bá tánh mỗi ngày cung cấp nuôi dưỡng. Này quốc hành tiểu thừa. Cũng trụ trong núi đỉnh núi vô có cỏ cây. Đúng như lửa đốt sơn cũng" Within chapter 25 in"원문/전문 보기 - vãng năm ngày Trúc quốc truyền (왕오천축국전)".davincimap.co.kr. Translation ofthe original Chinese text: "From Lampaka ( lãm sóng quốc,Kashmir), I again entered the mountains. After eight days journey I arrived at the country of Kapisa (Jibin( Kế Tân Quốc )). This country is also under the authority of the king ofGandhara( kiến chở la ). During the summer the king comes to Kapisa and resides here because of the cool temperature. During the winter he goes to Gandhara and resides at that warm place because there is no snow and it is warm and not cold. In the winter the snows accumulate in Kapisa. This is the reason for the cold. The natives of the country are Hu (Barbarians) people; the king and the cavalry areTurks( Đột Quyết, "Tuque" ). The dress, language, and food of this place are mostly similar toTokharistan( phun lửa la quốc ), though there are small differences. Whether man or woman, all wear cotton shirts, trousers, and boots. There is no distinction of dress between men and women. The men cut their beards and hair, but the women keep their hair. The products of this land include camels, mules, sheep, horses, asses, cotton cloth, grapes, barley, wheat, and saffron. The people of this country greatly revere theThree Jewels.There are many monasteries and monks. The common people compete in constructing monasteries and supporting the Three Jewels. In the big city there is a monastery called Sha-hsi-ssu. At present, the curly hair (ushnisha,Ốc búi tóc ) and the relic bones of the Buddha are to be seen in the monastery. The king, the officials, and the common people daily worship these relics.Hinayana( tiểu thừa ) Buddhism is practised in this country. The land is situated in the mountains. On the mountains there is no vegetation. [It looks] as if the land had been burned by fire. " adapted from:Jan, Yun-Hua; Iida, Shotaro; Yang, Han-Sung (1984).The Hye Ch'O Diary: Memoir of the Pilgrimage to the Five Regions of India (Religions of Asia Series)(English and Korean ed.). Asian Humanities Pr. pp. 50–51.ISBN978-0895810243.
^"According to Jäger’s interpretation, the so-called «Hunter-King» was a symbolic representation of a royal person who converted to Buddhism and abandoned hunting and violence in general." inCompareti, Matteo (2008)."The Painting of the" Hunter-King "at Kakrak: Royal Figure or Divine Being?".Studio Editoriale Gordini:133.
^abDupree, Louis (14 July 2014).Afghanistan.Princeton University Press. p. 309.ISBN978-1-4008-5891-0.Khair Khaneh is situated in the pass separating the Kabul Valley from Kohistan (which includes Begram). Kushano–Sasanian and early Hindu art motifs mingle in a whitish-gray marble statue of the Sun God (either Surya or Mithra) seated on a...
^Adrych, Philippa; Bracey, Robert; Dalglish, Dominic; Lenk, Stefanie; Wood, Rachel (2017).Images of Mithra.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-879253-6.
^Journal of the American Oriental Society(Volumes 56-57 ed.). 1986.To overcome the difficulty that Pingala wears a beard, the Kabirs had to be introduced, Great Gods of Samothrake who... This feature brings the sun - god of Khair Khaneh as close as possible to the Iranian Mithras, who guides the soul of the...
^abcde"It is not therefore possible to attribute these pieces to the Hindu Shahi period. They should be attributed to the Shahi period before the Hindu Shahis originated by the Brahman wazir Kallar, that is, the Turki Shahis." p.405 "According to the above sources, Brahmanism and Buddhism are properly supposed to have coexisted especially during the 7th-8th centuries CE just before the Muslim hegemony. The marble sculptures from eastern Afghanistan should not be attributed to the period of the Hindu Shahis but to that of the Turki Shahis." p.407 inKuwayama, Shoshin (1976)."The Turki Śāhis and Relevant Brahmanical Sculptures in Afghanistan".East and West.26(3/4): 375–407.ISSN0012-8376.JSTOR29756318.
