Jump to content

Tyre, Lebanon

Coordinates:33°16′15″N35°11′46″E/ 33.27083°N 35.19611°E/33.27083; 35.19611
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected fromTyros)
"Tyros" redirects here. For the town in Arcadia, seeTyros, Greece.

Tyr
صور
Tyre, Tyr, Sur, Sour
City
Tyre
Arabic transcription(s)
• LatinṢūr
The Egyptian harbour with the submerged ancient columns with the skyline of the modern city in the background, aerial view of Tyre.
Tyr is located in Lebanon
Tyr
Tyr
Coordinates:33°16′15″N35°11′46″E/ 33.27083°N 35.19611°E/33.27083; 35.19611
CountryLebanon
GovernorateSouth Governorate
DistrictTyre
MunicipalitiesAbbassieh,Ain Baal,Borj Ech Chemali,Sour
Establishedc. 2750 BCE
Area
• City4 km2(2 sq mi)
• Metro
17 km2(7 sq mi)
Population
• City60,000
•Metro
174,000
DemonymTyrian
Time zoneUTC+2(EET)
• Summer (DST)UTC+3(EEST)
TypeCultural
Criteriaiii, vi
Designated1984(8thsession)
Reference no.299

Tyre(/ˈtaɪər/;Arabic:صُور,romanized:Ṣūr;Phoenician:𐤑𐤓,romanized:Ṣūr;Greek:Τύρος,translit.Týros) orTyr, Sur, or Souris a city inLebanon,one of theoldest continuously inhabited citiesin the world,[1]though in medieval times for some centuries by just a small population. It was one of the earliestPhoenicianmetropolisesand the legendary birthplace ofEuropa,her brothersCadmusandPhoenix,as well asCarthage's founderDido(Elissa). The city has many ancient sites, including theTyre Hippodrome,and was added as a whole to the list ofUNESCOWorld Heritage Sitesin 1984.[2]The historianErnest Renannoted that "One can call Tyre a city of ruins, built out of ruins".[3][4]

Today, Tyre is the fourth largest city in Lebanon afterBeirut,Tripoli,andSidon.[5]It is the capital of theTyre Districtin theSouth Governorate.There were approximately 200,000 inhabitants in the Tyre urban area in 2016, including manyrefugees,as the city hosts three of the twelvePalestinian refugee campsin Lebanon:Burj El Shimali,El Buss,andRashidieh.[6]

Territory[edit]

Map

Tyre juts out from the coast of theMediterranean Sea,and is located about 80 km (50 mi) south ofBeirut.It originally consisted of two distinct urban centres: Tyre itself, which was on an island just 500 to 700m offshore, and the associated settlement ofUshuon the adjacent mainland, later calledPalaetyrus,meaning "Old Tyre" inAncient Greek.[7]The fortified city was on top of a rock from which its name was inherited as "S‘r"is the Phoenician word for" rock ". It had two ports, the" Sidonian port "to the north, still partly existing today, and the" Egyptian port "to the south which has perhaps been discovered very recently.[8]

Rocky islands off Tyre

Throughout history fromprehistoric timesonwards, all settlements in the Tyre area profited from the abundance offresh watersupplies, especially from the nearbyspringsof Rashidieh andRas Al Ainin the South. In addition, there are the springs of Al Bagbog and Ain Ebreen in the North as well as theLitani River,also known as Alqasymieh.[9]The present city of Tyre covers a large part of the original island and has expanded onto and covers most of thecausewaybuilt byAlexander the Greatin 332BCE.[10]Thisisthmusincreased greatly in width over the centuries because of extensive silt depositions on either side. The part of the original island not covered by the modern city of Tyre is mostly of an archaeological site showcasing remains of the city from ancient times.

Four municipalities contribute to Tyre city's 16.7 km2built-up area, though none are included in their entirety: Sour municipality contains the heart of the city, excluding the Natural and Coastal Reserve; Burj El Shimali to the East without unpopulated agricultural lands; Abbasiyet Sour to the North without agricultural lands and a dislocated village; andAin Baalto the South-East, also without agricultural lands and dislocated villages. Tyre's urban area lies on a fertile coastal plain, which explains the fact that as of 2017 about 44% of its territory was used for intra-urban agriculture, while built-up land constituted over 40%.[6]

In terms ofgeomorphologyandseismicity,Tyre is close to the Roum Fault and theYammounehFault.Though it has suffered a number of devastating earthquakes over themillennia,the threat level is considered to be low in most places and moderate in a few others. However, atsunamifollowing an earthquake and subsequentlandslidesand floods pose major natural risks to the Tyrian population.[6]

Vast reserves of natural gas are estimated to lie beneath Lebanese waters, much of it off Tyre's coast, butexploitationhas been delayed byborder disputeswith Israel.[11]

Etymology[edit]

Early names of Tyre includeAkkadianṢurru,PhoenicianṢūr(𐤑𐤓‎), andHebrewṢōr(צוֹר).[12]InSemitic languages,the name of the city means "rock"[13]after the rocky formation on which the town was originally built.

The predominant form inClassical GreekwasTýros(Τύρος), which was first seen in the works ofHerodotusbut may have been adopted considerably earlier.[12]It gave rise toLatinTyrus,which enteredEnglishduring theMiddle Englishperiod asTyre.[14]Thedemonymfor Tyre isTyrian,and the inhabitants areTyrians.

Climate[edit]

A22° haloover Al Mina site, 2019

Tyre has aHot-summer mediterranean climate(classified asCsaunder theKöppen climate classification), characterized by six months of drought from May to October. On average, it has 300 days ofsuna year and a yearly temperature of 20.8°C.The average maximum temperature reaches its highest at 30.8 °C in August and the average minimum temperature its lowest at 10 °C in January. On average, the mean annualprecipitationreaches up to 645 mm. The temperature of thesea waterreaches a minimum of 17 °C in February and a maximum of 32 °C in August. At a depth of 70 m it is constantly at 17–18 °C.[15]

Meanwhile,rising sea levelsdue toglobal warmingthreatencoastal erosionto Tyre's peninsula and bay areas.[16]

History[edit]

Main article:History of Tyre, Lebanon

The ancient city of Tyre is located along the coast ofPhoeniciain modern Lebanon. The site has been occupied since theBronze Age.[17]The city became a prominent Phoenician city-state between the 9th and 6th centuries BCE, settling prestigious colonies around the Mediterranean Sea, such asCarthageandLeptis Magna.[18]It went under Persian rule in 572 BCE, before being conquered byAlexander the Greatin 332 BCE. Monumental archaeological remains dated from the subsequentHellenistic,Roman,Byzantine,andMedievalperiods led to its inscription on its archaeological remains on theUNESCOWorld’s Heritage list in 1984.

The Roman historianJustinwrote that the original founders arrived from the nearby city ofSidonin the quest to establish a new harbour. The famous Greek historianHerodotus(c. 484–425 BCE), born in the city ofHalicarnassus,visited Tyre around 450 BCE at the end of theGreco-Persian Wars(499–449 BCE), and wrote in hisHistoriesthat according to the priests there, the city was founded 2300 years earlier (around 2750 BCE),[19]as a walled place upon the mainland, now known asPaleotyre(Old Tyre).

