Turkic languages
Turkic | |
---|---|
Ethnicity | Turkic peoples |
Geographic distribution | Eurasia |
Native speakers | c. 200 million(2020)[1] |
Linguistic classification | One of the world's primarylanguage families |
Proto-language | Proto-Turkic |
Subdivisions | |
ISO 639-5 | trk |
Glottolog | turk1311 |
![]() The distribution of the Turkic languages |
TheTurkic languagesare alanguage familyof more than 35[2]documented languages, spoken by theTurkic peoplesofEurasiafromEastern EuropeandSouthern EuropetoCentral Asia,East Asia,North Asia(Siberia), andWest Asia.The Turkic languages originated in a region of East Asia spanning fromMongoliatoNorthwest China,whereProto-Turkicis thought to have been spoken,[3]from where theyexpandedto Central Asia and farther west during the first millennium.[4]They are characterized as adialect continuum.[5]
Turkic languages are spoken by some 200 million people.[1]The Turkic language with the greatest number of speakers isTurkish,spoken mainly inAnatoliaand theBalkans;its native speakers account for about 38% of all Turkic speakers, followed byUzbek.[4]
Characteristic features such asvowel harmony,agglutination,subject-object-verborder, and lack ofgrammatical gender,are almost universal within the Turkic family.[4] There is a high degree ofmutual intelligibility,upon moderate exposure, among the variousOghuz languages,which includeTurkish,Azerbaijani,Turkmen,Qashqai,Chaharmahali Turkic,Gagauz,andBalkan Gagauz Turkish,as well as Oghuz-influencedCrimean Tatar.[6]Other Turkic languages demonstrate varying amounts of mutual intelligibility within their subgroups as well. Although methods of classification vary, the Turkic languages are usually considered to be divided into two branches:Oghur,of which the only surviving member isChuvash,andCommon Turkic,which includes all other Turkic languages.
Turkic languages show many similarities with theMongolic,Tungusic,Koreanic,andJaponiclanguages. These similarities have led some linguists (includingTalât Tekin) to propose anAltaic language family,though this proposal is widely rejected by historical linguists.[7][8]Similarities with theUralic languageseven caused these families to be regarded as one for a long time under theUral-Altaichypothesis.[9][10][11]However, there has not been sufficient evidence to conclude the existence of either of these macrofamilies. The shared characteristics between the languages are attributed presently to extensive prehistoriclanguage contact.
Characteristics
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Map-TurkicLanguages.png/330px-Map-TurkicLanguages.png)
Turkic languages arenull-subject languages,havevowel harmony(with the notable exception ofUzbekdue to strong Persian-Tajik influence),converbs,extensiveagglutinationby means ofsuffixesandpostpositions,and lack ofgrammatical articles,noun classes,andgrammatical gender.Subject–object–verbword order is universal within the family. In terms of the level ofvowel harmonyin the Turkic language family,Tuvanis characterized as almost fully harmonic whereasUzbekis the least harmonic or not harmonic at all. Taking into account the documented historico-linguistic development of Turkic languages overall, both inscriptional and textual, the family provides over one millennium of documented stages as well as scenarios in the linguistic evolution of vowel harmony which, in turn, demonstrates harmony evolution along a confidently definable trajectory[12]Though vowel harmony is a common characteristic of major language families spoken in Inner Eurasia (Mongolic,Tungusic,Uralicand Turkic), the type of harmony found in them differs from each other, specifically, Uralic and Turkic have a shared type of vowel harmony (calledpalatal vowel harmony) whereas Mongolic and Tungusic represent a different type.
History
[edit]Pre-history
[edit]The homeland of theTurkic peoplesand their language is suggested to be somewhere between theTranscaspian steppeandNortheastern Asia(Manchuria),[13]with genetic evidence pointing to the region nearSouth SiberiaandMongoliaas the "Inner Asian Homeland" of the Turkic ethnicity.[14]Similarly several linguists, includingJuha Janhunen,Roger Blenchand Matthew Spriggs, suggest that modern-dayMongoliais the homeland of the early Turkic language.[15]Relying on Proto-Turkic lexical items about the climate, topography, flora, fauna, people's modes of subsistence, TurkologistPeter Benjamin Goldenlocates the Proto-Turkic Urheimat in the southern, taiga-steppe zone of theSayan-Altayregion.[16]
Extensive contact took place betweenProto-TurksandProto-Mongolsapproximately during the first millennium BC; the shared cultural tradition between the twoEurasian nomadicgroups is called the "Turco-Mongol"tradition. The two groups shared a similar religion system,Tengrism,and there exists a multitude of evident loanwords between Turkic languages andMongolic languages.Although the loans were bidirectional, today Turkic loanwords constitute the largest foreign component in Mongolian vocabulary.[17]
Italian historian and philologistIgor de Rachewiltznoted a significant distinction of theChuvash languagefrom other Turkic languages. According to him, the Chuvash language does not share certain common characteristics with Turkic languages to such a degree that some scholars consider it an independent Chuvash family similar to Uralic and Turkic languages. Turkic classification of Chuvash was seen as a compromise solution for the classification purposes.[18]
Some lexical and extensive typological similarities between Turkic and the nearbyTungusicandMongolicfamilies, as well as theKoreanandJaponicfamilies has in more recent years been instead attributed to prehistoric contact amongst the group, sometimes referred to as theNortheast Asian sprachbund.A more recent (circa first millennium BC) contact between "core Altaic" (Turkic, Mongolic, and Tungusic) is distinguished from this, due to the existence of definitive common words that appear to have been mostly borrowed from Turkic into Mongolic, and later from Mongolic into Tungusic, as Turkic borrowings into Mongolic significantly outnumber Mongolic borrowings into Turkic, and Turkic and Tungusic do not share any words that do not also exist in Mongolic.