Alram, Michael (2014). "From the Sasanians to the Huns New Numismatic Evidence from the Hindu Kush".The Numismatic Chronicle.174:261–291.JSTOR44710198.(registration required)
Payne, Richard (2016). "The Making of Turan: The Fall and Transformation of the Iranian East in Late Antiquity".Journal of Late Antiquity.9.Johns Hopkins University Press: 4–41.doi:10.1353/jla.2016.0011.S2CID156673274.
Ziad, Waleed (2022). "The Nezak Shahis of Kapisa-Gandhāra".In the Treasure Room of the Sakra King: Votive Coinage from Gandhāran Shrines.American Numismatic Society.ISBN9780897227377.
Sri Ranasrikari,"The Lord who brings excellence through war" ), withtamghaof the Turk Shahis:
.In this realistic portrait, he wears the double-lapel Turkiccaftan,and a crown with threecrescents(one hidden from view) surmounted by the head of a wolf, aTurkic symbol.[105]Late 7th to early 8th century AD.[106][91][107]![Early coin of the Turk Shahis, in the style of the Nezak Huns. The Turk Shahis replaced the Pahlavi legend of the Nezaks by a Bactrian script legend σριο Þανιο "Srio Shaho" i.e. "Lord King", with tamgha. The crown is now made of crescents. Late 7th century AD.[108]](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Shahi_Tegin_%28Sri_Shahi%29._After_679_in_the_style_of_the_Nezak_Huns.jpg/250px-Shahi_Tegin_%28Sri_Shahi%29._After_679_in_the_style_of_the_Nezak_Huns.jpg)
Early coin of the Turk Shahis, in the style of theNezak Huns.The Turk Shahis replaced thePahlavilegend of the Nezaks by aBactrian scriptlegend
σριο Þανιο"Srio Shaho" i.e. "Lord King", withtamgha.The crown is now made of crescents. Late 7th century AD.[108]![Crowns with the head of a lion or a wolf[105] as central symbol, on the obverses of two Turk Shahi coins. This new symbol replaced the earlier bull's head of Nezak Huns coinage.[112]](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Turk_Shahi_lion_headdress.jpg/250px-Turk_Shahi_lion_headdress.jpg)
Crowns with the head of a lion or a wolf[105]as central symbol, on the obverses of two Turk Shahi coins. This new symbol replaced the earlier bull's head ofNezak Hunscoinage.[112]![Sasanian-style trilingual coin of Tegin Shah towards the end of his reign. Iranian god Adur on the reverse. Obverse legend: "His Excellence, the Iltäbär of Khalaj, Worshipper of the highest God, His Excellence, the King, the divine Tegin […]".[114] Date in Pahlavi: 728 AD](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Shahi_Tegin_728_CE.jpg/250px-Shahi_Tegin_728_CE.jpg)
![A Turk Shahis ruler named Sandan, otherwise unknown. Copy of a late issue of Khusrau II, combining Brahmi script around the ruler, Bactrian script along the two rims, where "ςανδανο βαγο χοαδηο" "Lord King Sandan" is mentioned, and Pahlavi around the altar on the reverse.[115][116]](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Turk_Shahis._Sandan._After_688_CE.jpg/250px-Turk_Shahis._Sandan._After_688_CE.jpg)