The Phoenician Tyrians' international trade network was based on its two harbours which are mentioned by ancient writers (Arrian, Anabasis, 2, 24; Strabo, Geography, 16,2,23).[20][21]The northern harbour opened toward the Phoenician city ofSidonand has been therefore referred to as the “Sidonian Harbour” by 19th and 20th century scholars, but it was referred to as the "Port of Astronoe" during Late Antiquity.[22]The southern harbour opened towardEgyptand was referred to as the “Egyptian Harbour”. The location of the two harbours has been the subject of speculations since the 17th Century.[23]The submarine excavation of a large, 4-6th Century BCE breakwater north of the city,[24][25]and the discovery of 250 BCE to 500 CE harbour sediments behind this breakwater[26]demonstrated the existence of a northern harbour repeatedly, if not permanently, throughout Antiquity under the modern harbour of Tyre.

The location of the southern harbour is more elusive. Renan (1864–1874) envisioned it as an extensive structure now located offshore, south of the former island. Subsequent diving surveys identified submerged man-made structures on the seafloor within 150 m of the former island.[27][28]Antoine Poidebard, who was the first to have them explored by divers in 1939, saw in these structures former breakwaters enclosing a harbour with two entrances.[29]The geographic area enclosed within these structures is therefore often referred to as the “Southern Harbour”. These structures have also been interpreted as a polder-like area protecting an urban district (El-Amouri et al., 2005; Frost, 1971; Renan, 1864–1874). A Phoenician-style breakwater was recently found within this area, but excavation is needed to confirm its age ascription.[30]Harbour sediments found behind the structure suggest that the breakwater was part of the Egyptian harbour.[31][32]Harbour sediments found near Hiram's Tower, further north, mark an early location of the Sidonian Harbour.[31]

The development of Tyre was profoundly affected by the construction of acausewaybuilt byAlexander the Greatin 332 BCE to seize the city.[10]This reportedly 750 m-long[33]and 60 m-wide causeway was laid over a submarineshoalless than 5.4 m deep.[34]This shoal was interpreted as a sandbank (also called a ‘salient’), formed by the accretion of sand in the lee of the island, under the effects of the refraction and diffraction of waves around the island. The causeway interrupted longshore sand transport, forcing sand to accumulate along the causeway, rapidly creating an emerged sandy isthmus (ortombolo), linking the island to the mainland.[35][36]

This sandy isthmus rapidly inflated during the centuries following the construction of the causeway. By early Imperial Roman times, monumental buildings had been built over most of its surface. Their layout implies that the isthmus was by then nearly as wide as today. Therefore, the isthmus had completely reshaped the eastern coast of Tyre Island within 6-10 centuries after the construction of the causeway, spurring a radical transformation of the city.

Coast Nature Reserve[edit]

A sea turtle off Tyre's Southern bay
Agreen sea turtlediving through submerged antiquities (Quay of the Spring)

Tyre enjoys a reputation of having some of the cleanest beaches and waters of Lebanon.[37][38]However, a UN HABITAT profile found that "seawater is also polluted due to wastewater discharge especially in the port area".[6]There is still also considerable pollution by solid waste.[39]

APalestine sunbirdonTecoma capensisnear Al Mina

TheTyre Coast Nature Reserve(TCNR) was decreed in 1998 by theMinistry of Public Works.It is 3.5 km (2.2 mi) long and covers over 380 hectares (940 acres). The TCNR is within the best preserved stretch of sandy coastline in southern Lebanon and divided into two section zones: a 1.8km sand lined beach, 1.8 km long and 500 meters wide-ranging from the Tyre Rest House in the north to the Rashidieh Refugee Camp in the South, and a stretch of 2 km with agriculture lands of small family farms and the springs of Ras El Ain with three constantly flowingartesian wells,ranging from Rashidieh to the village of Chaetiyeh in the South.[15]

The former is divided into two zones: one for tourism that features a public beach of some 900 m and restaurant tents during the summer season hosting up to 20,000 visitors on a busy day, and another 900 m of conservation zone as a sanctuary for sea turtles and migrating birds.[39]

Due to its diversefloraandfauna,the reserve was designated aRamsar Sitein 1999 according to the internationaltreatyfor the conservation and sustainable use ofWetlands,since it is considered "the lastbio-geographicecosystemin Lebanon ". It is an important nesting site formigratory birds,the endangeredLoggerheadandgreen sea turtle,theArabian spiny mouseand many other creatures (includingwall lizards,common pipistrelle,andEuropean badger).[40][41]Also, there are frequent sighting of dolphins in the waters off Tyre.[42]Altogether, the TCNR includes:

275speciesdistributed over 50 families. In addition, the reserve is home to seven regionally and nationallythreatened species,4endemicand 10rare species,whilst 59 species are restricted to the Eastern Mediterranean area. It is also worthy to indicate that, severalbio-indicatorspecies as well as 25medicinalspecies were recognized. TCNR encloses flora species belonging to the various habitats: the sandy shore, rocky shore,littoralandFreshwater ecosystems.A wide number ofGramineae,Fabaceae,AsteraceaeandUmbellifereaefamilies dominate the floristic resources.[15]

However, the biodiversity of the TCNR is threatened as shown by a strong decrease in the numbers of the caspianterrapinMauremys caspica,the greentoadBufo viridisand thetree frogHyla savigny.Also, since the 2000s, the North American camphorweedHeterotheca subaxillarishas invaded the TCNR as aneophytefrom Haifa across the Blue Line.[15]

During the 2006 war, turtle breeding areas were affected when the IDF bombed the conservation site.[43]

Theoil spillwhich devastated the coast north ofAshkelonin February 2021 also contaminated Tyre's beaches.[44]

Historical and cultural heritage[edit]

Sign marking Tyre according to the 1954Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict.Note the ruins of the Mamluk House (left) which has been rehabilitated since.

Arguably the most lasting Phoenician legacy for the Tyrian population has been the linguistic mark that theSyriacandAkkadianlanguages have left on the Arabic spoken in the region of Tyre.[45][full citation needed]Most notably, the widely used term "Ba'ali" – which is used especially to describe vegetables and fruits from rain-fed, untreated agricultural production – originates from the Baal religion.[46]The Tyrian municipality ofAin Baalis apparently also named after the Phoenician deity.[47]The most visible part of ancient and medieval history on the other side have been the archaeological sites though:

The first archaeological excavations were by Ernest Renan in 1860 and 1861.[48]He was followed in the 1870s by Johannes Nepemuk Sepp. His most notable work was excavating at the cathedral in an attempt to find the bones ofFrederick Barbarossa.[49]More work was undertaken in 1903 by the Greek archaeologistTheodore Makridi,curator of the Imperial Museum atConstantinople.Important findings like fragments of marble sarcophagi were sent to the Ottoman capital.[50][51]

Rusty relics from Chehab's excavations at Al Mina site

In 1921, an archaeological survey of Tyre was done by a French team under the leadership of Denyse Le Lasseur in 1921.[52]It was followed by another mission between 1934 and 1936 that included aerial surveys and diving expeditions. It was led by theJesuitmissionaryAntoine Poidebard,a pioneer ofaerial archaeology.[53]

Large-scale excavations started in 1946 under the leadership ofEmirMaurice Chéhab(1904–1994), "the father of modern Lebanese archaeology" who for decades headed the Antiquities Service in Lebanon and was the curator of theNational Museum of Beirut.His teams uncovered most remains in the Al Bass/Hippodrome and the City Site/Roman baths.[54][55][56]