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Kuli_Chur_inscription.jpg/220px-Kuli_Chur_inscription.jpg)
Turkic languages also show some Chineseloanwordsthat point to early contact during the time ofProto-Turkic.[19]
Early written records
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Irk_bitig_07.jpg/220px-Irk_bitig_07.jpg)
The first established records of the Turkic languages are the eighth century ADOrkhon inscriptionsby theGöktürks,recording theOld Turkiclanguage, which were discovered in 1889 in theOrkhon Valleyin Mongolia. TheCompendium of the Turkic Dialects(Divânü Lügati't-Türk), written during the 11th century AD byKaşgarlı Mahmudof theKara-Khanid Khanate,constitutes an early linguistic treatment of the family. TheCompendiumis the first comprehensive dictionary of the Turkic languages and also includes the first known map of the Turkic speakers' geographical distribution. It mainly pertains to theSouthwestern branchof the family.[20]
TheCodex Cumanicus(12th–13th centuries AD) concerning theNorthwestern branchis another early linguistic manual, between theKipchak languageandLatin,used by theCatholicmissionariessent to the WesternCumansinhabiting a region corresponding to present-dayHungaryandRomania.The earliest records of the language spoken byVolga Bulgars,debatably the parent or a distant relative ofChuvash language,are dated to the 13th–14th centuries AD.[21][22]
Geographical expansion and development
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Yuntai_Uyghur_east_wall.jpg/220px-Yuntai_Uyghur_east_wall.jpg)
With theTurkic expansionduring theEarly Middle Ages(c. 6th–11th centuries AD), Turkic languages, in the course of just a few centuries, spread acrossCentral Asia,fromSiberiato theMediterranean.Various terminologies from the Turkic languages have passed intoPersian,Urdu,Ukrainian,Russian,[23]Chinese,Mongolian,Hungarianand to a lesser extent,Arabic.[24][verification needed]
The geographical distribution of Turkic-speaking peoples acrossEurasiasince the Ottoman era ranges from the North-East ofSiberiato Turkey in the West.[25](See picture in the box on the right above.)
For centuries, the Turkic-speaking peoples have migrated extensively and intermingled continuously, and their languages have been influenced mutually and throughcontactwith the surrounding languages, especially theIranian,Slavic,andMongolic languages.[26]
This has obscured the historical developments within each language and/or language group, and as a result, there exist several systems to classify the Turkic languages. The modern genetic classification schemes for Turkic are still largely indebted to Samoilovich (1922).[citation needed]
The Turkic languages may be divided into six branches:[27]
- Turkic
- Common Turkic
- Oghuz Turkic(Southwestern)
- Kipchak Turkic(Northwestern)
- Karluk Turkic(Southeastern)
- Siberian Turkic(Northeastern)
- Arghu Turkic
- Oghur Turkic
- Common Turkic
In this classification,Oghur Turkicis also referred to as Lir-Turkic, and the other branches are subsumed under the title of Shaz-Turkic orCommon Turkic.It is not clear when these two major types of Turkic can be assumed to have diverged.[28]
With less certainty, the Southwestern, Northwestern, Southeastern and Oghur groups may further be summarized asWest Turkic,the Northeastern, Kyrgyz-Kipchak, and Arghu (Khalaj) groups asEast Turkic.[29]
Geographically and linguistically, the languages of the Northwestern and Southeastern subgroups belong to the central Turkic languages, while the Northeastern and Khalaj languages are the so-called peripheral languages.
Hruschka, et al. (2014)[30]usecomputational phylogeneticmethods to calculate a tree of Turkic based on phonologicalsound changes.
![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/LinguisticDiagramTurkic.png/400px-LinguisticDiagramTurkic.png)
Schema
[edit]The followingisoglossesare traditionally used in the classification of the Turkic languages:[31][27]
- Rhotacism(or in some views, zetacism), e.g. in the last consonant of the word for "nine" *tokkuz.This separates the Oghur branch, which exhibits /r/, from the rest of Turkic, which exhibits /z/. In this case, rhotacism refers to the development of *-/r/, *-/z/, and *-/d/ to /r/,*-/k/,*-/kh/ in this branch.[32]See Antonov and Jacques (2012)[33]on the debate concerning rhotacism and lambdacism in Turkic.
- Intervocalic *d,e.g. the second consonant in the word for "foot" *hadaq
- Suffix-final -G,e.g. in the suffix *lIG, in e.g. *tāglïg
Additional isoglosses include:
- Preservation of word initial *h,e.g. in the word for "foot" *hadaq. This separates Khalaj as a peripheral language.
- Denasalisation of palatal *ń,e.g. in the word for "moon", *āń
*In the standard Istanbul dialect of Turkish, theğindağanddağlıis not realized as a consonant, but as a slight lengthening of the preceding vowel.
Members
[edit]The following table is based mainly upon the classification scheme presented byLars Johanson.[34][35]
Vocabulary comparison
[edit]The following is a brief comparison ofcognatesamong the basic vocabulary across the Turkic language family (about 60 words). Despite being cognates, some of the words may denote a different meaning.
Empty cells do not necessarily imply that a particular language is lacking a word to describe the concept, but rather that the word for the concept in that language may be formed from another stem and is not cognate with the other words in the row or that aloanwordis used in its place.
Also, there may be shifts in the meaning from one language to another, and so the "Common meaning" given is only approximate. In some cases, the form given is found only in some dialects of the language, or a loanword is much more common (e.g. in Turkish, the preferred word for "fire" is the Persian-derivedateş,whereas the nativeodis dead). Forms are given in native Latin orthographies unless otherwise noted.