A Turk Shahis ruler named Sandan, otherwise unknown. Copy of a late issue ofKhusrau II,combiningBrahmi scriptaround the ruler,Bactrian scriptalong the two rims, where "ςανδανοβαγοχοαδηο""Lord King Sandan "is mentioned, andPahlaviaround the altar on the reverse.[115][116]![Early coin of the Turk Shahis, in the style of the Nezak Huns. The Turk Shahis replaced the Pahlavi legend of the Nezaks by a Bactrian script legend σριο Þανιο "Srio Shaho" i.e. "Lord King", with tamgha. The crown is now made of crescents. Late 7th century AD.[108]](/translate/en.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3AShahi_Tegin_%28Sri_Shahi%29._After_679_in_the_style_of_the_Nezak_Huns.jpg&t=vi)
![Crowns with the head of a lion or a wolf[105] as central symbol, on the obverses of two Turk Shahi coins. This new symbol replaced the earlier bull's head of Nezak Huns coinage.[112]](/translate/en.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ATurk_Shahi_lion_headdress.jpg&t=vi)
![Sasanian-style trilingual coin of Tegin Shah towards the end of his reign. Iranian god Adur on the reverse. Obverse legend: "His Excellence, the Iltäbär of Khalaj, Worshipper of the highest God, His Excellence, the King, the divine Tegin […]".[114] Date in Pahlavi: 728 AD](/translate/en.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3AShahi_Tegin_728_CE.jpg&t=vi)
![A Turk Shahis ruler named Sandan, otherwise unknown. Copy of a late issue of Khusrau II, combining Brahmi script around the ruler, Bactrian script along the two rims, where "ςανδανο βαγο χοαδηο" "Lord King Sandan" is mentioned, and Pahlavi around the altar on the reverse.[115][116]](/translate/en.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ATurk_Shahis._Sandan._After_688_CE.jpg&t=vi)
Mural of aBodhisattvaMaitreyaat the entrance of the niche of the royal couple.Fondukistan monastery,circa 700 CE.National Museum of Afghanistan.
The period of the Turk Shahis also corresponds to the last stages ofGreco-Buddhist art.circa 700 CE,Fondukistan monastery,Ghorband District,Afghanistan![Seated Buddha, Fondukistan monastery. National Museum of Afghanistan.[123]](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Fondukistan_Seated_Buddha.jpg/137px-Fondukistan_Seated_Buddha.jpg)
![Seated Maitreya, 7th-8th century AD, near Kabul, Afghanistan. "Stylistically related to Shahi sculpture of northern Pakistan and Afghanistan".[124]](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Seated_Maitreya%2C_7th-8th_century%2C_Kabul%2C_Afghanistan.jpg/130px-Seated_Maitreya%2C_7th-8th_century%2C_Kabul%2C_Afghanistan.jpg)
Seated Maitreya, 7th-8th century AD, near Kabul, Afghanistan. "Stylistically related to Shahi sculpture of northern Pakistan and Afghanistan".[124]
![Seated Buddha, Fondukistan monastery. National Museum of Afghanistan.[123]](/translate/en.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3AFondukistan_Seated_Buddha.jpg&t=vi)
![Seated Maitreya, 7th-8th century AD, near Kabul, Afghanistan. "Stylistically related to Shahi sculpture of northern Pakistan and Afghanistan".[124]](/translate/en.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASeated_Maitreya%2C_7th-8th_century%2C_Kabul%2C_Afghanistan.jpg&t=vi)
![Seated Avalokiteshvara, white marble, Khair Khaneh, 6th-7th century CE. Musée Guimet MA 8151.[135]](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Seated_Avalokiteshvara%2C_white_marble%2C_Khair_Khaneh%2C_6th-7th_century_CE._Mus%C3%A9e_Guimet_MA_8151.jpg/136px-Seated_Avalokiteshvara%2C_white_marble%2C_Khair_Khaneh%2C_6th-7th_century_CE._Mus%C3%A9e_Guimet_MA_8151.jpg)
