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Apiaceae

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Apiaceae
Apiaceae:Apiumleaves and tiny inflorescences,Daucushabit,Foeniculuminflorescences,Eryngiuminflorescences,Petroselinumroot.
Scientific classificationEdit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Apiales
Family: Apiaceae
Lindl.
Type genus
Apium
Subfamilies
Synonyms

Umbelliferae

Apiaceae(/eɪpiːˈeɪsiˌaɪ,-siːˌiː/) orUmbelliferaeis a family of mostly aromaticflowering plantsnamed after thetype genusApium,and commonly known as thecelery,carrotorparsley family,or simply asumbellifers.It is the 16th-largest family of flowering plants, with more than 3,800speciesin about 446genera,[1]including such well-known, and economically important plants asajwain,angelica,anise,asafoetida,caraway,carrot,celery,chervil,coriander,cumin,dill,fennel,lovage,cow parsley,parsley,parsnipandsea holly,as well assilphium,a plant whose exact identity is unclear and may be extinct.[2]

The family Apiaceae includes a significant number ofphototoxicspecies, such asgiant hogweed,and a smaller number of highlypoisonousspecies, such aspoison hemlock,water hemlock,spotted cowbane,fool's parsley,and various species ofwater dropwort.

Description

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Most Apiaceae areannual,biennialorperennialherbs(frequently with the leaves aggregated toward the base), though a minority are woodyshrubsor small trees such asBupleurum fruticosum.[3]: 35 Their leaves are of variable size, andalternately arranged,or with the upper leaves becoming nearly opposite. The leaves may bepetiolateorsessile.There are nostipulesbut the petioles are frequently sheathing, and the leaves may beperfoliate.The leaf blade is usually dissected,ternate,orpinnatifid,but simple, and entire in some genera, e.g.Bupleurum.[4]Commonly, their leaves emit a marked smell when crushed, aromatic to fetid, but absent in some species.

The defining characteristic of this family is theinflorescence,the flowers nearly always aggregated in terminalumbels,that may be simple or more commonly compound, often umbelliformcymes.The flowers are usually perfect (hermaphroditic), andactinomorphic,but there may bezygomorphicflowers at the edge of the umbel, as incarrot(Daucus carota) andcoriander,with petals of unequal size, the ones pointing outward from the umbel larger than the ones pointing inward. Some areandromonoecious, polygamomonoecious, or even dioecious(as inAcronema), with a distinctcalyx,andcorolla,but the calyx is often highly reduced, to the point of being undetectable in many species, while the corolla can be white, yellow, pink or purple. The flowers are nearly perfectlypentamerous,with fivepetalsand fivestamens.[5] There is often variation in the functionality of the stamens even within a single inflorescence. Some flowers are functionally staminate (where a pistil may be present but has no ovules capable of being fertilized) while others are functionally pistillate (where stamens are present but their anthers do not produce viable pollen). Pollination of one flower by the pollen of a different flower of the same plant (geitonogamy) is common. Thegynoeciumconsists of two carpels fused into a single, bicarpellate pistil with aninferior ovary.[5]Stylopodiasupport two styles, and secrete nectar, attracting pollinators like flies, mosquitoes, gnats, beetles, moths, and bees. The fruit is aschizocarpconsisting of two fused carpels that separate at maturity into two mericarps, each containing a single seed. The fruits of many species are dispersed by wind but others such as those ofDaucusspp., are covered in bristles, which may be hooked in sanicleSanicula europaea[3]and thus catch in the fur of animals. The seeds have an oilyendosperm[6][7]and often contain essential oils, containing aromatic compounds that are responsible for the flavour of commercially important umbelliferous seed such asanise,cuminandcoriander.The shape and details of the ornamentation of the ripe fruits are important for identification to species level.[4]: 802 

Taxonomy

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Apiaceae was first described byJohn Lindleyin 1836.[8]The name is derived from the type genusApium,which was originally used byPliny the Eldercirca 50 AD for acelery-like plant.[9]The alternative name for the family, Umbelliferae, derives from theinflorescencebeing generally in the form of a compoundumbel.The family was one of the first to be recognized as a distinct group in Jacques Daleschamps' 1586Historia generalis plantarum.WithRobert Morison's1672Plantarum umbelliferarum distribution novait became the first group of plants for which a systematic study was published.