Common meaning | Proto-Turkic | Old Turkic | Turkish | Azerbaijani | Karakhanid | Qashqai | Turkmen | Tatar | Karaim | Bashkir | Kazakh | Kyrgyz | Uzbek | Uyghur | Sakha/Yakut | Chuvash | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Relationship
|
father, ancestor | *ata, *kaŋ | ata, apa, qaŋ | baba, ata | baba, ata | apa, ata | bowa/ata | ata | ata, atay[g] | ata | ata, atay[h] | ata | ata | ota | ata[i] | ağa[j] | atte, aśu, aşşĕ[k] |
mother | *ana, *ög | ana, ög | ana, anne | ana | ana, ene | ana/nänä | ene | ana, äni[l] | ana | ana, inä(y)/asay[m] | ana | ene, ana[n] | ona, acha | ana[o] | iỹe[p] | anne, annü, amăşĕ[q] | |
son | *ogul | oɣul | oğul | oğul | oɣul, ohul | oğul | ogul | ul[r] | uvul | ul | ul[s] | uul[t] | oʻgʻil | oghul[u] | uol[v] | ıvăl, ul[w] | |
man | *ēr, *érkek | er | erkek | ər/erkək | erkek | kiši | erkek | ir[x] | ėr | ir, irkäk[y] | er, erkek[z] | er, erkek[aa] | erkak | er[ab] | er[ac] | ar/arśın[ad] | |
girl | *kï̄ŕ | qïz | kız | qız | qɨz | qïz/qez | gyz | qız[ae] | qɨz | qıð[af] | qyz[ag] | qız | qiz | qiz[ah] | kııs[ai] | hĕr[aj] | |
person | *kiĺi, *yạlaŋuk | kiši, yalaŋuq | kişi | kişi | kiši | kişi | keşe[ak] | kiši | keşe | kisi[al] | kişi[am] | kishi | kishi[an] | kihi[ao] | śın[ap] | ||
bride | *gélin | kelin | gelin | gəlin | qalɨŋ | gälin | gelin | kilen[aq] | kelin | kilen | kelin[ar] | kelin[as] | kelin | kelin[at] | kiyiit[au] | kin[av] | |
mother-in-law | kaynana | qaynana | qäynänä | gaýyn ene | qayın ana[aw] | qäynä[ax] | qaıyn ene[ay] | qaynene[az] | qaynona | qeyinana[ba] | huńama[bb] | ||||||
Body parts
|
heart | *yürek | yürek | yürek | ürək | jürek | iräg/üräg | ýürek | yöräk[bc] | üriak, jürek | yöräk | jürek[bd] | cürök[be] | yurak | yürek | sürex[bf] | çĕre[bg] |
blood | *kiān | qan | kan | qan | qan | qan | gan | qan[bh] | qan | qan[bi] | qan[bj] | qan | qon | qan | xaan[bk] | yun | |
head | *baĺč | baš | baş | baş | baš | baš | baş | baş | baš | baş | bas | baş | bosh | bash | bas | puś/poś | |
hair | *s(i)ač, *kïl | sač, qïl | saç, kıl | saç, qıl | sač, qɨl | tik/qel | saç, gyl | çäç, qıl | čač, sač, qɨl | säs, qıl | shash, qyl | çaç, qıl | soch, qil | sach, qil | battax, kıl | śüś, hul | |
eye | *göŕ | köz | göz | göz | köz | gez/göz | göz | küz | kioź, goz | küð | köz | köz | koʻz | köz | xarax, kös | kuś/koś | |
eyelash | *kirpik | kirpik | kirpik | kirpik | kirpik | kirpig | kirpik | kerfek | kirpik | kerpek | kirpik | kirpik | kiprik | kirpik | kılaman, kirbii | hărpăk | |
ear | *kulkak | qul QAQ | kulak | qulaq | qulaq, qul QAQ, qulxaq, qulɣaq | qulaq | gulak | qolaq | qulax | qolaq | qulaq | qulaq | quloq | qulaq | kulgaax | hălha | |
nose | *burun | burun | burun | burun | burun | burn | burun | borın | burun | moron | muryn | murun | burun | burun | murun, munnu | murun | |
arm | *kol | qol | kol | qol | qol | qol | gol | qul | kol | qul | qol | qol | qoʻl | qol | хol | hul | |
hand | *el-ig | elig | el | əl | elig | äl | el | alaqan | alaqan | ilik | ilik | ilii | ală | ||||
finger | *erŋek, *biarŋak | erŋek | parmak | barmaq | barmaq | burmaq | barmaq | barmaq | barmax | barmaq | barmaq | barmaq | barmoq | barmaq | tarbaq | pürne/porńa | |
fingernail | *dïrŋak | tïrŋaq | tırnak | dırnaq | tɨrŋaq | dïrnaq | dyrnak | tırnaq | tɨrnax | tırnaq | tyrnaq | tırmaq | tirnoq | tirnaq | tıngıraq | çĕrne | |
knee | *dīŕ, *dǖŕ | tiz | diz | diz | tizle-
(to press with one's knees) |
diz | dyz | tez | tɨz | teð | tize | tize | tizza | tiz | tobuk | çĕrśi, çerkuśśi | |
calf | *baltïr | baltïr | baldır | baldır | baldɨr | ballïr | baldyr | baltır | baldɨr | baltır | baltyr | baltır | boldir | baldir | ballır | pıl | |
foot | *(h)adak | adaq | ayak | ayaq | aδaq | ayaq | aýak | ayaq | ajax | ayaq | aıaq | but, ayaq | oyoq, adoq | ayaq | ataq | ura | |
belly | *kạrïn | qarïn | karın | qarın | qarɨn | qarn | garyn | qarın | qarɨn | qarın | qaryn | qarın | qorin | qerin | xarın | hırăm | |
Animals
|
horse | *(h)at | at | at | at | at | at | at | at | at | at | at | at | ot | at | at | ut/ot |
cattle | *dabar | ingek, tabar | inek, davar, sığır | inək, sığır | ingek, ingen; tavar | seğer | sygyr | sıyır | sɨjɨr | hıyır | siyr | uy, sıyır, inek | sigir, inak | siyir | ınax | ĕne | |
dog | *ït, *köpek | ït | it, köpek | it | ɨt | kepäg | it | et | it´ | et | ıt | it, köbök | it | it | ıt | yıtă | |
fish | *bālïk | balïq | balık | balıq | balɨq | balïq | balyk | balıq | balɨx | balıq | balyq | balıq | baliq | beliq | balık | pulă | |
louse | *bït | bit | bit | bit | bit | bit | bit | bet | bit | bet | bıt | bit | bit | bit | bıt | pıytă/puťă | |
Other nouns
|
house | *eb, *bark | eb, barq | ev, bark | ev | ev | äv | öý | öy | üy, üv | öy | üı | üy | uy | öy | śurt | |
tent | *otag, *gerekü | otaɣ, kerekü | çadır, otağ | çadır; otaq | otaɣ, kerekü | čador | çadyr; otag | çatır | oda | satır | shatyr; otau | çatır, otoo, otoq | chodir; oʻtoq | chadir; otaq | otuu | çatăr | |
way | *yōl | yol | yol | yol | jol | yol | ýol | yul | jol | yul | jol | col | yoʻl | yol | suol | śul | |
bridge | *köprüg | köprüg | köprü | körpü | köprüg | köpri | küper | kiopriu | küper | köpir | köpürö | koʻprik | kövrük | kürpe | kĕper | ||