During the 1960s,Honor Frost(1917–2010) – theCyprus-born pioneer ofunderwater archaeologyinitiated several investigations "aimed at identifying and documenting the significant archaeological potential for harbour facilities within coastal Tyre". Based on the results, she suggested that the Al Mobarakee Tower may actually date back to Hellenistic times.[57]

All those works stopped though soon after the 1975 beginning of the Civil War and many records were lost.[54]

In 1984, theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)declared Tyre aWorld Heritage Sitein an attempt to halt the damage being done to the archaeological sites by the armed conflict and by anarchic urban development.[37]

In the late 1980s, "clandestine excavations" took place in the Al-Bass cemetery which "flooded the antiquities market".[58]

Regular excavation activities only started again in 1995 under the supervision of Ali Khalil Badawi.[59]Shortly afterwards, an Israeli bomb destroyed an apartment block in the city and evidence for an early church was revealed underneath the rubble. Its unusual design suggests that this was the site of the Cathedral of Paulinus which had been inaugurated in 315 CE.[60]

In 1997, the first Phoenician cremation cemetery was uncovered in theAl Bass site,near the Roman necropolis.[61]Meanwhile, Honor Frost mentored local Lebanese archaeologists to conduct further underwater investigations, which in 2001 confirmed the existence of a human-made structure within the northern harbour area of Tyre.[57]

In 2003, Randa Berri, president of the National Association for the Preservation of South Lebanon's Archaeology and Heritage and wife ofNabih Berri,veteran leader of theAmal Movementand longtime Speaker of the Parliament of Lebanon, patronized a plan to renovate Khan Sour / Khan Al Askaar, the former Ma'ani palace, and convert it into a museum.[62]As of 2019, nothing was done in that regard and the ruins have kept on crumbling.

The hostilities of the2006 Lebanon Warput the ancient structures of Tyre at risk. This promptedUNESCO's Director-General to launch a "Heritage Alert" for the site.[63]Following the cessation of hostilities in September 2006, a visit by conservation experts to Lebanon observed no direct damage to the ancient city of Tyre. However, the bombardment had damaged frescoes in a Roman funerary cave at theTyre Necropolis.Additional site degradation was also noted, including "the lack of maintenance, the decay of exposed structures due to lack of rainwater regulation and the decay of porous and soft stones".[64]

Archaeologists from the University of Lyon at the Al Mina/City site in 2019

Since 2008, aLebanese Frenchteam under the direction by Pierre-Louis Gatier of theUniversity of Lyonhas been conducting archaeological and topographical work. When international archeological missions inSyriacame to a halt after 2012 due to the war there, some of them instead started excavations in Tyre, amongst them a team headed byLeila Badre,director of theArcheological Museum of the American University of Beirut(AUB), and Belgian archaeologists.[54]

Threats to Tyre's ancientcultural heritageinclude development pressures and the illegal antiquities trade.[65]A highway, planned for 2011, was expected to be built in areas that are deemed archaeologically sensitive.[66]A small-scale geophysical survey indicated the presence of archaeological remains at proposed construction sites. The sites have not been investigated. Despite the relocation of a proposed traffic interchange, the lack of precise site boundaries confuses the issue of site preservation.[64]

The ruins of Khan Rabu

A 2018 study of Mediterranean world heritage sites found that Tyre's City site has "the highest risk of coastal erosion under current climatic conditions, in addition to 'moderate' risk from extreme sea levels."[67]Further coastal inspection was conducted in 2019, leading to a new hypothesis about the local relative sea level rise and to discovery of yet unreported submerged coastal structures.[68]

Like many of the cities in the Levant and inLebanon,the architecture since theLebanese Civil Warin the 1970s has been of poor quality, which tend to threaten the cultural heritage in the built environment before the war.[69][70]Meanwhile, historical buildings from the Ottoman period like Khan Rabu and Khan Sour / Khan Ashkar have partly collapsed after decades of total neglect and lack of any maintenance whatsoever.[70]

In 2013, the International Association to Save Tyre (IAST) made headlines when it launched an onlinerafflein association withSotheby'sto fund the artisans' village Les Ateliers de Tyr at the outskirts of the city. Participants could purchase tickets for 100 euros to win the 1914Man in the Opera Hatpainting byPablo Picasso.[71]The proceeds totaled US$5.26 million. The painting was won by a 25-year-old fire-safety official fromPennsylvania.[72]IAST presidentMaha al-Khalil Chalabiis a daughter of feudal lord and politicianKazem el-Khalil.[73]In September 2017, she opened "Les Atelier", which is located in the middle of an orange grove covering an area of 7.300 m2at the northeastern outskirts of Tyre.[74]

Biblical description[edit]

The prophesied destruction of Tyre as painted byJohn Martin.

The city of Tyre appears in many biblical traditions:

Hebrew Bible / Old Testament[edit]

New Testament[edit]

  • Jesusvisited the region or "coasts" (King James Version) of Tyre andSidon[84]and from this region many came forth to hear him preaching,[85]leading to the stark contrast inMatthew11:21[86]to his reception inKorazinandBethsaida.
  • Herodwas said to be angry with the people of Tyre and Sidon and he delivered a public address upon which he was struck down by God after not giving glory to him once he received praise arrogantly according to theBook of Acts.[87]The same book describes Paul's voyage to Tyre where he stayed for seven days.[88]
  • In theBook of Revelation,[89]chapter 18 alludes extensively to the mercantile description of Tyre in Ezekiel 26–28.

Other writings[edit]

Astronomical objects[edit]

Tyre on Europa
The orbit of 209 Dido

A multi-ring structured region onEuropa,the smallest of the fourGalilean moonsorbitingJupiter,is named after Tyre, the legendary birthplace of princess Europa. Originally called "TyreMacula",it is some 140 kilometers indiameter(about the size of theisland of Hawaii) and thought to be the site where anasteroidorcometimpacted Europa's ice crust.[90]

The asteroid209 Didois named after the legendary Tyrian-Carthaginian princess. It is a very largemain-beltasteroid,classified as aC-type asteroidwhich is probably composed ofcarbonaceousmaterials. 209 Dido was discovered in 1879 byC. H. F. Peters.

Cultural life[edit]

The first cinema in Tyre opened in the late 1930s when a café owner established makeshift film screenings.[91]Hamid Istanbouli – a fisherman by profession, who was also a traditional storyteller (hakawati) and thus interested in cinema – projected films on the wall of a Turkish hammam.[92]In 1939 the Roxy opened, followed in 1942 by the "Empire":[93]

By the mid-1950s there were four cinemas in Tyre, and four more soon opened in nearbyNabatieh.Many also hosted live performances by famous actors and musicians, serving as community spaces where people from different backgrounds came together.[91]

In 1959, the "Cinema Rivoli of Tyre" opened and quickly became one of the prime movie theatres of the country. According toUNIFIL,it was visited "by celebrity who's whos of the time, includingJean Marais,Brigitte Bardot,Rushdi Abazaand Omar Hariri. "[94]In 1964, the "Dunia" opened,[95]two years later followed by the "Al Hamra Cinema",[93]which became a venue for some of the Arab world's most famous performers, likeMahmoud Darwish,Sheikh Imam,Ahmed Fouad Negm,Wadih el-Safi,andMarcel Khalife.[91]