Khair Khanehdonor, wearing a tunic, boots and a sword.![The Gardez Ganesha is now dated to the 8th century and attributed to the Turk Shahis.[129]](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Ganesha_from_Gardez.jpg/97px-Ganesha_from_Gardez.jpg)
TheGardez Ganeshais now dated to the 8th century and attributed to the Turk Shahis.[129]![Seated Avalokiteshvara, white marble, Khair Khaneh, 6th-7th century CE. Musée Guimet MA 8151.[135]](/translate/en.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3ASeated_Avalokiteshvara%2C_white_marble%2C_Khair_Khaneh%2C_6th-7th_century_CE._Mus%25C3%25A9e_Guimet_MA_8151.jpg&t=vi)
![The Gardez Ganesha is now dated to the 8th century and attributed to the Turk Shahis.[129]](/translate/en.wikipedia.org?u=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FFile%3AGanesha_from_Gardez.jpg&t=vi)
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in thepublic domain.Original text ofCefu Yuangui3.5. Fanyan in Vol. 999: 6 năm tháng 11 Đinh Mùi a sử đặc lặc phó la thượng thư tố rằng phó la khắc phun lửa la diệp 䕶 bộ hạ quản chư quốc vương đô đốc thứ sử tổng 212 người tạ dương quốc vương thống lĩnh binh mã hai mươi vạn chúng kế khách quốc vương thống lĩnh binh mã hai mươi vạn chúng cốt phun quốc vương thạch hãn kia quốc vương giải 蘓 quốc vương thạch nặc quốc vương ấp đạt quốc vương 䕶宻 quốc vương 䕶 khi kiện quốc vương phạm duyên quốc vương lâu càng đức kiến quốc vương bột đặc sơn vương các lãnh năm vạn chúng phó la tổ phụ đã tới cũng là thượng kiện chư quốc chi vương phiên vọng tôn trọng phó la huynh đều bùn lợi thừa đích kế tập trước 𫎇 ân lai phái đi cầm tiết liền bổn quốc sắc lập vì vương nhiên hỏa la diệp 䕶 tích đại tới nay ư Đại Đường trung xích triều cống không tuyệt bổn quốc duyên tiếp cận đại thực Thổ Phiên đông giới lại là tây trấn phó la huynh mỗi trưng phát bộ lạc hạ binh mã thảo luận đánh chư tặc cùng hán quân hiểu nhau lên tiếng ủng hộ ứng tiếp ở ư biên cảnh cho nên miễn có xâm đoạt phó la huynh trước sau nhiều lần 𫎇 thánh trạch quý hà quốc ân toại phát khiển phó la vào triều thị vệ thềm ngọc đến nguyện hiến trung tuẫn mệnh cho rằng thần thiếp phó la đến tận đây vì khó hiểu hán pháp Hồng Lư Tự không ủy phiên vọng lớn nhỏ có không thể so loại lưu lệ cao hạ tương huyền tức tấu nghĩ thụ quan trộm thấy thạch quốc Quy Từ cũng dư tiểu quốc vương tử thủ lĩnh chờ vào triều nguyên vô công hiệu cũng duyên phiên vọng thụ tam phẩm tướng quân huống phó la thân cậy cần bổn phiên vị vọng cùng thân vương một loại bắc 䫫 lớn nhỏ cùng chư quốc vương tử cách xa lại thụ phó la tứ phẩm trung lang nhưng ở phiên vương tử đệ sa la môn cù đàm kim cương Quy Tư Vương tử bạch hiếu thuận chờ toàn số sửa chuyển vị đến chư vệ tướng quân duy phó la nhất đại phiên đi thần long nguyên niên 𫎇 ân lai thụ tả lĩnh quân vệ dực trong phủ lang buông xuống nay kinh một mười bốn năm lâu bị luân khuất không 𫎇 chuẩn lệ thụ chức không thắng khổ khuất chi cực lai hồng lư khanh chuẩn lệ định phẩm trật chớ lệnh xưng khuất in"Sách phủ nguyên quy ( bốn kho toàn sách vở )/ cuốn 0999 - duy cơ kho sách, tự do thư viện".zh.m.wikisource.org.
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