arrow | *ok | oq | ok | ox | oq | ox/tir | ok | uq | oq | uq | oq | oq | oʻq | oq | ox | uhă | |
fire | *ōt | ōt | od, ateş (Pers.) | od | ot | ot | ot | ut | ot | ut | ot | ot | oʻt | ot | uot | vut/vot | |
ash | *kül | kül | kül | kül | kül | kil/kül | kül | köl | kul | köl | kül | kül | kul | kül | kül | kĕl | |
water | *sub, *sïb | sub | su | su | suv | su | suw | su | su | hıw | su | suu | suv | su | uu | şıv/şu | |
ship, boat | *gḗmi | kemi | gemi | gəmi | kemi | gämi | köymä | gemi | kämä | keme | keme | kema | keme | kimĕ | |||
lake | *kȫl | köl | göl | göl | köl | göl/gel | köl | kül | giol´ | kül | köl | köl | koʻl | köl | küöl | külĕ | |
sun/day | *güneĺ, *gün | kün | güneş, gün | günəş, gün | kün, qujaš | gin/gün | gün | qoyaş, kön | kujaš | qoyaş, kön | kün | kün | quyosh, kun | quyash, kün | kün | hĕvel, kun | |
cloud | *bulït | bulut | bulut | bulud | bulut | bulut | bulut | bolıt | bulut | bolot | bult | bulut | bulut | bulut | bılıt | pĕlĕt | |
star | *yultuŕ | yultuz | yıldız | ulduz | julduz | ulluz | ýyldyz | yoldız | julduz | yondoð | juldyz | cıldız | yulduz | yultuz | sulus | śăltăr | |
ground, earth | *toprak | topraq | toprak | torpaq | topraq | torpaq | toprak | tufraq | topraq, toprax | tupraq | topyraq | topuraq | tuproq | tupraq | toburax | tăpra | |
hilltop | *tepö, *töpö | töpü | tepe | təpə | tepe | depe | tübä | tebe | tübä | töbe | döbö, töbö | tepa | töpe | töbö | tüpĕ | ||
tree/wood | *ïgač | ïɣač | ağaç | ağac | jɨɣač | ağaĵ | agaç | ağaç | ahač | ağas | ağash | baq, daraq, cığaç | yogʻoch | yahach | mas | yıvăś | |
god (Tengri) | *teŋri, *taŋrï | teŋri, burqan | tanrı | tanrı | teŋri | tarï/Allah/Xoda | taňry | täñre | Tieńri | täñre | täŋiri | teñir | tangri | tengri | tangara | tură/toră | |
sky | *teŋri, *kȫk | kök, teŋri | gök | göy | kök | gey/göy | gök | kük | kök | kük | kök | kök | koʻk | kök | küöx | kăvak/koak | |
Adjectives
|
long | *uŕïn | uzun | uzun | uzun | uzun | uzun | uzyn | ozın | uzun | oðon | uzyn | uzun | uzun | uzun | uhun | vărăm |
new | *yaŋï, *yeŋi | yaŋï | yeni | yeni | jaŋɨ | yeŋi | ýaňy | yaña | jɨŋgɨ | yañı | jaña | cañı | yangi | yengi | saña | śĕnĕ | |
fat | *semiŕ | semiz | semiz, şişman | səmiz | semiz | semiz | simez | semiz | himeð | semiz | semiz | semiz | semiz | emis | samăr | ||
full | *dōlï | tolu | dolu | dolu | tolu | dolu | doly | tulı | tolɨ | tulı | toly | toluq, tolu, toluu, tolo | toʻla | toluq | toloru | tulli | |
white | *āk, *ürüŋ | āq, ürüŋ | ak, beyaz (Ar.) | ağ | aq | aq | ak | aq | aq | aq | aq | aq | oq | aq | ürüñ (үрүҥ) | şură | |
black | *kara | qara | kara, siyah (Pers.) | qara | qara | qärä | gara | qara | qara | qara | qara | qara | qora | qara | xara | hura, hora | |
red | *kïŕïl | qïzïl | kızıl, kırmızı (Ar.) | qızıl | qɨzɨl | qïzïl | gyzyl | qızıl | qɨzɨl | qıðıl | qyzyl | qızıl | qizil | qizil | kıhıl | hĕrlĕ | |
Numbers
|
1 | *bīr | bir | bir | bir | bir | bir | bir | ber | bir, bɨr | ber | bir | bir | bir | bir | biir | pĕrre |
2 | *éki | eki | iki | iki | ẹki | ikki | iki | ike | eky | ike | eki | eki | ikki | ikki | ikki | ikkĕ | |
3 | *üč | üč | üç | üç | üč | uǰ, u̇č | üç | öč | üć | ös | üş | üč | uch/u̇č | üch/üç | üs | viśśĕ, viśĕ, viś | |
4 | *dȫrt | tört | dört | dörd | tört | derd/dörd | dört | dürt | dört | dürt | tört | tört | toʻrt | tört | tüört | tăvattă | |
5 | *bēĺ(k) | béš | beş | beş | béš | bäş | beş | beš | biš | bes | beş | besh/beş | besh/beş | bies | pillĕk | ||
6 | *altï | altï | altı | altı | altï | altï | alty (altï) | altï | altï | altï | alty | altı | olti (ålti) | altä | alta | ult, ultă, ulttă | |
7 | *yéti | yeti | yedi | yeddi | jeti | yeddi | ýedi | cide | jedi | yete | jeti | ceti | yetti | yetti | sette | śiççe | |
8 | *sekiŕ | säkiz | sekiz | səkkiz | sek(k)iz, sik(k)iz | sӓkkiz | sekiz | sigez | sekiz | higeð | segiz | segiz | säkkiz | säkkiz | aɣïs | sakkăr, sakăr | |
9 | *tokuŕ | toquz | dokuz | doqquz | toquz | doġġuz | dokuz | tugïz | toɣuz | tuɣïð | toğyz | toğuz | to’qqiz | toqquz | toɣus | tăxxăr, tăxăr | |
10 | *ōn | on | on | on | on | on | on | un | on | un | on | on | oʻn | on | uon | vunnă, vună, vun | |
20 | *yẹgirmi | yigirmi/yégirmi | yirmi | iyirmi | yigirmi, yigirme | igirmi, iyirmi | yigrimi | yegerme | yigirmi | yegerme | jiyirma | cıyırma | yigirmä | yigirmä | süürbe | śirĕm | |
30 | *otuŕ | otuz | otuz | otuz | otuz | ottiz | otuz (otuð) | otuz | otuz | utïð | otyz | otuz | o’ttiz | ottuz | otut | vătăr | |
40 | *kïrk | qïrq | kırk | qırx | qïrq | ġèrḫ (ɢərx) | kyrk (kïrk) | qırq (qïrq) | kïrx | qïrq | qyryq | qırq | qirq | qirq | tüört uon | xĕrĕx | |
50 | *ellig | älig | elli | ǝlli (älli) | el(l)ig | älli, ẹlli | elli | ille | elu | elüü | |||||||
60 | *altmïĺ | altmïš | altmış | altmış (altmïš) | altmïš | altmïš | altmyş (altmïš) | altmïš | altïmïš | altïmïš | alpys | altımış | oltmish (åltmiš) | altmiš | alta uon | ultmăl | |
70 | *yẹtmiĺ | yētmiš/s | yetmiş | yetmiş | yetmiš | yetmiš | ýetmiş (yetmiš) | ǰitmeš | yetmiš/s | yetmeš | jetpis | cetimiş | yetmiš | yätmiš | sette uon | śitmĕl | |