Meanwhile, two Tyrian artists had a major impact on the development of Lebanese music:Halim el-Roumi(1919–1983) and Ghazi Kahwaji (1945–2017). Some sources claim that the famous musician, composer, singer and actor el-Roumi was born in Tyre to Lebanese parents. However, others suggest that he was born inNazarethand moved to Tyre from Palestine.[96]For some time, he worked as a teacher at the Jafariya High School there. In 1950 he became director ofRadio Lebanon's music department,[97]where he discovered the singerFairuzand introduced her to theRahbani brothers.[98]Roumi composed music for and with them in close collaborations.[99]

Kahwaji was Lebanon's firstscenographerand for three decades the artistic general director for theRahbani brothersandFairuz.He used this prominent position to promote "againstconfessionalismandfundamentalism".[100]Kahwaji, who was also a professor at theLebanese University(LU) and theSaint Joseph Universityin Beirut,[101]published between 2008 and 2010 thesarcasticthree-volume book series "Kahwajiyat" aboutsocial injusticein the Arab world.[100]

By then, cultural life in Tyre had been severely affected by armed conflict as well. In 1975, the commercial "Festivals de Tyr" – organised by Maha al-Khalil Chalabi, the daughter of feudal landlord and politician Kazem al-Khalil – were supposed to debut but stopped at the outbreak of the Civil War.[102]

Some cinemas were damaged by Israeli bombardment in 1982 and all of them eventually closed down, the last ones in 1989:[91]the Hamra and the AK2000.[93]

In the mid-nineties though, first the idea of a commercial Tyre International Festival was revived. It has been organised since then annually in the ancient site of the Roman hippodrome, featuring international artists likeElton JohnandSarah Brightman,[103]as well as Lebanese starsWadih El Safi,Demis Roussos,Kadim Al-Saher,Melhem Barakat,Julia Boutros,andMajida El Roumi,[46]the daughter of Halim el-Roumi.

The pop singer,folk musicentertainer,sound-lyric poet,concert dancer,fit modeland MuslimhumanitarianLayal Abboud(born 1982) was born and raised in the Tyrian village ofKniseh.She has returned occasionally to perform in Tyre as well.

In 2006, the "Centre de Lecture et d’Animation Culturelle" (C.L.A.C.) was opened by Tyre's municipality as the first public library of the city, with support from the Lebanese Ministry of Culture and the French Embassy in Beirut. It is located in the historical building of the "Beit Daoud" next to the "Beit El Medina", the former Mamluk House, in the old town.[104]

In 2014, the NGO Tiro Association for Arts rehabilitated the defunct cinema Al Hamra under the leadership of "Palestinian-Lebanese street theater performer, actor, comedian, and theater director"[105]Kassem Istanbouli(*1986). His grandfather was one of the founders of cinema in Tyre and his father used to repair cinema projectors.[92]The Tiro Association launched the Lebanese International Theater Festival (alternating for storytelling,contemporary dance,and womenmonodrama), the Lebanese InternationalShort filmFestival, the Tyre International Music Festival, the Palestinian Culture Festival, Tiro Arts Festival, and a number of other festivals.

In 2018, the Istanbouli Theatre troupe rehabilitated and moved to the Rivoli Cinema,[106]which had been closed since 1988,[107]to establish the non-commercial Lebanese National Theater as a free cultural space with free entrance and a special focus on training children and youth in arts. It also runs the "Mobile Peace Bus", which is decorated withgraffitiof Lebanese cultural icons, to promote arts in the villages of the neighbouring countryside.[108]Istanbouli has argued:

In Tyre, we have 400 shops forshisha,one library, and one theatre. But if there are places, people will come.[109]

In 2019, the filmManara(Arabic for "lighthouse" ) by Lebanese directorZayn Alexander,who shot the movie at the Al Fanar resort in Tyre, won the Laguna Sud Award for Best Short Film at theVenice DaysStrand festival.[110]

  • The ruins of the building that used to house the Empire cinema, 2019
    The ruins of the building that used to house the Empire cinema, 2019
  • Halim El Roumi
    Halim El Roumi
  • Layal Abboud in 2015
    Layal Abboud in 2015
  • Karim Istanbouli in 2019 at the Rivoli
    Karim Istanbouli in 2019 at the Rivoli
  • Video of the carnival during the TIRO INTERNATIONAL ARTS FESTIVAL 2019

Education[edit]

The Jafariya School (2019)
The IUL (2009)

There are manyuniversities in Lebanon.

The Jafariya School was founded in 1938 by Imam Abdul Hussein Sharafeddin.[111]It soon expanded thanks mainly to donations from rich émigrés and thus was upgraded in 1946 to be a Secondary School, the first in Southern Lebanon (see above). It has remained one of the main schools in Tyre ever since.[112]

An important role in the Tyrian education landscape is played by the charity organisation of the vanished ImamMusa al-Sadr,which has been headed since his disappearance in 1978 by his sisterRabab al-Sadr.[113]While the foundation operates in various parts of the country, its main base is a compound on the southern entry of the Tyre peninsula close to the sea. A major focus is itsOrphanages,but it also runs adult educational andvocational trainingprogrammes, especially for young women, in addition to health and development projects.[114]

Musa Sadr also laid the groundwork for establishing the Islamic University of Lebanon (IUL) which was finally licensed in 1996 and opened a branch on the seafront,in Tyre. Its board of trustees is dominated by representatives of the Supreme Shiite Council, founded by Sadr in 1967.[115]

The Lebanese Evangelical School in Tyre with a history of more than 150 years is arguably the largest school in town.Collège Élite,a French international school opened in 1996, is another one of a host of private schools in Tyre. The Cadmous College - a pre-kindergarten to grade 12 school, run by the Maronite missionaries - has about 10% Christian and 90% Muslim pupils.[116]

In August 2019, the 17-year-old Ismail Ajjawi – a Palestinian resident of Tyre and graduate of the UNRWADeir YassinHigh School in the El Bass refugee camp[117]– made global headlines when he scored top-results to earn a scholarship to study atHarvard,but wasdeportedupon arrival inBostondespite valid visa.[118]He was readmitted ten days later to start his studies in time.[119]

Demographics[edit]

The Palestinian Jal Al Bahar "gathering" to the left of the unfinished building of the TYRE Hotel

An accurate statistical accounting is not possible, since the government of Lebanon has released only rough estimates of population numbers since 1932.[120]However, a 2016 calculation by UN HABITAT estimated a figure of 201,208 inhabitants, many of them refugees:[6]

TheLebanesenationality population of Tyre is predominantly Shia Muslim with a small but noticeable Christian community. In 2010, it was estimated that Christians accounted for 15% of Tyre's population.[121]In 2017, theMaronite Catholic Archeparchy of Tyrecounted about 42,500 members. Most of them live in the mountains of Southern Lebanon, while there are just some 500 Maronites in Tyre itself. The Melkite Greek Catholic Archeparchy of Tyre – which not only covers theDistrict of Tyrein theSouth Governoratebut also neighbouring areas in theNabatieh Governorate– registered 2,857 members in that year.[122]

The city of Tyre has become home to more than 60,000 Palestinian refugees who are mainly Sunni Muslims with some Christian families. Tyre hosted Shias from the seven villages that were depopulated in 1948, they settled in suburbs like Shabriha. As of June 2018, there were 12,281 registered persons in the Al Buss camp,[123]24,929 in Burj El Shimali[124]and 34,584 inRashidieh.[125]In the ramshackle "gathering" of Jal Al Bahar next to the coastal highway, the number of residents was estimated to be around 2,500 in 2015.[126]Many Palestinians contributed to the society in Tyre especially in the education field, photography and trading.