The family is solidly placed within theApialesorder in theAPG III system.It is closely related toAraliaceaeand the boundaries between these families remain unclear. Traditionally groups within the family have been delimited largely based on fruitmorphology,and the results from this have not been congruent with the more recent molecularphylogeneticanalyses. The subfamilial and tribal classification for the family is currently in a state of flux, with many of the groups being found to be grosslyparaphyleticorpolyphyletic.[1]

Classification and phylogeny

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Prior tomolecular phylogeneticstudies, the family was subdivided primarily based on fruit characteristics. Molecular phylogenetic analyses from the mid-1990s onwards have shown that fruit characters evolved in parallel many times, so that using them in classification resulted in units that were notmonophyletic.[10]In 2004, it was proposed that Apiaceae should be divided into four subfamilies:[11]

Apioideae is by far the largest subfamily with about 90% of the genera. Most subsequent studies have supported this division, although leaving some genera unplaced. A 2021 study suggested the relationships shown in the following cladogram.[10]

Apiaceae

ThePlatysaceclade and the generaKlotzschiaandHermasfell outside the four subfamilies. It was suggested that they could be accommodated in subfamilies of their own.Phlyctidocarpawas formerly placed in the subfamily Apioideae, but if kept there makes Apioideaeparaphyletic.It could be placed in an enlarged Saniculoideae, or restored to Apioideae if the latter were expanded to include Saniculoideae.[10]

The subfamilies can be further divided into tribes and clades, with many clades falling outside formally recognized tribes.[10]

Genera

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Main article:List of Apiaceae genera

The number of genera accepted by sources varies. As of December 2022,Plants of the World Online(PoWO) accepted 444 genera, while GRIN Taxonomy accepted 462. The PoWO genera are not a subset of those in GRIN; for example,Haloselinumis accepted by PoWO but not by GRIN, whileHalosciastrumis accepted by GRIN but not by PoWO, which treats it as a synonym ofAngelica.TheAngiosperm Phylogeny Websitehad an "approximate list" of 446 genera.[1]

Ecology

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The black swallowtail butterfly,Papilio polyxenes,uses the family Apiaceae for food and host plants foroviposition.[13]The22-spot ladybirdis also commonly found eating mildew on these plants.[14]

Uses

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Many members of this family are cultivated for various purposes. Some species producetap rootsthat are large enough to be useful as food. Other species produceessential oilsin their leaves or fruits and as a result are flavourful aromatic herbs. The seeds of certain species may be used in cuisine as well.

Table of Uses

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Latin Name Common Name Use(s)
Pastinacasativa Parsnip Edible
Root
Vegetable
Daucus carota carrot Edible
Root
Vegetable
Petroselinumcrispum Hamburg parsley Edible
Root
Vegetable
Coriandrum sativum coriander essential oil
cilantro leaves
seeds
Anethum graveolens dill often used in jars of American pickled cucumbers.
Eryngium_foetidum culantro edible leaves
Foeniculum vulgare fennel seeds used in cuisine
Cuminum cyminum cumin seeds used in cuisine
Carum carvi caraway seeds used in cuisine

Other notable cultivated Apiaceae includechervil(Anthriscus cerefolium),angelica(Angelicaspp.),celery(Apium graveolens),arracacha(Arracacia xanthorrhiza),sea holly(Eryngiumspp.),asafoetida(Ferula asafoetida),galbanum(Ferula gummosa),cicely(Myrrhis odorata),anise(Pimpinella anisum),lovage(Levisticum officinale), andhacquetia(Sanicula epipactis).[6]

Cultivation

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Generally, all members of this family are best cultivated in the cool-season garden; they may not grow at all if the soils are too warm. Almost every widely cultivated plant of this group is a considered useful as acompanion plant.One reason is that the tiny flowers, clustered into umbels, are well suited forladybugs,parasitic wasps,and predatoryflies,which drink nectar when not reproducing. They then prey upon insect pests on nearby plants. Some of the members of this family considered "herbs" produce scents that are believed to mask the odours of nearby plants, thus making them harder for insect pests to find.

Other uses

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The poisonous members of the Apiaceae have been used for a variety of purposes globally. The poisonousOenanthe crocatahas been used as an aid in suicides, andarrow poisonshave been made from various other family species.

Daucus carotahas been used as coloring for butter.[15]

Dorema ammoniacum,Ferula galbaniflua,andFerula moschata(sumbul) are sources ofincense.

The woodyAzorella compactaPhil.has been used in South America for fuel.

Toxicity

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Many species in the family Apiaceae produce phototoxic substances (calledfuranocoumarins) that sensitize human skin to sunlight. Contact with plant parts that contain furanocoumarins, followed by exposure to sunlight, may causephytophotodermatitis,[16][17]a serious skin inflammation. Phototoxic species includeAmmi majus,Notobubon galbanum,theparsnip(Pastinacasativa) and numerous species of the genusHeracleum,especially the giant hogweed (Heracleum mantegazzianum). Of all the plant species that have been reported to induce phytophotodermatitis, approximately half belong to the family Apiaceae.[18]

The family Apiaceae also includes a smaller number of poisonous species, includingpoison hemlock,water hemlock,spotted cowbane,fool's parsley,and various species ofwater dropwort.