80 | *sekiŕ ōn | säkiz on | seksen | sǝksǝn (säksän) | seksün | sӓɣsen | segsen | seksen | seksen, seksan | hikhen | seksen | seksen | sakson (säksån) | säksän | aɣïs uon | sakăr vun(ă) | |
90 | *dokuŕ ōn | toquz on | doksan | doxsan | toqsan | togsan | tuksan | toksan, toxsan | tukhan | toqsan | toqson | to'qson (tȯksån) | toqsan | toɣus uon | tăxăr vun(ă), tăxăr vunnă | ||
100 | *yǖŕ | yüz | yüz | yüz | jüz | iz/yüz | ýüz | yöz | jiz, juz, jüz | yöð | jüz | cüz | yuz | yüz | süüs | śĕr | |
1000 | *bïŋ | bïŋ | bin | min | miŋ, men | min | müň (müŋ) | meŋ | min, bin | meŋ | myñ | miñ | ming (miŋ) | miŋ | tïhïïnča | pin | |
Common meaning | Proto-Turkic | Old Turkic | Turkish | Azerbaijani | Karakhanid | Qashqai | Turkmen | Tatar | Karaim | Bashkir | Kazakh | Kyrgyz | Uzbek | Uyghur | Sakha/Yakut | Chuvash |
Azerbaijani "ǝ" and "ä": IPA /æ/
Azerbaijani "q": IPA /g/, word-final "q": IPA /x/
Turkish and Azerbaijani "ı", Karakhanid "ɨ", Turkmen "y", and Sakha "ï": IPA /ɯ/
Turkmen "ň", Karakhanid "ŋ": IPA /ŋ/
Turkish and Azerbaijani "y",Turkmen "ý" and "j" in other languages: IPA /j/
All "ş" and "š" letters: IPA /ʃ/
All "ç" and "č" letters: IPA /t͡ʃ/
Kyrgyz "c": IPA /d͡ʒ/
Kazakh "j": IPA /ʒ/
Other possible relations
[edit]The Turkic language family is currently regarded as one of the world's primarylanguage families.[10]Turkic is one of the main members of the controversialAltaic language family,but Altaic currently lacks support from a majority of linguists. None of the theories linking Turkic languages to other families have a wide degree of acceptance at present. Shared features with languages grouped together as Altaic have been interpreted by most mainstream linguists to be the result of asprachbund.[54]
Rejected or controversial theories
[edit]Korean
[edit]The possibility of a genetic relation between Turkic andKorean,independently from Altaic, is suggested by some linguists.[55][56][57]The linguist Kabak (2004) of theUniversity of Würzburgstates that Turkic and Korean share similarphonologyas well asmorphology.Li Yong-Sŏng (2014)[56]suggest that there are severalcognatesbetween Turkic andOld Korean.He states that these supposed cognates can be useful to reconstruct the early Turkic language. According to him, words related to nature, earth andrulingbut especially to theskyandstarsseem to be cognates.
The linguist Choi[57]suggested already in 1996 a close relationship between Turkic and Korean regardless of any Altaic connections:
In addition, the fact that the morphological elements are not easily borrowed between languages, added to the fact that the common morphological elements between Korean and Turkic are not less numerous than between Turkic and other Altaic languages, strengthens the possibility that there is a close genetic affinity between Korean and Turkic.
— Choi Han-Woo, A Comparative Study of Korean and Turkic (Hoseo University)
Many historians also point out a close non-linguistic relationship betweenTurkic peoplesandKoreans.[58]Especially close were the relations between theGöktürksandGoguryeo.[59]
Uralic
[edit]Some linguists suggested a relation toUralic languages,especially to theUgric languages.This view is rejected and seen as obsolete by mainstream linguists. Similarities are because of language contact and borrowings mostly from Turkic into Ugric languages. Stachowski (2015) states that any relation between Turkic and Uralic must be a contact one.[60]
See also
[edit]- Altaic languages
- List of Turkic languages
- List of Turkic-languages poets
- List of Ukrainian words of Turkic origin
- Middle Turkic languages
- Old Turkic
- Old Turkic script
- Proto-Turkic language
Notes
[edit]- ^Nikolai Baskakovand some others believe that the Kyrgyz–Kipchak subgroup originally belonged to the Siberian group, but was significantly influenced by the Kipchak languages and can now be included in the Kipchak group.[40][41][42]
- ^Lars Johanson once considered Kyrgyz language to be a member of South Kipchak.(Johanson 1998)
- ^Äynu contains a very largePersianvocabulary component, and is spoken exclusively by adult men, almost as acryptolect.
- ^Lars Johanson once classified South Siberian group into 4 subgroups (Sayan Turkic, Yenisei Turkic, Chulym Turkic and Altai Turkic). Sayan Turkic consisted of Tuvan (Soyot, Uriankhai) and Tofa (Karagas). Yenisei Turkic consisted of Khakas, Shor and related dialects (Saghay, Qaca, Qizil). Chulym Turkic consisted of dialects such as Küerik. Altai Turkic consisted of Altay (Oirot) and dialects such as Tuba, Qumanda, Qu, Teleut, Telengit. (Johanson 1998)
- ^According to Lars Johanson, Fuyu Kyrgyz is considered to be closely related to Khakas.
- ^Nikolai Baskakovand some others considered Southern Altai language to be a member of Kyrgyz-Kipchak subgroup.[40][41][42]
- ^Cyrillic: ата, атай
- ^Cyrillic: ата, атай
- ^UEY: ئاتا
- ^Cyrillic: аҕа
- ^Cyrillic: атте, аҫу, ашшӗ
- ^Cyrillic: ана, әни
- ^Cyrillic: ана, инә(й)/асай
- ^Cyrillic: эне, ана
- ^UEY: ئانا
- ^IPA/ij̃e/.Cyrillic: ийэ. Thenasal glide/j̃/is not distinguished fromoral glide/j/in orthography.