In all camps, the number of refugees from Syria and Palestinian refugees from Syria increased in recent years.[125]Tensions developed since these new arrivals would often accept work in the citrus and banana groves "for half the daily wage" that local Palestinian refugees used to earn.[127]

In early 2019, some 1,500 Syrian refugees were evicted from their informal settlements around the Litani river for allegedly polluting the waters which are already heavily contaminated.[128]

Avenue Du Senegal

Tyre is known as "Little WestAfrica".Many families in Tyre have relatives in the Western Africa diaspora, especially inSenegal,Sierra Leone,Liberia,Ivory CoastandNigeria.In Senegal, most immigrants originated from Tyre. Member of the Tyrian communities there are "primarily second, third and fourt generation migrants, many of whom have never been to Lebanon." One of Tyre's main promenades is called "Avenue du Senegal".[112]

As there were an estimated 250,000 foreign workers – mostly femaleEthiopians– under the discriminatoryKafala systemof sponsorship in Lebanon by 2019,[129]there is also a large community of African migrants in Tyre. They are mainly Ethiopian women who work as domestic servants. Some of them celebrate church service at the Greek-Catholic Cathedral of Saint Thomas, which has devoted a chapel on its compound to Tyre-bornSaint Frumentius,the first bishop of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. In April 2014 one Ethiopian made sad headlines in an apparent suicide in Tyre:

Media reports said the woman had fled last week from her employer's home. Security forces later detained the Ethiopian and returned her to her employer[130]

The 2016 UN HABITAT profile found that:

Approximate calculations suggest that 43% of Lebanese in Tyre urban area are living in poverty.[6]

Economy[edit]

AFerrariwith a number plate fromLagos,Nigeria, in Tyre

The economy of urban Tyre mostly depends on tourism, contracting services, the construction sector, andremittancesfrom Tyrians in the diaspora, especially in West Africa.[6]

UNIFIL contributes greatly to the purchasing power in the Tyrian economy as well, both through spending by its individual members as well as through "quick-impact projects" like gravelling road, rehabilitating public places etc.[11]

As of 2016, Olive trees were reported to comprise 38% of Tyre'sagricultural land,but producers lacked acollectivemarketing strategy.WhileCitrusreportedly comprised 25% of the agricultural land, 20% of itsharvestended upwasted.[131]

Barbour boatbuilders

Tyre houses one of the nation's major ports, though much smaller than the ports of Beirut, Tripoli, and also Sidon/Saida. Its cargo traffic has been limited to the periodical import of used cars. One day after the2020 Beirut explosionwhich devastated thePort of Beirutand much of the national capital on 4 August the national government reportedly decided to use the Port of Tyre as a back-up for the Port of Tripoli.[132]

In the harbour area, the Barbour family of shipbuilders continues to build wooden boats.[133]Tyre is thus one of only a few cities in the Mediterranean that has kept this ancient tradition, although the Barbour business has been struggling to survive as well. By 2004, there were "over 600 fishermen [..] striving to make ends meet in Tyre alone".[134]

Lebanon's General Directorate of Land Registry and Cadastre (GDLRC) recorded for Tyre a 4.4 percent growth rate for land transactions between 2014 and 2018, the highest rate in the country during that period.[135]This increase in real estate prices has been largely attributed to the inflow of remittances from diaspora Tyrians.[6]

Off the Tyrian coast, block 9 has been awarded fordeepwater drillingof natural gas to a consortium of French companyTotalEnergies,Italy-basedEni,and RussianNovatek.[136]

Sports[edit]

The faded sign of Tadamon SC on the roof of the Municipal Stadium

Tadamon Sour Sporting Club,or simply Tadamon (meaning "Solidarity" ), nicknamed "The Ambassador of the South", was founded in 1946 and is thus the historically most establishedfootball clubof Tyre. They play their home matches at theTyre Municipal Stadiumand have won oneLebanese FA Cup(2000–01) and twoLebanese Challenge Cups(2013 and 2018). Tadamon's traditional rivals,Salam Sour Sports Club,are also based in Tyre.

According to BBC reports, Tadamon SC was stripped of itsLebanese Premier Leaguechampionship title in 2001 followingmatch-fi xingallegations.[137]

In the same year the club scored arguably one of its biggest transfers whenRoda Antarfrom its own youth teams was loaned toGermany'sHamburger SVfor two seasons. After eight years in Germany with Hamburg,SC Freiburgand1. FC Kölnhe played another six years in theChinese Super Leagueand then returned to Tadamon for one final season before retirement.

A number of Lebanese Premier League professionalfootballers,who have also played for theLebanon national team,originate from Tyre, namelyRabih Ataya,[138]andNassar Nassar.[139]

Twin towns – sister cities[edit]

Tyre istwinnedwith:

Notable people[edit]

Mayor Dbouk next to a statue of Ulpian in front of the new municipality building in the city downtown (2019)
As'ad AbuKhalil (2009)