Some members of the family Apiaceae, includingcarrot,celery,fennel,parsleyandparsnip,containpolyynes,an unusual class of organic compounds that exhibit cytotoxic effects.[19][20]

References

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  1. ^abcStevens, P.F. (2001 onwards). "APIACEAE Lindley, nom. cons."Angiosperm Phylogeny Website.Retrieved 16 December 2022.
  2. ^Gorvett, Zaria (7 September 2017)."The mystery of the lost Roman herb".BBC.Retrieved4 June2018.
  3. ^abHeywood, V.H.; Brummitt, R.K.; Culham, A.; Seberg, O. (2007).Flowering plant families of the world.New York, U.S: Firefly books.ISBN978-1-55407-206-4.
  4. ^abStace, C. A.(2010).New Flora of the British Isles(Third ed.). Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. p. 88.ISBN978-0-521-70772-5.
  5. ^abTaylor, Ronald J. (1994) [1992].Sagebrush Country: A Wildflower Sanctuary(rev. ed.). Missoula, MT: Mountain Press Pub. Co. p. 94.ISBN0-87842-280-3.OCLC25708726.
  6. ^abWatson, L., Dallwitz, M.J. (1992 onwards)The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrievalArchived13 December 2010 at theWayback Machine.Version: 4 March 2011.
  7. ^She, M.; Pu, F.; Pan, Z.; Watson, M.; Cannon, J.F.M.; Holmes-Smith, I.; Kljuykov, E.V.; Phillippe, L.R.; Pimenov, M.G. (2005)."Apiaceae".Flora of China.14:1–205.
  8. ^Lindley, J. (1836) An Introduction to the Natural System of Botany, 2nd Edition. Longman, London.
  9. ^Michael G. Simpson (2010).Plant Systematics.Academic Press.ISBN978-0-12-374380-0.
  10. ^abcdClarkson, James J.; Zuntini, Alexandre R.; Maurin, Olivier; Downie, Stephen R.; Plunkett, Gregory M.; Nicolas, Antoine N.; Smith, James F.; Feist, Mary Ann E.; Gutierrez, Karime; Malakasi, Panagiota; Bailey, Paul; Brewer, Grace E.; Epitawalage, Niroshini; Zmarzty, Sue; Forest, Félix & Baker, William J. (2021). "A higher-level nuclear phylogenomic study of the carrot family (Apiaceae)".American Journal of Botany.108(7): 1252–1269.doi:10.1002/ajb2.1701.PMID34287829.S2CID236159639.
  11. ^Plunkett, G.M.; Chandler, G.T.; Lowry, P.P.; Pinney, S.M.; Sprenkle, T.S.; van Wyk, B.-E. & Tilney, P. M. (2004). "Recent advances in understanding Apiales and a revised classification".South African Journal of Botany.70(3): 371–381.doi:10.1016/S0254-6299(15)30220-9.
  12. ^Woodville, W. (1793) Medical Botany. James Phillips, London.
  13. ^Hall, Donald W. 2011 "Featured Creatures - Eastern Black Swallowtail." Entomology and Nematology Department, University of Florida.http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/bfly/bfly2/eastern_black_swallowtail.htm#life
  14. ^Drugmand, Didier (7 August 2008)."Psyllobora vigintiduopunctata".Monaco Nature Encyclopedia.Retrieved16 May2022.
  15. ^"Daucus carota: Beauty or Beast? (Michele Warmund)".ipm.missouri.edu.Retrieved1 March2024.
  16. ^Leonard, Jayne (19 August 2017)."Phytophotodermatitis: When plants and light affect the skin".Medical News Today.Retrieved8 August2018.
  17. ^Davis, Dawn (12 August 2011)."Sun-related Skin Condition Triggered by Chemicals in Certain Plants, Fruits".Dermatology, Mayo Clinic.Retrieved8 August2018.
  18. ^Pathak, M. A.; Daniels, Farrington Jr.; Fitzpatrick, T. B. (September 1962)."The Presently Known Distribution of Furocoumarins (Psoralens) in Plants".Journal of Investigative Dermatology.39(3): 225–239.doi:10.1038/jid.1962.106.PMID13941836.
  19. ^C. Zidorn; K. Jöhrer; M. Ganzera; B. Schubert; E.M. Sigmund; J. Mader; R. Greil; E.P. Ellmerer; H. Stuppner (2005). "Polyacetylenes from the Apiaceae vegetables carrot, celery, fennel, parsley, and parsnip and their cytotoxic activities".Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry.53(7): 2518–2523.doi:10.1021/jf048041s.PMID15796588.
  20. ^Minto, Robert E.; Blacklock, Brenda J (2008)."Biosynthesis and function of polyacetylenes and allied natural products".From Progress in Lipid Research.47(4): 233–306.doi:10.1016/j.plipres.2008.02.002.PMC2515280.PMID18387369.

Further reading

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