- ^Cyrillic: анне, аннӳ, амӑшӗ
- ^Cyrillic: ул
- ^Cyrillic: ұл
- ^Cyrillic: уул
- ^UEY: ئوغۇل
- ^Cyrillic: уол
- ^Cyrillic: ывӑл, ул
- ^Cyrillic: ир
- ^Cyrillic: ир, иркәк
- ^Cyrillic: ер, еркек
- ^Cyrillic: эр, эркек
- ^UEY: ئەر
- ^Cyrillic: эр
- ^Cyrillic: ар/арҫын
- ^Cyrillic: кыз
- ^Cyrillic: ҡыҙ
- ^Cyrillic: қыз
- ^UEY: قىز
- ^Cyrillic: кыыс
- ^Cyrillic: хӗр
- ^Cyrillic: кеше
- ^Cyrillic: кісі
- ^Cyrillic: киши
- ^UEY: كىشى
- ^Cyrillic: киһи
- ^Cyrillic: ҫын
- ^Cyrillic: килен
- ^Cyrillic: келін
- ^Cyrillic: келин
- ^UEY: كەلىن
- ^Cyrillic: кийиит
- ^Cyrillic: кин
- ^Cyrillic: кайын ана
- ^Cyrillic: ҡәйнә
- ^Cyrillic: қайын ене
- ^Cyrillic: кайнене
- ^UEY: قەيىنانا
- ^Cyrillic: хунама
- ^Cyrillic: йөрәк
- ^Cyrillic: жүрек
- ^Cyrillic: жүрөк
- ^Cyrillic: сүрэх
- ^Cyrillic: чӗре
- ^Cyrillic: кан
- ^Cyrillic: ҡан
- ^Cyrillic: қан
- ^Cyrillic: хаан
References
[edit]- ^abRybatzki, Volker (2020). "Altaic Languages: Tungusic, Mongolic, Turkic". In Martine Robbeets; Alexander Savelyev (eds.).The Oxford Guide to the Transeurasian Languages.Oxford University Press. pp. 22–28.doi:10.1093/oso/9780198804628.003.0003.
- ^Dybo A.V. (2007)."ХРОНОЛОГИЯ ТЮРКСКИХ ЯЗЫКОВ И ЛИНГВИСТИЧЕСКИЕ КОНТАКТЫ РАННИХ ТЮРКОВ"[Chronology of Turkish Languages and Linguistic Contacts of Early Turks](PDF)(in Russian). p. 766. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 11 March 2005.Retrieved1 April2020.
- ^Janhunen, Juha(2013)."Personal pronouns in Core Altaic".In Martine Irma Robbeets; Hubert Cuyckens (eds.).Shared Grammaticalization: With Special Focus on the Transeurasian Languages.John Benjamins. p. 223.ISBN9789027205995.Archivedfrom the original on 15 January 2023.Retrieved19 April2017.
- ^abcKatzner, Kenneth(March 2002).Languages of the World, Third Edition.Routledge, an imprint of Taylor & Francis Books Ltd.ISBN978-0-415-25004-7.
- ^Grenoble, L.A. (2003).Language Policy in the Soviet Union.Springer. p. 10.ISBN9781402012983.
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- ^Georg, Stefan; Michalove, Peter A.; Ramer, Alexis Manaster; Sidwell, Paul J. (1999). "Telling general linguists about Altaic".Journal of Linguistics.35(1): 65–98.doi:10.1017/S0022226798007312.JSTOR4176504.S2CID144613877.
- ^Sinor, 1988, p.710
- ^abGeorge van DRIEM: Handbuch der Orientalistik. Volume 1 Part 10. BRILL 2001. Page 336
- ^M. A. Castrén, Nordische Reisen und Forschungen. V, St.-Petersburg, 1849
- ^Standish, Russell K.; Bedau, Mark; Abbass, Hussein A. (25 August 2023).Artificial Life 8.MIT Press. p. 391.ISBN9780262692816.
- ^Yunusbayev, Bayazit; Metspalu, Mait; Metspalu, Ene; et al. (21 April 2015)."The Genetic Legacy of the Expansion of Turkic-Speaking Nomads across Eurasia".PLOS Genetics.11(4): e1005068.doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1005068.ISSN1553-7390.PMC4405460.PMID25898006.
The origin and early dispersal history of the Turkic peoples is disputed, with candidates for their ancient homeland ranging from the Transcaspian steppe to Manchuria in Northeast Asia,
- ^Yunusbayev, Bayazit; Metspalu, Mait; Metspalu, Ene; et al. (21 April 2015)."The Genetic Legacy of the Expansion of Turkic-Speaking Nomads across Eurasia".PLOS Genetics.11(4): e1005068.doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1005068.ISSN1553-7390.PMC4405460.PMID25898006.
Thus, our study provides the first genetic evidence supporting one of the previously hypothesized IAHs to be near Mongolia and South Siberia.
- ^Blench, Roger; Spriggs, Matthew (2003).Archaeology and Language II: Archaeological Data and Linguistic Hypotheses.Routledge. p. 203.ISBN9781134828692.Archivedfrom the original on 15 January 2023.Retrieved9 April2020.
- ^Golden, Peter Benjamin (2011). "Ethnogenesis in the tribal zone: The Shaping of the Turks".Studies on the peoples and cultures of the Eurasian steppes.Archived26 October 2020 at theWayback Machine.Bucureşti: Ed. Acad. Române. pp. 35–37.
- ^Clark, Larry V. (1980). "Turkic Loanwords in Mongol, I: The Treatment of Non-initial S, Z, Š, Č".Central Asiatic Journal.24(1/2): 36–59.JSTOR41927278.
- ^Rachewiltz, Igor de.Introduction to Altaic philology: Turkic, Mongolian, Manchu/ by Igor de Rachewiltz and Volker Rybatzki; with the collaboration of Hung Chin-fu. p. cm. — (Handbook of Oriental Studies = Handbuch der Orientalistik. Section 8, Central Asia; 20). — Leiden; Boston, 2010. — P. 7.
- ^Johanson, Lars; Johanson, Éva Ágnes Csató (29 April 2015).The Turkic Languages.Routledge.ISBN9781136825279.Archivedfrom the original on 15 January 2023.Retrieved22 November2020.
- ^Soucek, Svat (March 2000).A History of Inner Asia.Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-65169-1.
- ^Johanson, Lars; Csató, Éva Á, eds. (2021).The Turkic Languages.Routledge.doi:10.4324/9781003243809.ISBN9781003243809.