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^"The world's 20 oldest cities".The Telegraph.30 May 2017.Archivedfrom the original on 11 January 2022.Retrieved25 March2020.
  2. ^"World Heritage List: Tyre".United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization.2020.Retrieved13 March2020.
  3. ^Medlej, Youmna Jazzar; Medlej, Joumana (2010).Tyre and its history.Beirut: Anis Commercial Printing Press s.a.l. pp. 1–30.ISBN978-9953-0-1849-2.
  4. ^Finlay, Victoria (2014).Colour: Travels Through the Paintbox.London: Hachette UK.ISBN9780340733295.
  5. ^"Tyre (Sour) City, Lebanon".tyros.leb.net.
  6. ^abcdefghMaguire, Suzanne; Majzoub, Maya (2016). Osseiran, Tarek (ed.)."TYRE CITY PROFILE"(PDF).reliefweb.UN HABITAT Lebanon. pp. 12, 16, 33–34, 39–43, 57, 72.Retrieved29 October2019.
  7. ^Presutta, David.The Biblical Cosmos Versus Modern Cosmology.2007, page 225, referencing: Katzenstein, H.J.,The History of Tyre,1973, p.9
  8. ^Goiran, J-P, et al., 2023, "Evolution of Sea Level at Tyre During Antiquity", BAAL 21, with a new hypothesis about the local relative sea level rise and a major discovery of the Phoenician breakwater of the southern, so-called "Egyptian", harbour[1]
  9. ^Badawi, Ali Khalil (2018).TYRE(4th ed.). Beirut: Al-Athar Magazine. pp. 5, 7.
  10. ^abHeather Whipps (14 May 2007)."Mystery Solved: How Alexander the Great Defeated Tyre".livescience.Retrieved28 May2024.
  11. ^ab"Ten ways to develop southern Lebanon".The New Humanitarian.15 February 2013.Retrieved4 December2019.
  12. ^abWoodhouse, Robert (2004). "The Greek Prototypes of the City Names Sidon and Tyre: Evidence for Phonemically Distinct Initials in Proto-Semitic or for the History of Hebrew Vocalism?".Journal of the American Oriental Society.124(2): 237–248.doi:10.2307/4132213.JSTOR4132213.
  13. ^Bikai, P., "The Land of Tyre", in Joukowsky, M.,The Heritage of Tyre,1992, chapter 2, p. 13
  14. ^"Tyre".Collins Dictionary.Retrieved21 October2019.
  15. ^abcdYacoub, Adel; El Kayem, Cynthia; Moukaddem, Tala (15 September 2011)."Information Sheet on Ramsar Wetlands (RIS)–2009-2012version"(PDF).Ramsar Sites Information Service.Retrieved15 March2020.
  16. ^Brown, Sally (16 October 2018)."University research shows world heritage sites under threat from climate change".University of Southampton.Retrieved18 March2020.
  17. ^"A History of the Ancient & Classical City of Tyre and Its Commerce".TheCollector.17 October 2022.Retrieved28 May2024.
  18. ^"Tyre | Ancient City & Historical Site | Britannica".britannica.23 April 2024.Retrieved28 May2024.
  19. ^Herodotus.Histories, Book 2.Greek original
  20. ^"Arrian, Anabasis, book 2, chapter 24, section 1".perseus.tufts.edu.Retrieved28 May2024.
  21. ^"Strabo, Geography, BOOK XVI., CHAPTER II., section 23".perseus.tufts.edu.Retrieved28 May2024.
  22. ^Aliquot, Julien (2020)."The Port of Astronoe in Tyre".BAAL.Hors- Série 18: 61–70 – via HAL.
  23. ^Renan, E., 1864-1874. Mission de Phénicie dirigée par Ernest Renan: Texte. Impr. impériale.
  24. ^Castellvi, G., Descamps, C., Kuteni, V.P., 2007. Recherches archéologiques sous-marines à Tyr.
  25. ^Noureddine, I., Mior, A., 2013. Archaeological Survey of the Phoenician Harbour at Tyre, Lebanon.
  26. ^Marriner, N., Morhange, C., Doumet-Serhal, C., Carbonel, P., 2006. Geoscience rediscovers Phoenicia's buried harbors. Geology 34, 1-4.
  27. ^El-Amouri, M., El-Hélou, M., Marquet, M., Noureddine, I., Seco Alvarez, M., 2005. Mission d'expertise archéologique du port sud de Tyr, résultats préliminaires. Baal Hors Série II, 91-110.
  28. ^Frost, H., 1971. Recent observations on the submerged harbourworks at Tyre. Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth 24, 103-111.
  29. ^Poidebard, A., 1939. Un grand port disparu: Tyr: recherches aériennes et sous-marines: 1934-1936. P. Geuthner.
  30. ^Goiran, Jean-Philippe; Brocard, Gilles; De Graauw, Arthur; Kahwagi-Janho, Hany; Chapkanski, Stoil (2021). "Evolution of sea level at Tyre during Antiquity".Bulletin d'Archéologie et d'Architecture Libanaise.21:305–316.
  31. ^abBrocard, Gilles; Goiran, Jean-Philippe; de Graauw, Arthur; Chapkanski, Stoil; Dapoigny, Arnaud; Régagnon, Emmanuelle; Husson, Xavier; Bolo, Aurélien; Pavlopoulos, Kosmas; Fouache, Eric; Badawi, Ali; Yon, Jean-Baptiste (15 January 2024)."Growth of the sandy isthmus of tyre and ensuing relocation of its harbors".Quaternary Science Reviews.324:108463.Bibcode:2024QSRv..32408463B.doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2023.108463.ISSN0277-3791.S2CID266282297.
  32. ^Arthur de Graauw, Gilles Brocard et Jean-Philippe Goiran. (26 January 2024)."Where is the Phoenician harbour of Tyre?".doi:10.58079/vom2.
  33. ^four stades acc. to Diodorus Siculus, Hist, 17, 7 and to Quintus Curtius Rufus, Hist, 4, 2, but 700 paces acc. to Pliny, Natural History V, 17
  34. ^three fathoms acc. to Arrian, Anabasis, 2, 18
  35. ^Marriner, N., Goiran, J., Morhange, C., 2008. Alexander the Great's tombolos at Tyre and Alexandria, eastern Mediterranean. Geomorphology 100, 377-400.
  36. ^Nir, Y., 1996. The city of Tyre, Lebanon and its semi‐artificial tombolo. Geoarchaeology 11, 235-250.
  37. ^abCarter, Terry; Dunston, Lara; Jousiffe, Ann; Jenkins, Siona (2004).lonely planet: Syria & Lebanon(2nd ed.). Melbourne: Lonely Planet Publications. pp.345–347.ISBN1-86450-333-5.
  38. ^Sewell, Abby (29 May 2019)."Discover the best beaches in the Middle East".National Geographic.Archived fromthe originalon 5 June 2019.Retrieved28 October2019.
  39. ^abRahhal, Nabila (5 July 2018)."The people's beaches".Executive Magazine.Retrieved4 December2019.
  40. ^"Protecting marine biodiversity in Lebanon".International Union for Conservation of Nature(IUCN). 2 May 2012. Archived fromthe originalon 11 August 2014.Retrieved17 August2014.
  41. ^Hany El Shaer; Ms. Lara Samaha; Ghassan Jaradi (December 2012)."Lebanon's Marine Protected Area Strategy"(PDF).Lebanese Ministry of Environment.
  42. ^Kabboul, Tamarah (October 2019)."A Giant Dolphin Was Just Found Stuck Between Rocks on Tyre Shore".The961.Archived fromthe originalon 28 October 2019.Retrieved28 October2019.
  43. ^Sarraf, Maria; Croitoru, Lelia; El Fadel, Mutasem; El-Jisr, Karim; Ikäheimo, Erkki; Gundlach, Erich; Al-Duaij, Samia (2010). Croitoru, Lelia; Sarraf, Maria (eds.).The Cost of Environmental Degradation: Case Studies from the Middle East and North Africa.Washington D.C.: World Bank Publications. p. 93.ISBN978-0821383186.
  44. ^Reuters Staff (22 February 2021)."Oil spill off Israel reaches south Lebanese beaches".Reuters.Retrieved23 February2021.
  45. ^Mroue, Youssef (2010).Highlights of the Achievements and Accomplishments of the Tyrian Civilization and Discovering the Lost Continent.Pickering. pp. 9–34.{{cite book}}:CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  46. ^abBadawi, Ali Khalil (2008).Tyr - L'histoire d'une Ville.Tyre/Sour/Tyr: Municipalité de Tyr / Tyre Municipality / Baladia Sour. pp. 80–103.