Another Turkic people in the Volga area are the Chuvash, who, like the Tatars, regard themselves as descendants of the Volga Bulghars in the historical and cultural sense. It is clear that Chuvash belongs to the Oghur branch of Turkic, as the language of the Volga Bulghars did, but no direct evidence for diachronic development between the two has been established. As there were several distinct Oghur languages in the Middle Ages, Volga Bulghar could represent one of these and Chuvash another.
- ^Agyagási, K. (2020)."A Volga Bulgarian Classifier: A Historical and Areal Linguistic Study".University of Debrecen.3:9.
Modern Chuvash is the only descendant language of the Ogur branch.The ancestors of its speakers left the Khazar Empire in the 8th century and migrated to the region at the confluence of the Volga and Kama rivers, where they founded the Volga Bulgarian Empire in the 10th century. In the central Volga region three Volga Bulgarian dialects developed, and Chuvash is the descendant of the 3rd dialect of Volga Bulgarian (Agyagási 2019: 160–183). Sources refer to it as a separate language beginning with 1508
- ^Poppe, Nicolas J. (1966)."A Survey of Studies of Turkic Loan-Words in the Russian Language".Central Asiatic Journal.11(4): 287–310.ISSN0008-9192.JSTOR41926932.Archivedfrom the original on 28 November 2021.Retrieved28 November2021.
- ^Findley, Carter V. (October 2004).The Turks in World History.Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-517726-8.
- ^Turkic Language treeArchived14 September 2012 at theWayback Machineentries provide the information on the Turkic-speaking regions.
- ^Johanson, Lars (2001).Discoveries on the Turkic linguistic map.Stockholm: Swedish Research Institute in Istanbul.ISBN91-86884-10-7.Retrieved17 July2024.
- ^abLars Johanson, The History of Turkic. In Lars Johanson & Éva Ágnes Csató (eds), The Turkic Languages, London, New York: Routledge, 81–125, 1998.Classification of Turkic languagesArchived8 April 2011 at theWayback Machine
- ^See the main article onLir-Turkic.
- ^Gordon, Raymond G. Jr., ed. (2005)."Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Language Family Trees – Turkic".Archivedfrom the original on 14 September 2012.Retrieved18 March2007.The reliability ofEthnologuelies mainly in its statistics whereas its framework for the internal classification of Turkic is still based largely on Baskakov (1962) and the collective work in Deny et al. (1959–1964). A more up-to-date alternative to classifying these languages on internal comparative grounds is to be found in the work of Johanson and his co-workers.
- ^Hruschka, Daniel J.; Branford, Simon; Smith, Eric D.; Wilkins, Jon; Meade, Andrew; Pagel, Mark; Bhattacharya, Tanmoy (2015)."Detecting Regular Sound Changes in Linguistics as Events of Concerted Evolution 10.1016/j.cub.2014.10.064".Current Biology.25(1): 1–9.doi:10.1016/j.cub.2014.10.064.PMC4291143.PMID25532895.
- ^Самойлович, А. Н.(1922).Некоторые дополнения к классификации турецких языков(in Russian). Archived fromthe originalon 19 July 2018.Retrieved19 July2018.
- ^Larry Clark, "Chuvash", inThe Turkic Languages,eds. Lars Johanson & Éva Ágnes Csató (London–NY: Routledge, 2006), 434–452.
- ^Anton Antonov & Guillaume Jacques,"Turkic kümüš 'silver' and the lambdaism vs sigmatism debate"Archived15 January 2023 at theWayback Machine,Turkic Languages15, no. 2 (2012): 151–70.
- ^Lars Johanson,"The classification of the Turkic languages"Archived15 January 2023 at theWayback Machine,in Martine Robbeets and Alexander Savelyev (eds.),The Oxford Guide to the Transeurasian Languages,2020, Oxford University Press, pp. 105–114
- ^abcd"turcologica".Archivedfrom the original on 8 April 2011.Retrieved18 June2021.
- ^Deviating. Historically developed from Southwestern (Oghuz) (Johanson 1998)[1]Archived8 April 2011 at theWayback Machine
- ^abcJohanson, Lars & Éva Agnes Csató (ed.). 1998. The Turkic languages. London: Routledge. 82-83p.
- ^UrumArchived4 December 2020 at theWayback Machine– Glottolog
- ^KrymchakArchived7 July 2021 at theWayback Machine– Glottolog
- ^abcBaskakov, N. A.(1958). "La Classification des Dialectes de la Langue Turque d'Altaï".Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae(in French).8:9–15.ISSN0001-6446.
- ^abcBaskakov, N. A.(1969).Введение в изучение тюркских языков[Introduction to the study of the Turkic languages] (in Russian). Moscow: Nauka.
- ^abcKormushin, I. V. (2018)."Алтайский язык"[Altai language].Большая российская энциклопедия/Great Russian EncyclopediaOnline(in Russian).Archivedfrom the original on 27 July 2021.Retrieved31 July2021.
- ^Ili TurkiArchived20 June 2021 at theWayback Machine– Glottolog
- ^Rassadin, V.I."The Soyot Language".Endangered Languages of Indigenous Peoples of Siberia.UNESCO.Archivedfrom the original on 3 May 2006.Retrieved18 July2021.
- ^"Northern Altai".ELPEndangered Languages Project.Archivedfrom the original on 25 November 2022.Retrieved16 July2021.
- ^"Kumandin".ELPEndangered Languages Project.Archivedfrom the original on 27 November 2021.Retrieved15 July2021.
- ^Bitkeeva, A.N."The Kumandin Language".Endangered Languages of Indigenous Peoples of Siberia.UNESCO.Archivedfrom the original on 11 July 2021.Retrieved16 July2021.
- ^Tazranova, A.R."The Chelkan Language".Endangered Languages of Indigenous Peoples of Siberia.UNESCO.Archivedfrom the original on 11 July 2021.Retrieved16 July2021.
- ^Nevskaya, I.A."The Teleut Language".Endangered Languages of Indigenous Peoples of Siberia.UNESCO.Archivedfrom the original on 11 July 2021.Retrieved16 July2021.
- ^Coene 2009Archived15 January 2023 at theWayback Machine,p. 75
- ^Brown, Keith; Ogilvie, Sarah, eds. (2010).Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World(revised ed.). Elsevier. p. 1109.ISBN978-0080877754.Archivedfrom the original on 15 January 2023.Retrieved24 April2014.
- ^Johanson, Lars, ed. (1998).The Mainz Meeting: Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on Turkish Linguistics, August 3–6, 1994.Turcologica Series. Contributor Éva Ágnes Csató. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 28.ISBN978-3447038645.Archivedfrom the original on 15 January 2023.Retrieved24 April2014.
- ^In Glottolog, Western Yugur is classified as Enisei-East Siberian Turkic.
- ^Janhunen, Juha A. (17 January 2023)."The Unity and Diversity of Altaic".Annual Review of Linguistics.9(1): 135–154.doi:10.1146/annurev-linguistics-030521-042356.hdl:10138/355895.ISSN2333-9683.S2CID256126714.
- ^Sibata, Takesi (1979). "Some syntactic similarities between Turkish, Korean, and Japanese".Central Asiatic Journal.23(3/4): 293–296.ISSN0008-9192.JSTOR41927271.
- ^abSOME STAR NAMES IN MODERN TURKIC LANGUAGES-I – Yong-Sŏng LI – Academy of Korean Studies Grant funded by the Korean Government (MEST) (AKS-2010-AGC-2101) – Seoul National University 2014
- ^abChoi, Han-Woo (1996)."A comparative study of Korean and Turkic: Is Korean Altaic?"(PDF).International Journal of Central Asian Studies.1.Archived(PDF)from the original on 12 December 2019.Retrieved24 April2019.
- ^Babayar, Gaybullah (2004)."On the ancient relations between the Turkic and Korean peoples"(PDF).Journal of Turkic Civilization Studies(1): 151–155. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 13 July 2019.Retrieved24 April2019.
- ^Tae-Don, Noh (2016)."Relations between ancient Korea and Turkey: An examination of contacts between Koguryŏ and the Turkic Khaganate".Seoul Journal of Korean Studies.29(2): 361–369.doi:10.1353/seo.2016.0017.hdl:10371/164838.ISSN2331-4826.S2CID151445857.Archivedfrom the original on 24 April 2019.Retrieved24 April2019.
- ^Stachowski, Marek (2015)."Turkic pronouns against a Uralic background".Iran and the Caucasus.19(1): 79–86.doi:10.1163/1573384X-20150106.ISSN1609-8498.Archivedfrom the original on 24 November 2021.Retrieved24 April2019.
Further reading
[edit]- Akhatov G. Kh.1960. "About the stress in the language of the Siberian Tatars in connection with the stress of modern Tatar literary language".- Sat * "Problems of Turkic and the history of Russian Oriental Studies." Kazan.(in Russian)
- Akhatov G.Kh. 1963. "Dialect West Siberian Tatars" (monograph). Ufa.(in Russian)
- Baskakov, N. A.(1962, 1969).Introduction to the study of the Turkic languages.Moscow.(in Russian)
- Boeschoten, Hendrik & Lars Johanson. 2006.Turkic languages in contact.Turcologica, Bd. 61. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.ISBN3-447-05212-0
- Clausen, Gerard. 1972.An etymological dictionary of pre-thirteenth-century Turkish.Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Deny, Jean et al. 1959–1964.Philologiae Turcicae Fundamenta.Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
- Dolatkhah, Sohrab. 2016.Parlons qashqay.In: collection "parlons".Paris:L'Harmattan.
- Dolatkhah, Sohrab. 2016. Le qashqay: langue turcique d'Iran. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (online).
- Dolatkhah, Sohrab. 2015. Qashqay Folktales. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform (online).
- Johanson, Lars & Éva Agnes Csató (ed.). 2022.The Turkic Languages.Second edition. London: Routledge.ISBN978-0-415-73856-9.
- Johanson, Lars. 2022. "The history of Turkic." In: Johanson & Csató, pp. 83–120.[2]Archived8 April 2011 at theWayback Machine
- Johanson, Lars. 1998. "Turkic languages." In:Encyclopædia Britannica.CD 98. Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 5 sept. 2007.[3]Archived23 June 2008 at theWayback Machine
- Menges, K. H. 1968.The Turkic languages and peoples: An introduction to Turkic studies.Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
- Öztopçu, Kurtuluş. 1996. Dictionary of the Turkic languages: English, Azerbaijani, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Tatar, Turkish, Turkmen, Uighur, Uzbek. London: Routledge.ISBN0-415-14198-2
- Samoilovich, A. N. 1922.Some additions to the classification of the Turkish languages.Petrograd.
- Savelyev, Alexander andMartine Robbeets.(2019). lexibank/savelyevturkic: Turkic Basic Vocabulary Database (Version v1.0) [Data set]. Zenodo.doi:10.5281/zenodo.3556518
- Schönig, Claus. 1997–1998. "A new attempt to classify the Turkic languages I-III."Turkic Languages1:1.117–133, 1:2.262–277, 2:1.130–151.
- Schönig, Claus. "The Internal Division of Modern Turkic and Its Historical Implications". In:Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae,vol. 52, no. 1, 1999, pp. 63–95. JSTOR,http:// jstor.org/stable/43391369Archived3 January 2023 at theWayback Machine.Accessed 3 Jan. 2023.
- Starostin, Sergei A.,Anna V. Dybo, and Oleg A. Mudrak. 2003.Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages.Leiden: Brill.ISBN90-04-13153-1
- Voegelin, C.F. & F.M. Voegelin. 1977.Classification and index of the World's languages.New York: Elsevier.
External links
[edit]![](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png)
- Interactive map of Turkic languages
- Turkic Languages Verb Comparison
- Turkic Language Portal (English)
- Turkic Inscriptions of Orkhon Valley, MongoliaArchived2 October 2017 at theWayback Machine
- Turkic Languages: Resources – University of Michigan
- Map of Turkic languagesbyGoethe University Frankfurt
- Classification of Turkic LanguagesbyLars Johanson
- Grouping chart of Turkic Languages
- Online Uyghur–English Dictionary
- Turkic languagesatCurlie
- Turkic language vocabulary comparison tool / dictionary
- Pauctledictionaries of various Turkic Languages and games for learning words byPamukkale University
- A Comparative Dictionary of Turkic LanguagesOpen Project
- The Turkic Languages in a NutshellArchived12 January 2014 at theWayback Machinewith illustrations.
- Turkic basic vocabulariesatZenodo
- Monumenta AltaicaArchived26 June 2022 at theWayback Machine(Grammar and other sources byRussian Academy of Sciences)
- Turkic Interlingua(NLPproject for Turkic languages)
- Turkic Databaseat Elegant Lexicon (Comprehensive lexical database for Turkic languages)
- TurkLang ConferenceArchived22 June 2022 at theWayback Machine:Astana, Kazakhstan, 2013,Istanbul, Turkey, 2014Archived24 February 2021 at theWayback Machine,Kazan, Tatarstan, 2015