  47. ^Palmer, Edward (1881).The Survey of Western Palestine: Arabic and English Name Lists Collected During the Survey by Lieutenants Conder and Kitchener, R. E. Transliterated and Explained by E.H. Palmer. Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund.London: Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund. pp.2.
  48. ^Renan, Ernest, "Mission de Phénicie", Paris: Imprimerie impériale, 1864
  49. ^Sepp, J. N., "Meerfahrt nach Tyrus zur Ausgrabung der Kathedrale mit Barbarossa's Grab", Leipzig: Seemann, 1879
  50. ^Jide gian, Nina (2018).TYRE Through The Ages(3rd ed.). Beirut: Librairie Orientale. pp. 13–17.ISBN9789953171050.
  51. ^Tahan, Lina G. (2017)."Trafficked Lebanese Antiquities: Can They Be Repatriated from European Museums?".Journal of Eastern Mediterranean Archaeology & Heritage Studies.5(1): 27–35.doi:10.5325/jeasmedarcherstu.5.1.0027.ISSN2166-3548.JSTOR10.5325/jeasmedarcherstu.5.1.0027.
  52. ^Le Lasseur, D., "Mission archéologique à Tyr.", Syria 3, 1–26, 116–33, 1922
  53. ^Poidebard, A., "Un grand port disparu: Tyr. Recherches aeriennes et sous-marines, 1934-6", Bibliothèque archéologique et historique 29. Paris, 1939.
  54. ^abcBoschloos, Vanessa (January 2016)."Belgian archaeologists in Tyre (Lebanon): UNESCO Heritage, Phoenician Seals and Ancient Curses"(PDF).ResearchGate.pp. 1–3.Retrieved7 October2019.
  55. ^Chéhab, Maurice H., "Fouilles de Tyr IV, La nécropole", Bulletin du Musée de Beyrouth 36, 1986
  56. ^Chéhab, M., "Fouilles de Tyr: la nécropole", Bulletin du Musée de Beirut 35, Beirut, 1985
  57. ^abNoureddine, Ibrahim; Mior, Aaron (2018)."Archaeological Survey of the Phoenician Harbour at Tyre, Lebanon".Bulletin d'Archéologie et d'Architecture Libanaises.18:95–112 – via Academia.edu.
  58. ^Abousamra, Gaby; Lemaire, André (2013). "Astarte in Tyre According to New Iron Age Funerary Stelae".Die Welt des Orients.43, H. 2 (2). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht (GmbH & Co. KG): 153–157.doi:10.13109/wdor.2013.43.2.153.JSTOR23608852.
  59. ^Badawi, Ali Khalil (2018).TYRE(4th ed.). Beirut: Al-Athar Magazine. pp. 62, 74, 102.
  60. ^Loosley, Emma (n.d.)."The Church of Paulinus, Tyre".Architecture and Asceticism.Retrieved22 November2019.
  61. ^A visit to the Museum... The short guide of the National Museum of Beirut, Lebanon.Beirut: Ministry of Culture/Directorate General of Antiquities. 2008. pp. 37, 39, 49, 73, 75.ISBN978-9953-0-0038-1.
  62. ^"Dignitaries attend launching of Tyre khan renovation plan".The Daily Star.15 July 2003. Archived fromthe originalon 9 July 2021.Retrieved3 September2021.
  63. ^Koïchiro Matsuura; The Director-General of UNESCO (11 August 2006)."UNESCO Director-General Launches" Heritage Alert "for the Middle East".UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
  64. ^abToubekis, Georgios (2010). "Lebanon: Tyre (Sour)". In Christoph Machat, Michael Petzet and John Ziesemer (Eds.),"Heritage at Risk: ICOMOS World Report hey a report 2008-2010 on Monuments and Sites in Danger"(PDF)..Berlin: hendrik Bäßler verlag, 2010, pg. 118.
  65. ^Helga Seeden (2 December 2000). "Lebanon's Archaeological Heritage".
  66. ^Centre, UNESCO World Heritage."UNESCO World Heritage Centre - State of Conservation (SOC 2011) Tyre (Lebanon)".UNESCO World Heritage Centre.Retrieved28 May2024.
  67. ^Mukhamdov, Anton (1 November 2018)."Tyre's historic sites in fight to stay above the water".The Daily Star.Archived fromthe originalon 24 September 2019.Retrieved24 September2019.
  68. ^Goiran, J-P., et al., 2021, Evolution of Sea Level at Tyre During Antiquity, Bulletin d'Archéologie et d'Architecture Libanaises, Vol. BAAL 21, (p 305-317).
  69. ^"Ancient Tyre".World Monuments Fund.Retrieved28 May2024.
  70. ^abCentre, UNESCO World Heritage."UNESCO Beirut organizes a technical workshop on the conservation and restoration works of Baalbek and Tyre World Heritage sites".UNESCO World Heritage Centre.Retrieved28 May2024.
  71. ^Freifer, Rana (10 December 2013)."$1 million Picasso on auction – Proceeds to finance projects in Beirut and Tyre".BusinessNews.lb.Retrieved27 November2019.
  72. ^Bishara, Hakim (21 May 2020)."A Son Gifted His Mother a Raffle Ticket, Winning Her a $1.1M Picasso Painting".HYPERALLERGIC.Retrieved3 June2020.
  73. ^ABI AKL, Yara (29 May 2017)."Liban: Maha el-Khalil Chalabi, gardienne du patrimoine".L'Orient-Le Jour(in French).Retrieved27 November2019.
  74. ^Nehmeh, Rafah (12 March 2019)."Celebrating Phoenician Crafts At Les Ateliers De Tyr".Lebanon Traveler.Retrieved3 September2021.
  75. ^Joshua 19:29
  76. ^2 Samuel 5:11,1 Kings 5:1,and1 Chronicles 14:1
  77. ^Dever 2005,p. 97;Mendels 1987,p. 131;Brand & Mitchell 2015,p. 1538
  78. ^Psalm 83:3–8
  79. ^Isaiah 23
  80. ^Joel 3:4–8
  81. ^Ezekiel 26–28
  82. ^Amos 1:9–10
  83. ^Zechariah 9:3–4
  84. ^Matthew 15:21;Mark 7:24
  85. ^Mark 3:8; Luke 6:17
  86. ^Matthew 11:21–23
  87. ^Acts 12:19–24
  88. ^Acts 21:1–7
  89. ^Revelation 18
  90. ^"Tyre Region of Europa".NASA EUROPA Clipper.7 January 2019.
  91. ^abcdStoughton, India (8 August 2016)."Championing culture in Lebanon's south".Al Jazeera.Retrieved4 October2019.
  92. ^abHélou, Nelly (2016)."Le festival international de théâtre du Liban à Nabatieh: semer la culture et la joie".Agenda Culturel.Retrieved21 December2019.
  93. ^abc"Kassem Istanbouli re-opens the Rívoli Cinema".Al-Ghorba.April 2018.Retrieved5 October2019.
  94. ^Monzer, Hiba (5 October 2018)."Promoting culture of peace through arts".United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon.Retrieved4 October2018.
  95. ^Istanbouli, Kassem (n.d.)."Cinema Rivoli".Tiro Association for Arts.Archived fromthe originalon 1 October 2019.Retrieved21 December2019.
  96. ^"Majida al-Roumi ignites Jounieh with an evening of patriotic songs".The Daily Star.27 June 2011. Archived fromthe originalon 21 December 2019.Retrieved21 December2019.
  97. ^Burkhalter, Thomas (2013).Local Music Scenes and Globalization – Transnational Platforms in Beirut.New York: Routledge. pp. 154–155.ISBN978-1138849716.
  98. ^Rachidi, Soukaina (24 March 2019)."Fairuz and the Rahbani Brothers: Musical Legends Who Shaped Modern Lebanese Identity".Retrieved21 December2019.
  99. ^Makarem, Racha (4 November 2010)."Fairuz: the voice of Lebanon".The National.Retrieved21 December2019.
  100. ^abSarhan, Aladdin (29 May 2013)."I Believe that Several Paths Lead to God".Qantara.de.Retrieved29 October2019.
  101. ^"Ġāzī Qahwaǧī".data.bnf.fr(in French).Retrieved3 September2021.
  102. ^Henoud, Carla (6 July 2002)."Femmes...Maha el-Khalil Chalabi, un combat incessant pour Tyr".L'Orient - Le Jour(in French).Retrieved20 November2020.
  103. ^Lebanon: The Official Guide.Paravision S.A.L. / Ministry of Tourism. n.d. p. 119.ISBN978-9953002880.
  104. ^"Le Centre de Lecture et d'Animation Culturelle de Tyr – Sud Liban".MEDiakitab.15 June 2009.Retrieved5 October2019.
  105. ^"Kassem Istanbouli".Home New Home.2017.Retrieved4 October2019.
  106. ^"About".Tiro Association for Arts.n.d. Archived fromthe originalon 1 October 2019.Retrieved1 October2019.
  107. ^Ghali, Maghie (30 August 2018)."Bringing culture to your doorstep".The Daily Star.Archived fromthe originalon 1 October 2019.Retrieved1 October2019.
  108. ^"Peace Bus wheels out art and culture in south Lebanon".United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon.7 September 2018.Retrieved28 October2019.
  109. ^Enders, David (5 September 2017)."Meet the Lebanese man trying to reopen cinemas closed by war".The National.Retrieved4 October2019.
  110. ^Mottram, James (24 October 2019)."'Manara' sheds light on problems in Lebanese culture ".The National.Retrieved28 October2019.
  111. ^Gharbieh, Hussein M. (1996).Political awareness of the Shi'ites in Lebanon: the role of Sayyid 'Abd al-Husain Sharaf al-Din and Sayyid Musa al-Sadr(PDF)(Doctoral). Durham: Centre for Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies, University of Durham.
  112. ^abLeichtman, Mara (2015).Shi'i Cosmopolitanisms in Africa: Lebanese Migration and Religious Conversion in Senegal.Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press. pp. 26, 31, 51, 54, 86, 157.ISBN978-0253015990.
  113. ^Norton, Augustus Richard (2014).Hezbollah: A Short History.Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. p. 109.ISBN978-0691160818.
  114. ^Marusek, Sarah (2018).Faith and Resistance: The Politics of Love and War in Lebanon.London: Pluto Press. pp. 127–150.ISBN978-0745399935.
  115. ^"The vision of the University".Islamic University of Lebanon.n.d. Archived fromthe originalon 19 February 2020.Retrieved29 February2020.
  116. ^Abi Raad, Doreen (29 May 2020)."Lebanon's 'Pillar' of Catholic Education at Risk of Collapsing".National Catholic Register.Retrieved3 June2020.
  117. ^"Harvard-bound Ismail Ajjawi an inspiration to fellow UNRWA students".United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees (UNRWA).30 August 2019.Retrieved29 October2019.
  118. ^Avi-Yonah, Shera S.; Franklin, Delano R. (27 August 2019)."Incoming Harvard Freshman Deported After Visa Revoked".The Harvard Crimson.Retrieved29 October2019.
  119. ^"Freshman Previously Denies Entry to the United States Arrives at Harvard".The Harvard Crimson.3 September 2019.Retrieved29 October2019.
  120. ^"Lebanon - POPULATION".country-data.
  121. ^"Bishop of Tyre: Christians in Lebanon have become a minority in their country".asianews.it.
  122. ^Roberson, Ronald (28 July 2017)."The Eastern Catholic Churches 2017"(PDF).Catholic Near East Welfare Association (CNEWA).pp. 4, 6. Archived fromthe original(PDF)on 24 October 2018.Retrieved18 September2019.
  123. ^"El Buss Camp".United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA).n.d.Retrieved19 September2019.
  124. ^"Burj Shemali Camp".United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA).n.d.Retrieved19 September2019.
  125. ^ab"Rashidieh Camp".United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA).n.d.Retrieved19 September2019.
  126. ^"CASE STUDY OF AN UNREGULATED CAMP: JAL AL BAHAR, SUR, LEBANON".Refugee Camp studies.3 October 2015.Retrieved21 September2019.
  127. ^Perdigon, Sylvain (October 2015). ""For Us It Is Otherwise": Three Sketches on Making Poverty Sensible in the Palestinian Refugee Camps of Lebanon ".Current Anthropology.56(S11 (Volume Supplement)): S88–S96.doi:10.1086/682354.S2CID141892419.
  128. ^Vohra, Anchal (27 April 2019)."Dozens of Syrian refugees evicted in Lebanon anti-pollution drive".Al Jazeera.Retrieved5 November2019.
  129. ^Ayoub, Joey (14 November 2019)."The Lebanese revolution must abolish the kafala system".Al Jazeera.Retrieved1 March2020.
  130. ^"Ethiopian domestic worker commits suicide in Tyre".The Daily Star.7 April 2014. Archived fromthe originalon 1 March 2020.Retrieved1 March2020.
  131. ^Harake, Dani; Kuwalti, Riham (31 May 2017)."Maachouk Neighbourhood Profile & Strategy, Tyre, Lebanon"(PDF).reliefweb.UN HABITAT Lebanon. pp. 2, 25–26.Retrieved5 November2019.
  132. ^Akleh, Tony (6 August 2020)."Beirut port: irreplaceable importance in the middle of Lebanon's geography".Arabian Business.Retrieved6 August2020.
  133. ^Zoghaib, Henri (2004).lebanon – THROUGH THE LENS OF MUNIR NASR.Beirut: Arab Printing Press sal. p. 74.ISBN9789953023854.
  134. ^El-Ghoul, Adnan (13 September 2004)."Wooden-boat makers in Tyre struggle to survive".The Daily Star.Archived fromthe originalon 24 December 2019.Retrieved24 December2019.
  135. ^Alieh, Yassmine (6 February 2019)."Tyre, Hasbaya, Marjayoun are top property destinations".BusinessNews.lb.Retrieved5 November2019.
  136. ^Butt, Gerald (28 October 2019)."Lebanon's gas hopes threatened by corruption".PETROLEUM ECONOMIST.Retrieved2 March2020.
  137. ^"Fifa suspends Lebanese FA".BBC Sport.8 July 2001.Retrieved5 February2020.
  138. ^ab"Rabih Ataya – Player Info".Global Sports Archive.Retrieved1 February2020.
  139. ^ab"Nassar Nassar – Player Info".Global Sports Archive.Retrieved1 February2020.
  140. ^"El Corresponsal de Medio Oriente y Africa – Málaga recupera su pasado fenicio".Archived fromthe originalon 7 March 2016.Retrieved24 September2010.
  141. ^"ToposText".topostext.org.
  142. ^"Capitains Nemo".cts.perseids.org.
  143. ^"Saint Christina of Tyre (July 24)".Official website of the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of Australia, New Zealand and the Philippines.Retrieved27 September2015.
  144. ^"Bilal Najdi - Soccer player profile & career statistics - Global Sports Archive".globalsportsarchive.Retrieved26 November2020.

Sources[edit]

Attribution

Public DomainThis article incorporates text from a publication now in thepublic domain:Easton, Matthew George(1897). "Illustrated Bible Dictionary".Easton's Bible Dictionary(New and revised ed.). T. Nelson and Sons.

Further reading[edit]

Library resourcesabout
Tyre, Lebanon
  • Bikai, Patricia Maynor.The Pottery of Tyre.Warminster: Aris and Phillips, 1978.
  • Bullitt, Orville H.Phoenicia and Carthage: A Thousand Years to Oblivion.Philadelphia: Dorrance, 1978.
  • Joukowsky, Martha, and Camille Asmar.The Heritage of Tyre: Essays On the History, Archaeology, and Preservation of Tyre.Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Pub. Co., 1992.
  • Woolmer, Mark.Ancient Phoenicia: An Introduction.London: Bristol Classical Press, 2011.

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related toTyre.
Wikivoyage has a travel guide forTyre, Lebanon.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tyre,_Lebanon&oldid=1233715398"